WASTE MANAGEMENT APPROACHES TO BOOST

SUSTAINABLE VALUE OF WASTE FROM OIL AND GAS

INDUSTRY

SEMINAR REPORT

Submitted by

AL NASIF NOUSHAD
TEC19ME004

to

the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University

in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree

of

Bachelor of Technology
In
Mechanical Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

TRAVANCORE ENGINEERING COLLEGE

APJ ABDUL KALAM TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
OYOOR, KOLLAM
 WASTE MANAGEMENT APPROACHES TO BOOST
SUSTAINABLE VALUE OF WASTE FROM OIL AND GAS
INDUSTRY

SEMINAR REPORT

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Technology

by

AL NASIF NOUSHAD
Reg. No.: TEC19ME004

under the guidance of

Mrs.LEKSHMI.R.S

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Travancore Engineering College
APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University
Oyoor, Kollam

DECEMBER 2022
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
TRAVANCORE ENGINEERING COLLEGE

VISION AND MISSION

 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
TRAVANCORE ENGINEERING COLLEGE, OYOOR, KOLLAM

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the seminar report entitled “Waste Management Approaches to Boost
Sustainable Value Of Waste From Oil And Gas Industry” Was submitted by AL NASIF
NOUSHAD (TEC19ME004) Of the Seventh semester Mechanical Engineering Department to
the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the
award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering during the year
2022-23 is a bonafide record of the seminar work carried out by him/her under my/our
supervision and guidance.

Supervised by Seminar Coordinator

Mrs.LEKSHMI Mr. SAJIN S.

Assistant Professor Assistant Professor

Head, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

Mr. VAISAKH S RAJAN

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, I thank the Almighty for providing me with the strength and courage
to present this seminar.

I use this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude towards Mr. Vaisakh S

Rajan, Head of the Mechanical Engineering Department, for his assistance and
guidance in the successful completion of the seminar.

I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude to Assistant Professor Mrs.

Lekshmi.R.S, Department of Mechanical Engineering who guided me throughout the
seminar. Their overall direction and guidance have also been responsible for the
successful completion of the seminar.

I am also indebted to all the teaching and non-teaching staff of the Department of
Mechanical Engineering for their cooperation and suggestions, which is the spirit behind
this report.

Words are few but feelings are more to appreciate our family and friends for the
constant support and encouragement provided for the seminar and also for reviewing
this document and for giving me valuable suggestions.

AL NASIF NOUSHAD
Dec 2022
Travancore Engineering College, Oyoor

i
 ABSTRACT

Any matter in any physical form generated in such a large quantity that affects or alter
the natural ecosystem falls under the category of waste. Globally, the oil and gas industry
produces a large volume of waste. Any petroleum-based or synthetic oil that, through
contamination, has become unsuitable for its original purpose due to the presence of
impurities or loss of original properties. Basic three types of wastes streams, including solid
waste (oil sludge), flue gases (CO2 and SO2), and liquids (produced water) originating from
the oil and gas industry. Several techniques have been developed for the treatment and
handling of waste. For sustainable treatment and management of waste it should be coupled
with resource recovery and re-utilization concepts. The study shows the characterization and
respective treatment technologies, challenges and possible opportunities. The choice of
treatment technology depends on several factors including the characteristic of the influent
waste stream, purpose of treatment, the final use of the product & the treatment cost. In this
seminar we discuss about the above mentioned types of waste generation, their treatment
technologies in different types of wastes in oil and gas industry their challenge etc.
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM

ii
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i

ABSTRACT ii

LIST OF FIGURES iv

LIST OF TABLES v

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Introduction 2

1.2 Report Outline 3

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1 Introduction 8

2.2 Technological solutions for the treatment 9

Of oil sludge from petroleum refiners
3. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP/CASE STUDY 10

3.1Treatment technologies in produced water 10

3.2 Physiochemical treatment 16

. 3.3 Thermal technologies 17

3.4 Biological treatments 20

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 22

5. CONCLUSION 27

6 CHALLENGES AND FUTURE SCOPE 28

REFERENCE 29
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

Figure 1.1 Produced water 4

Figure 1.2 Solid hydrocarbon waste 4

Figure 1.3 Emissions of flue gases 5

Figure 1.4 Treatment technologies in produced water 6

Figure 1.5 Hydro cyclone

Figure 1.6 Coagulation 10

Figure 1.7 Multi effect distillation 15

Figure 1.8 Pyrolysis 18

iv
V
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Increasing growth of the petroleum industry has resulted in huge amounts of various
waste materials, which need proper disposal and valorization. A major challenge throughout
the O&G sector is that many waste streams can become contaminated by oily or hazardous
fluids, and radioactivity requiring careful handling, treatment and disposal. Generated wastes
at terminals may include tank bottom sludge; this must be periodically removed to maintain
product quality or tank storage capacity; as well as spill cleanup materials and soils
contaminated with oil. Typically, sludge is composed of water, residual product, and various
solids including sand, scale, and rust. Tank sludge and spill cleanup materials should be dealt
via re-processing for product recovery or as a waste at a licensed facility handling this kind of
material in an environmentally sound manner. To identify the challenges facing the oil
industry in achieving sustainable management of all wastes from inshore or offshore
production facilities , and to compare and contrast the most important factors that affects
waste management in developed oil areas with those in less developed.

Globally, the oil and gas industry produces a large volume of waste in the form of
produced water, oil sludge, and flue gases that can pose a negative impact on environment. As
such there is a need for the treatment and safe handling of this waste. Although, several
techniques have been developed for the treatment of oil and gas industry waste, recent
research trends have highlighted that for the sustainable treatment and management of oil and
gas industry waste, it should be coupled with resource recovery and re-utilization concepts in
line with circular economy perspectives. Essentially, converting waste into economic value
added products, reducing environmental impacts and supporting sustainability within the oil
and gas industry is of paramount importance. The characterization and respective treatment
technologies, challenges, and possible emerging opportunities. An insight into the resource
recovery and reuse potential for all three type of wastes considered.

1
 A holistic approach should be adopted by considering these points to handle and
manage the waste, including:

(i) Nature and types of wastes

(ii) Point and quantity of generation

(iii)Regulation and limitation for wastes disposal

(iv)Disposal and treatment technologies

Oil and gas waste generation depends on the level of industry activity, which in turn
varies with petroleum prices. Thus, oil and gas waste generation can vary considerably from
year to year; also varies geographically. Petroleum products are known for the hydrocarbon
materials obtained from the well, which occur in either the form of crude oil or crude gas. In a
crude oil well, the crude oil is mainstream.

waste management in the oil and sector is of paramount importance as environmental

regulations and limits continue to be enforced in the sector, thus requiring continued
advancements in waste treatment technologies and waste management strategies. Due to the
nature of the sector and its role in modern society, the oil and gas sector is under pressure to
enhance its sustainability activities and reduce its impact on the environment, while
maintaining economic viability. Therefore, to ensure that the petroleum sector reduces its
negative impact on the environment, advancements in refining technologies, safe disposal of
wastes, and environmentally friendly waste treatment tech-nologies are required.

hhhhhhh

2
 OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY WASTE GENERATION
Petroleum products are known for the hydrocarbon materials obtained from the
well, which occur in either the form of crude oil or crude gas. The life cycle of various
processes (extraction from well to petroleum products) within the oil and gas sector
produce various types of wastes, which require disposal and/or recycling. The handling
of these wastes is important as they are contaminated with oily and hazardous material.
Non-hazardous waste is mostly composed of plastic, wood, metal cuts, drilling fluids,
and sand muds. All wastes are generated at various points during oil and gas operations,
which include drilling, transportation, refining, and gas production operations in the oil
and gas industry. The most important wastes are oil debris, lubricating oils and sands,
used oils hydraulic, board and plastic residue, metal scraps and drilling fluid wastes
(soda ash, magnesium, emulsifiers, etc). From enhanced oil recovery systems (EOR),
wastes include unused chemicals, polymers, SOx and metal contained emissions and
SOx liquor . From gas production operations, SO2 and CO2 flue gases are emitted
during the gas sweetening operation.vvxdvdvdvggggg

Three types of wastes are mainly produced in oil and gas industry

1) Produced water.

2) Solid and organic waste.

3) Emissions of flue gases.

3
PRODUCED WATER

The largest waste stream in the oil and gas industry exploration activities is the
produced water (PW), representing 70–80 % of the total wastewater and contains organic and
inorganic compounds. Produced water is a mixture of formation water, saline water already
existing in the aquifer and brought to the surface during exploration and injected water used to
facilitate oil recovery. Minerals are present in PW in the form of heavy metals, radioactive
chemicals and other anions and cations such as sodium, ferric, chlorine, sulphate, sulphite, and
carbonate . The quality of PW largely depends on the geological formation, location, reservoir
life span, and production techniques.It is the naturally occurring water that comes out of
ground along with oil and gas.

Produced waters are waters pumped from wells and separated from the oil and gas
produced. The radioactivity levels in produced waters from unconventional drilling can be
significant and the volumes are large. The ratio of produced water to oil in conventional well
was approximately 10 barrels of produced water per barrel of oil. According to the American
Petroleum Institute (API), more than 18 billion barrels of waste fluids from oil and gas
production are generated annually in the United States. Produced waters contain levels of
radium and its decay products that are concentrated, but the concentrations vary from site to
site. In general, produced waters are re-injected into deep wells or are treated for reuse.

4
 Fig 1.1 Produced water

SOLID HYDROCARBON WASTE

Oil sludge is the most important solid waste, a thick, pasty and semi solid material
that is a mixture of hydrocarbon, sand, clay and some metals. The OS is produced at various
points of the oil and gas industry, such as vehicles, refining processes, and vessels of storage
The OS present in the tank has three layers. The first layer is floating sludge, which contains
oil and water, and the second is the bottom layer called sediments, which consists of oil and
solid deposited materials of more than 50 %. The physical properties of OS, such as
viscosity, density, and calorific value, vary due to diverse chemical  compositions.

The improper disposal of petroleum sludge to the environment, create a major threat
such as significant modifications in the chemical and physical properties of the surrounding
soils, resulting in morphological change. The efficient remediation of oil sludge is a major
issue facing all petroleum industries worldwide due to the presence of hazards and corrosive
materials. OS management is driven by three basic concepts, the first is the possible
reduction of OS waste during operation, and the other two are in practice and include: the
disposal and recovery of oil before disposal or conversion into value-added products.
5
 Fig 1.2 Solid hydrocarbon waste

EMISSION OF FLUE GASES

The waste gases are generally produced from the petroleum refinery . These waste
gases are also termed as flue gases which include gases such as nitrogen, sulfur dioxide,
and carbon dioxide, among others typically. Natural gas (NG) is the gaseous form of
hydrocarbon located in oil-fields, coal beds, and gas fields. It mainly consists of
hydrocarbons (methane) and non-hydrocarbon gases such as H2S, CO2 (acid gases), O2
and N2, which are generated during thermogenic, biogenic, acidogenesis, and
methanogenesis processes in the conversion of organic matter and other elements present
from inside the earth . The variation of these elements in conventional gas (rock or earth
from a well) and non-conventional gas (shale gas, coal bed) depends on the geographical
location. NG is considered a clean fuel compared to other fossil fuels such as crude oil
and coal. CO2 and H2S should be within a specific limit before their use in energy and
other applications. NG is also classified based on sulphur species content, such as sweet

6
gas (S negligible) and sour gas (H2S content >5 mg/Nm3). Sweet gas does not require
treatment for sulphur removal. The other important elements that should be considered for
energy application, include N2, water arsenic, and mercury content. The most important
waste stream is the acid gas (SOx and COX), which is the primary stream of
the gas industry.

Fig 1.3 Emission of flue gases

7
REPORT OUTLINE

The chapter 1 deals with the oil and gas industry waste generation as follows. Initially
chapter 3 deals with treatment technologies for produced water , Emerging methods for oil
sludge treatment and acid gas removal technologies. In chapter 4 deals with the result and
analysis showing the resource recovery from produced water. Chapter 5 deals with the
application of oil and gas industry waste generation. In chapter 6 deals with the challenges and
future scopes of oil and gas industry waste generation.FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF

8
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

The purpose of this chapter is to provide a literature survey of past research effort such
as journals or articles related to application of waste management approaches to boost
sustainable value of waste from oil and gas industry Moreover review of other relevant
research studies made to provide more information in order to understand more on this
research Current and previous research related to waste management will be discussed in the
Literature review

Literature provides some operations for treatment of oily sludges, such as landfilling,
incineration, co-processing in clinkerization furnaces, microwave liquefaction, centrifugation,
destructive distillation, thermal plasma, low-temperature conversion, incorporation in ceramic
materials, development of impermeable materials, encapsulation and biodegradation in land
farming, biopiles and bioreactors. The management of the technology to be applied for the
treatment of oily wastes is essential to promote proper environmental management, and
provide alternative methods to reduce, reuse and recycle the wastes. Nowadays both the
treatment and management of these waste materials is essential to promote sustainable
management of exploration and exploitation of natural resources. Biological, physical and
chemical processes can be used to reduce environmental contamination by petroleum
hydrocarbons to acceptable levels. The choice of treatment method depends on the physical
and chemical properties of the waste as well as the availability of facilities to process these
wastes.

9
 Produced water is currently treated in conventional trains that include phase
separators, decanters, cyclones and coarse filters in order to comply with existing
regulation for discharge. These treatment trains do not achieve more restrictive
limitations related to the reuse of the effluent (reinjection into extraction wells) or other
beneficial uses (e.g., irrigation). This review tries to provide an overview of different
treatments that are being applied to polish this type of effluents. These technologies
include membranes, physical, biological, thermal or chemical treatments, where special
emphasis has been made on advanced oxidation processes due to the advantages offered
by these processes.

This article provides an overview of conventional and developing gas processing

technologies for CO 2 and N 2 removal from natural gas. We consider process technologies
based on absorption, distillation, adsorption, membrane separation and hydrates. For each
technology, we describe the fundamental separation mechanisms involved and the commonly
applied process flow schemes designed to produce pipeline quality gas (typically 2% CO 2,
<3% N 2) and gas to feed a cryogenic gas plant (typically 50ppmv CO 2, 1% N 2). Amine
absorption technologies for CO 2 and H 2S removal (acid gas treating) are well-established in
the natural gas industry. The advantages and disadvantages of the conventional amine- and
physical-solvent-based processes for acid gas treating are discussed.

1
0
 CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTAL SET UP

TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES IN PRODUCED WATER.

PW contains pollutants that pose a serious threat to environmental and ecological health due
to their toxicity and ability to persist for a long time . Therefore, appropriate treatment of PW
is required to meet the regulatory standards, prior to discharge into the environment, recycling
and/or reusing. Various physical, chemical, and biological methods have been adopted for the
treatment of PW as presented.

Fig 1.4 Treatment technologies in produced water

10
PHYSIOCHEMICAL TREATMENT
HYDROCYCLONE

Hydrocyclones are used to separate suspended solids and dispersed oil particles that
have a lower density than the water. They remove solids from the bulk fluid based on the
difference in gravity. PW is fed into the hydrocyclone under a certain pressure that creates a
centrifugal movement; it aids in increasing the diameter of the particles and separating them
from the bulk fluid. The solid particles are discharged from the bottom and clean fluid is
discharged through the overflow outlet. Hydro-cyclones are very effective in removing sus-
pended particles; however, they cannot remove dissolved solids. They are compact, less
energy-intensive, have a long life span, and are easy to use. They are favourable for use in
offshore installations due to smaller space requirements. They are widely used on an industrial
scale for the treatment of PW. It has been reported that the use of a hydrocylone in an offshore
facility is used PW flow rate of 250 m3h− 1. It resulted in 75 % removal of dispersed oil, 47
% of PAHs, and 33 % of phenol. However, scale formation, relatively fast wear of operating
parts, and clogging of solids at apex are the major issues with their use.

Fig 1.5 Hydrocyclone

COAGULATION

Coagulation/flocculation is an effective method for the treatment of various

wastewaters including PW to remove COD, TSS, and TOC. It involves the addition of
chemicals with ahigh mixing speed (>5000 rpm) to destabilize the particles and reduce
surface tension; then slow mixing is provided to aggregate the particles, increase flocs size,
and then settle by gravity. The treatment efficiency highly depends on the type of coagulant
and its dosage concentration. The most commonly used coagulants are ferric chloride, ferric
sulphate, aluminium sulphate, poly-silicate aluminium, poly-aluminium chloride, and
chitosan. Depending on the PW characteristics and the type of coagulant, the dosage can
range between 30 and 1400 mg. Electro-coagulation is another form of coagulation that
involves the generation of hydroxyl and hydrogen radicals utilizing an electric current at
anode and cathode electrodes. The tiny bubbles formed by hydrogen gas get attached to the
particles and agglomerate them, which are then skimmed from the water surface. The
performance of electro-coagulation highly depends on the type of anode and cathode. For
instance found that the aluminium based electrodes demonstrated much higher performance
than stainless steel and iron electrodes. Electro coagulation is a promising treatment
technology for PW, although it demands high energy requirements in the form of electricity
and the scaling of electrodes limit its large-scale application.

Fig 1.6 Coagulation

THERMAL TECHNOLOGIES

Thermal technologies are useful for the treatment of PW. In this technology, water is
converted to steam by heating and is then condensed to relatively high-quality water . Hybrid
thermal desalination plants, such as MED–VCD, have been used to achieve higher efficiency .
Although membrane technologies are typically preferred to thermal technologies, recent
innovations in thermal process engineering make thermal process more attractive and
competitive in treating highly contaminated water. Based on temperature and pressure
variations, thermal technologies are classified as

A. Multistage flash distillation (MSF)

B. Multieffect flash distillation (MED)

MULTISTAGE FLASH DISTILLATION (MSF)

MSF distillation process is a mature and robust technology for brackish and sea water
desalination. Its operation is based on evaporation of water by reducing the pressure instead of
raising the temperature. Feed water is pre-heated and flows into a chamber with lower
pressure where it immediately flashes into steam. Water recovery from MSF treatment is
∼20% and often requires post-treatment because it typically contains 2–10 mg/l of TDS . A
major setback in operating MSF is scale formation on heat transfer surfaces which often
makes this process require the use of scale inhibitors and acids. Overall costs vary depending
on the size, site location and materials of construction . Its energy requirement is between 3.35
and 4.70 kWh/bbl .Globally, MSF market share has significantly decreased due to
competition of membrane technologies, but it is a relatively cost-effective treatment method
with plant life expectancy of more than 20 years, and can be employed for produced water
treatment.
MULTI-EFFECT DISTILLATION (MED)

MED process involves application of sufficient energy that converts saline water to
steam, which is condensed and recovered as pure water. Multiple effects are employed in
order to improve the efficiency and minimize energy consumption . A major advantage
of this system is the energy efficiency gained through the combination of several
evaporator systems. Product water recovery from MED systems are in the range of 20–
67% depending on the type of the evaporator design employed . Despite the high water
recovery from MED systems, it has not been extensively used for water production like
MSF because of scaling problem associated with old designs. Recently, falling film
evaporators have been introduced to improve heat transfer rates and reduce the rate of
scale formation.

Fig 1.7 Multi effect distillation

BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS

In biological treatment, the microorganisms biodegrade organic material present in

PW. The microorganisms utilize organic carbon in PW as a substrate and improve the quality
of PW. Meanwhile, the microbial biomass generated is separated from the aqueous medium
through an appropriate harvesting method. Depending on the characteristics of PW, different
microorganisms are deployed for the treatment. Biological treatment is classified into two
categories including, aerobic and anaerobic. The basic difference is the use of oxygen. In
aerobic treatment, oxygen is used as a terminal electron acceptor, whereas in anaerobic
treatment organic/inorganic element (other than oxygen) is used as an electron acceptor.

AEROBIC TREATMENTS

It involves the use of aerobic microorganisms (algae, bacteria, fungi) to degrade the
contaminants present in PW. Oxygen supply is necessary for the growth of aerobic bacteria
and the degradation of organic contaminants. Different systems are used for the treatment of
PW such as biological aerated filters (BAFs), activated sludge process, and algae-mediate
aerobic treatment. BAF is the simplest form of aerobic treatment. It involves the growth of
aerobic bacteria on a permeable material. PW is fed to the microorganisms, which remove
suspended as well as dissolved solids through adsorption or biosorption. This technique has
been proved useful in the removal of BTEX, phenol, COD, TOC, and oil from the PW . The
removal of 81 % COD using BAF is also has been reported using BAFs removed TOC 78 %
and 94 % oil removal from the oil field wastewater. BAFs are efficient to use, can operate at a
high loading rate, and have high water recovery. However, major drawbacks in using this
technology are the disposal of contaminated sludge and backwashing, which are not
economical. Algae based wastewater treatment is also receiving widespread attention. Algae
can degrade hydrocarbons under aerobic conditions, utilizing atmospheric CO2 and generating
oxygen. Many microalgae species have been explored to treat PW. Large scale application of
algae system for PW has not been realized yet mainly due to limited success in contamination
control, toxicity effect of PW on microalgae growth, the requirement of additional nutrients
(nitrogen, phosphorus, and trace elements) to support microalgae growth, and continuous
supply of oxygen, which is not economical.M

ANAEROBIC TREATMENT

Anaerobic treatment is an effective method of PW treatment. It shows high treatment

efficiency, produces less sludge volume, and converts organic pollutants into a variety of bio-
products, which can be further used in chemical and bio-industry. Anaerobic digestion (AD) is
the most commonly used technique in anaerobic treatment. reported that anaerobic treatment
of PW showed 82 % removal of COD from the PW and almost 50 % of organic compounds
were degraded to produce biogas. Another study showed 91 % removal of COD, and 92 %
removal of COD from the PW through anaerobic treatment . Depending on the characteristics
of feedstock and microbial composition, AD generates biogas, volatile fatty acids (VFAs)
CO2, and hydrogen that can serve as feedstocks for the generation of biodiesel, bioelectricity,
single-cell protein, and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) through various biochemical
processes. To achieve a specific and consistent composition of AD bio-products is quite
challenging as it depends on the fate of microorganisms, operational parameters such as
carbon to nitrogen ratio, organic loading rate, pH, temperature, sludge retention time, etc.
Thus, strict process control is required to achieve desired bio-products composition. Process
control is neither cheap nor easy. AD systems encounters maintenance issues due to the
corrosion of digestion and gas emissions due to poorly sealed treatment systems. In anaerobic
treatment, the use of an anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR) is increasing in popularity
due to its high treatment efficiency and compact design. AnMBR involves the use of a
membrane in an anaerobic reactor to remove contaminants by controlling hydraulic retention
time and sludge retention time . The use of AnMBR has been reported for a variety of
wastewaters. However, their use for PW has been scarcely studied used AnMBR for the
treatment of oil and grease wastewater achieving 97 % COD and 100 % oil and removal.
Notably, the composition of grease wastewater would be different than the PW, however, this
study is relevant to demonstrate the use of AnMBR for the removal of oil and gas from the
wastewater. A major bottleneck in using AnMBR is the membrane fouling that requires period
backwashing and cleaning involving chemicals that is expensive.

PHYTOREMEDIATION

Phytoremediation is a useful technique for the treatment of PW. In this, plants degrade
or remove organic contaminants from the PW. The degradation of contaminants occurs
directly in plant tissues or by the interaction of active rhizosphere microorganisms present in
the soil and the plant roots. The plant roots provide oxygen, sugar, and organic acids, which
stimulate microbial activity and the degradation of the contaminants. The plants’ roots also
release several enzymes such as dehalogenase and laccase that support microbial growth and
degradation of the contaminants found that 80 % of BTEX was removed from the soil by
using Canna. Boonsaner et al. found 80 % removal of hydrocarbons from the soil
contaminated. Phytoremediation through aquatic plants is a very useful technique for the
removal of contaminants from the aquatic environment such as lakes, rivers, and wetlands.
Aquatic plants have fibrous roots with a large surface area that facilitates microbial
colonization. Other studies reported the use of water hyacinths, biscuit grasses, and reed for
the removal of oil from aquatic environments .
EMERGING METHODS FOR OIL SLUDGE TREATMENT

Contrary to oil recovery methods just described, OS and its constituent hydrocarbon
material, which can be converted into valuable products through thermochemical conversion
processes such as gasification and pyrolysis. These emerging techniques have gained much
importance in the recent decade, and much progress has been achieved in both laboratory
and pilot-scale .

PYROLYSIS

This process is the thermal decomposition at high temperature in the range of 700–
1000 ◦C under an inert environment. It produces low molecular weight hydrocarbons in liquid
form, non-condensable gases, and a solid char. The pyrolysis process is carried out in the inert
atmosphere, which provides some benefits such as lower emissions of Sox and Nox, swift and
easy storage and transposition of pyrolysis products, and the fixing of metals in char, provides
a clean and environment-friendly option. The product type and yield depend on the pyrolysis
techniques, in which solid char and oil are the main products of slow and fast pyrolysis. The
conversion of oil sludge into valuable products (oil, char, and gas) is widely investigated by
various researchers . The pyrolysis characteristics of tank oil sludge of Shanghai Oil Field,
China, and noticed that 80 % conversion of an organic component of OS into pyrolysis
products. The higher oil recovery from the OS is also indicated in another study for laboratory
and pilot-scale pyrolysis processing, which can be 70–84 % at a higher temperature of 450–
650 ◦C. A pilot scale pyrolysis study shows that char production decreases from 30 to 18 %
and gas production from 35 to 32 % with the increase in temperature from 600 to 800 ◦C,
whereas oil production increases from 32 to 52 % . The fraction or array of product yield
depends highly on the components present in the oil sludge. It widely varies and depends on
the collection point, oil separation process, sedimentation, etc.
 Fig.1.8 Pyrolysis

GASIFICATION

Gasification is very promising technique, which is used to convert organic

hydrocarbon into syngas at elevated temperature in the presence of oxidizing agent known as
a gasifying medium in a reactor known as a gasifier. The conversion of hydrocarbon to the
syngas is due to the propagation of reactions (R1-R8) . Some researchers consider the
gasification of OS for the production of syngas and other related products . performed the
steam gasification of OS at a higher temperature of 600–900 ◦C, and noticed the higher H2-
rich syngas of about 48.50 ml/ min. g, with a high percentage of char of more than
50%.developed a simulation model using Aspen plus for the steam gasification of OS and
biomass and their blends to investigate the H2 potential. The oil sludge has a good quantity of
C, 89.3 %, H2, 6.9 %, and the volatile matter is 16 % with a fixed C of 54.1 %. Gasification of
OS is performed by varying the parameter of steam/OS of 0.2–1.5, 0.25–0.37 Eq air/oil sludge
at 1300 ◦C produced a gas yield of 2.28 Nm3/kg OS, with 1.84 Nm3/H2/kg OS. With the
integration of biomass, H2 yield increased up to 3.51 Nm3 H2/kg OS. The syngas produced
from gasification or pyrolysis can be used for electricity generation, a potential revenue
stream.
ACID GAS REMOVAL TECHNOLOGIES

SULPHUR BASED COMPOUND TREATMENT

Sulphur based compounds are emitted in upstream and downstream petroleum industry
processes, such as exploration and drilling in the form of the vent and flare gases, and refining
and petrochemical plants from boilers, sulphur recovery units, flares systems reformers,
furnaces. The removal or limiting of sulphur content is usually made in the sulphur recovery
unit in one or two steps depending on the purity of gas for application. The first step is the raw
gas treatment, in which major sulphur content is removed using hydrodesulphurisation
(HDS),oxide sulphurisation (ODS), etc. The second step is the tail gas treatment unit (TGTU)
to eliminate the remaining H2S using the SCOT process, amine gas extraction, and flue gas
desulphurisation. Tail gas is the mixture of the gases, which are emitted from any industrial
process after all the reaction and treatment processes. The Claus process is one of the oldest
and most commercialised technologies since the last quarter of the 19th century and has gone
through many advancements, which enable it to recover 98–99 % sulphur from gas and oil.
Flue gas desulphurisation (FGD) is a vital technique to remove the SO2 from NG and syngas
using some important commercial processes such as wet and dry scrubbing, sorbent injection
and regeneration . Wet scrubbing was found to be more efficient in SO2 removal up to 99 % .
Limestone or lime and gypsums based wet scrubbing systems are used. Electrostatic
precipitator (ESP) and fabric filter are used to remove the SO2 from flue gases known as the
dry spray process and are suitable for the flue gas flow rate of 0.8 × 106Nm3/h with a
reasonable removal efficiency of 90 %. The sorbent injection system removes the SO2 by
injecting the dry sorbent into the furnace at a high temperature, where SO2 reacts with the
sorbent and forms CaSO4. The regeneration process is known as Wellman–Lord process, in
which sodium sulphite acts as an absorbent and SO2 is removed in the regeneration unit that is
treated as part of the tail gas treatment process using the Claus process. The process is found
to be very effective in terms of the SO2 removal efficiency of 95 %.The removal of H2S from
the crude oil and NG is of utmost importance. In this context, for deep cleaning of sulphur
content, many commercial processes and tail gas treatment methods are used to ensure
complete cleaning process. The most important commercial technologies are the Claus
process, H2S scavengers, liquid redox, and biological conversion.

CARBONDIOXIDE EMISSIONS

CO2 is the main constituent of acid gas along with H2S. The removal of CO2 is
critical as it reduces the calorific value of NG and also produces corrosion in combination
with water. The regulation of CO2 concentration is 2–4 % for transportation through pipeline
and cylinders and varies from region to region and local authorities. The concentration of CO2
should be below 50 ppm for its usage in transportation and industry .the useful technologies
for removing CO2 up to ppm level from NG to convert into LNG and LPG. The average CO2
emission is 130 kg of CO2/ tonne of oil equivalent, and it is lowest in Norway, where it is
reported to be approximately 55 kgCO2 . The CO2 removal technology is based on two
factors. The first factor is the required CO2 content level (lower level need for LNG). The
second factor for the removal of CO2 is the partial pressure of gas streams. Usually, the partial
pressure of natural gas is higher than 3000 kPa and flue gas (after combustion) is available at
lower pressure of 100 kPa. Usually, in the NG cleaning process, the acid gases (CO2 + H2S)
from NG undergo the above-mentioned methods and dehydration cleaning for water and Hg
removal . The clean gas is then sent to pipe lines for transportation. Whereas in the case of
LPG and LNG, the unwanted components in NG is removed using cryogenic,
chemisorption process .
21
 CHAPTER 4

RESULT &

ANALYSIS

RESOURCE RECOVERY FROM PRODUCED WATER

WATER

Water recovery and its reuse is crucial to establishing the economic sustainability of PW
treatment. Due to the scarcity of water in many areas around the world, the reuse of PW can
improve water and environmental footprints. It is reported that the PW can be reused for
irrigation, livestock watering, aquaculture growth, and in industries for various processes such
as cooling towers, fire extinction, and fracturing operations. The purpose of re-using PW
determines the level of treatment. For instance, a low or mild level treatment is required to
reuse PW for industrial processes and irrigation, whereas relatively strict treatment would be
required for its reuse for aquaculture growth, livestock watering. US-EPA and US Department
of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service have developed different standards for
the reuse of wastewater. All reported that Coal Bed Methane (CBM) PW could be used for
livestock as the water contains a TDS 1000–7000 mg.L-1, which is suitable for livestock
drinking. Another study reported a successful application of PW for the cultivation of
tomatoes . Several projects have been carried out in the US to demonstrate the use of PW to
irrigate various crops including grass concentration of TDS, sodium, alkalinity, and trace
elements in produced water its reuse for irrigation purposes is challenging.

ORGANIC CARBON AND NUTRIENTS

PW is originated from various processes including drilling, washing, separation

contains a wide variety of chemicals, suspended solids, organic material, nitrogen, sulphur,

22
phosphorous, hydrocarbons, volatile fatty acids. These materials can be recovered from the
PW by applying various techniques and turned into valuable products. For instance, organic
material can be used for carbon recovery and as an energy source . The nutrients, nitrogen,
sulphur, and phosphorus can be used in various biochemical industries or agriculture
practices. Volatile fatty acids can be further used for microbial cultivation to produce single-
cell protein for aquaculture and human feed, generate biogas and hydrogen through an AD
process. This process also generates sludge that can be further processed to generate bio-char
that enhances the fertility status of the soil. Moreover, hydrocarbons recovered from the PW
can be used to generate energy through thermochemical techniques such as
gasification and pyrolysis.

INORGANICS

PW contains several elements that can be recovered and sold in the market to offset the
cost of treatment. Major elements present in PW are Ca, Mg, Cl, K, Ba, Sr, Na, Ba, Sr, Li, Br,
and . Their concentrations in PW are not consistently reported in the literature. These elements
can be used for various commercial applications. Calcium is widely used in construction and
chemical industries. The recovery of calcium from oil and gas wastewater, although the
economic assessment demonstrated that it was not cost-effective. Mg is used as a reducing
agent in the synthesis of titanium and alloys. In 2016, global production of Mg was estimated
at 1.01 million tonnes . Cl is used in the pulp, and paper industry. Sodium chloride is a
common salt used in the food industry and chemical industry. An estimate in 2016 showed
that the world market for Cl was 255 million tonnes. K is commonly used in fertilizers, rubber
synthesis, food preservatives, and batteries. World potash production is estimated to be 39
million tonnes (as K2O equivalent) per year .Ba is used as a filler in paints, paper, metal
costing, and plastics. Global Ba production is estimated at 7,140, 000 tonnes for year 2016.
Unfortunately, commercial production of Ba from PW has been rarely reported. Li is the most
useful metal that can be recovered from PW. It is a rare metal that is used for various
applications such as ceramic and polymer products, metallurgical, and pharmaceutical
industries. Recently, interest is growing to use Li in energy storage, batteries, and nuclear
fusion. Li recovery from the PW could be considered as a sustainable source.
23
24
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

Sustainable and safe handling of oil and gas industry waste is a global concern. This
study identified three major types of waste in the form of produced water, oil sludge, and flue
gases, generated from the oil and gas industry. Treatment technologies corresponding to each
type of waste are thoroughly discussed. It is found that the choice of treatment technology
depends on several factors including the characteristics of the influent waste stream, purpose
of treatment, the final use of the product, and the treatment cost. An integrated approach that
couples several treatment technologies is often suitable for cost-effectiveness, high treatment
efficiency, low energy intensive, and is environment friendly. Recovery of water, organic and
inorganic materials, nutrients, flue gases, and their re-utilization may not only compensate the
treatment costs, it can also potentially provide a net economic gain. The conversion of solid
wastes such as OS into energy and valuable products such as syngas, char, oil, and electricity
draws additional benefits and provides a holistic waste management approach. The sustainable
conversion of waste can be a source of environmentally friendly products with added
economic benefits. The recovered water can be used for irrigation, municipal and industrial
purposes. Metals such as Sr, Li, Br, and Ca present a high market value. The organic carbon
and nutrients can be fed to the microorganisms to generate a variety of biorefinery products.
Sulphur can be reutilized in the fertilizer and construction industry. Similarly, the recovered
CO2 can be used for various purposes in chemical and biochemical industries. These will
bring economic and environmental cushion for this industry. However, despite numerous
potentials for resource recovery from oil and gas industry waste, its practical application has
been rarely demonstrated yet. Transformation of “treatment” to resource recovery” concept
would require large scale changes in the existing infrastructure. It is important to note that
further detailing of waste reutilisation options and feasibility studies are required to calculate
key economic indicators.

25
 CHAPTER 6

CHALLENGES AND FUTURE SCOPE

The oil and gas industry generates a significant amount of toxic waste in the form of
wastewater, sludge, and gases that requires disposal to meet environmental regulations and
safeguard ecological health. This section highlights the challenges of waste management
approaches and the future work needed to overcome these issues, the basis of which is to
identify the techniques which are efficient, feasible, economical, and eco-friendly. Several
techniques have been deployed for the treatment of different waste streams; however, finding
a specific technique to remove all the pollutants is challenging. Different treatment units are
required to treat aqueous, solid, and gaseous streams. Moreover, selecting robust, sustainable,
and versatile techniques with the ability for large-scale application is crucial. For the treatment
of produced water, physiochemical treatment methods are effective, however, they need to be
coupled with membrane technology for final polishing and the removal of trace elements.
Unfortunately, the use of membrane technology for large-scale applications is not economical
due to the high energy required for membrane operation. Thermal technologies are effective,
and their operation is also relatively easier, however, large area requirements hinder their
application. Even after thermal treatment, the effluent needs to undergo membrane operation
to remove trace elements and meet the discharge limits. Biological treatment methods have an
appeal, particularly phytoremediation and AnMBR. However, very limited research has been
carried out to demonstrate their economic sustainability. Oil sludge contains toxic materials,
and thus, its disposal is critical. The conventional techniques of OS treatment such as
oxidation, incineration, and solidification are costly and generate toxic byproducts.
Gasification and pyrolysis are promising alternatives that govern high treatment efficiency and
energy recovery. The oil and gas industry generates toxic flue gases such as H2S, SO2, and
CO2 that also need to remove. Advanced technologies have not only enabled the removal of
these gases, but have also enabled their conversion into value-added industrial products. The
use of a mixed matric membrane seems the most suitable choice for gas removal; however, its

26
commercial application has not been fully demonstrated yet.

Despite the availability of efficient treatment techniques, it has been demonstrated that
as of yet, none of the technologies is economically sustainable. To ensure the economic
sustainability of oil and gas industry waste management, the transition from “only treatment”
to “resource recovery” is inevitable. The implementation of the resource recovery concept
requires modification in the existing treatment facilities. Going forward, there is a need to
conduct comprehensive and detailed feasibility analysis in order to determine capital and
operating costs required to implement the concepts highlighted, which will thus enable the
computation of accurate economic forecasts in terms of pay back period and net present value.
A further limitation of this study, is perhaps related to the technology readiness level of
certain processes computed, which are based on theoretical assessments that consider input
from reported literature. Furthermore, to implement such ambitious programs, strategic
management and support from the relevant stake holders are also required. Finally, the
mobilization of policy-makers, R & D institutions, industries, and funding agencies is
recommended to advocate for the benefits of resource recovery.
cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc

27
28
 REFERENCE

[1] Gardas BB, Raut RD, Narkhede B. Determinants of sustainable supply chain

management: A case study from the oil and gas supply chain. Sustainable Prod

Consum 2019;17:241–53.

[2] Inayat A, Inayat M, Shahbaz M, Sulaiman SA, Raza M, Yusup S. Parametric

analysis and optimization for the catalytic air gasification of palm kernel shell

using coal bottom ash as catalyst. Renewable Energy 2020;145:671–81.

[3] Mariyam S, Shahbaz M, Al-Ansari T, Mackey HR, McKay G. A critical review on

co-gasification and co-pyrolysis for gas production. Renew Sustain Energy Rev

2022;161:112349.

[4] Ibrahim IA, Maljean-Dubois S, Owley J. The Paris agreement compliance

mechanism: preparing for COP 26 in glasgow and beyond; 2021.

[5] Shahbaz M, AlNouss A, Ghiat I, McKay G, Mackey H, Elkhalifa S, et al.

A comprehensive review of biomass based thermochemical conversion

technologies integrated with CO2 capture and utilisation within BECCS networks.

Resour Conserv Recycl 2021;173:105734.

29