BIO330

Introduction To Ecology

Chapter 2
Population Ecology

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 Lesson Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

o Explain key concepts of population ecology.

o Describe population growth models and factors that regulate

populations.

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 Key Concepts of Population Ecology

o Population ecology is the study of the mechanisms responsible for changes

in the distribution and abundance of individuals within a population over
space and time, and how populations interact with their environment
(Integrated Population Models, 2021).
o Two important characteristics of any population are density and dispersion.
o The exponential growth model (mathematical model) describes an idealized
population in an unlimited environment.
o The logistic growth model of population growth incorporates the concepts of
carrying capacity.
o Density-dependent and density-independent factors can affect population
growth.
o Demography is the study of factors that affect birth and death rates in a
population.

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 As an introduction…

What is population?
Population is a group of individuals in a particular geographic area that belong to the
same species.

How population is different from the species?

A population includes only the members of a species that live in a given geographic
area. Meanwhile, species includes all organisms in the world which share a unique
characteristics, able to interbreed (mate) with one another to produce viable and
fertile offspring.

How population is different from the community?

A population consists of the members of one species that live in a particular
geographic area. Meanwhile, a community includes all the different
species/community that live in that particular geographic area.

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 What is population dynamics?

o Population dynamics can be defined as the study or analysis of the factors

that affect the increase, stability or decrease of population over time (Earth
System and Environmental Science, 2021).
o Population dynamics are directly affected by the number of addition to the
population (births and immigration) and the number of reductions in the
population (deaths and emigration).

o Understanding population dynamics is

the key to understanding the relative
importance of competition for resources
and predation in structuring ecological
communities.

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 What is population size?

o Population size is the most fundamental population and demographic

parameter, defined as the number of individuals present in a subjectively
designated geographic range (Tarsi and Tuff, 2012).

o Ecologist usually estimate population size by counting individuals within a small

sample area and extrapolating that sample to the larger population.

o Populations display distinctive behaviors based on their size. Small populations

face a greater risk of inbreeding, susceptible to random deaths and extinction
(Caughley, 1994). Large populations experience greater competition for
resources as they approach carrying capacity, resulting in lowered fecundity and
may degrade available habitat (Tucker, 2012).

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 What is population density?

Population density is the number of individuals per unit area or volume.

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 How to measure population density?

Ecologist often used a variety of sampling technique, for example;

o Counting individuals in a few representative plots of an appropriate size

(more accurate when there are more numerous or larger sample plot).

o Counting indirect indicators; such as the numbers of nests, amounts of

dropping or sign of tracks.

o Capture-mark-recapture method; the proportion of marked to unmarked

animals that are captured during the second trapping gives an estimate of
the size of population and density.

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Capture-Mark-Recapture Method

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 What is population dispersion?

Population dispersion is the pattern of spacing among individuals within the

geographical boundaries of the population.

o Random: Spacing varies in a unpredictable way and

not common in nature. Occurs in the absence of
strong attractions or repulsion among individuals.

o Uniform: Spacing is even, a common result of

behavioral or territorial interactions (animals) and
competition for resources (plants).

o Clumped: Individuals are aggregated in patches, a

common response to uneven distribution of
resources in their environments.
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 Population Growth

What is population growth?

Population growth refers to change in the size of population or the increase in the
number of individuals in a population over time (Snider & Brimlow, 2013).

Why do ecologist study population growth?

o To predict future changes in population size and growth rates.
o To understand what causes changes in population size and growth rates.
o To determine how population will response to the changing in environmental
factors (eg; climate change).
o To investigate the impact of environmental factors on population size and growth
rates.

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 Population Growth Model

How population growth is limited by the environment?

Exponential growth model describes an idealized

population in an unlimited environment (which is
never the case in the real world).

Logistic growth model incorporates the concept

of carrying capacity (the maximum stable
population size that a particular environment can
support over a relatively long period of time).

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 Exponential Growth Model
o Exponential growth model describes an o The J-shaped curve is characteristic of
idealized population in an unlimited populations that are introduced into a new
environment (which is never the case in the or unfilled environment, or whose numbers
real world). have been drastically reduced by a
catastrophic event and are rebounding.

o This model assumes that a population grows

without limit, resulting in J-shaped curve.

o This kind of growth rate, known as biotic

potential, is the rate at which a population of a
given species will increase when no limits are
placed on its rate of growth.

o The maximum population growth rate under

unlimited environment is known as intrinsic rate
of increase.
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 Logistic Growth Model
o Logistic growth model incorporates the concept o When a population size approaches
of carrying capacity. carrying capacity, population growth rate
slows. Eventually, reach a plateau
resulting in S-shaped curve.
o Carrying capacity, symbolized as K, is the
maximum stable population size that a particular
environment can support over a relatively long
period of time.

o As any population grows larger in size, its

increased density may influence the ability of
individuals to harvest sufficient resources for
maintenance, growth, and reproduction.

o When a population size is below carrying

capacity, population growth is rapid.

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 Population Growth Models and Life Histories

o Logistic growth model predicts different growth rates for populations under
conditions of high and low density;
o At high population densities, each individual has few resources available, and
the population is growing slowly.
o At low population densities, each individual has abundant of resources, and
the population is growing rapidly.

o Population ecologist, Martin Cody (1960s) introduced the concept that different
life history adaptations would be favored under these different densities;
o At high population densities, selection favors adaptations that enable
organisms to survive and reproduce with few resources (K-selected).
o At low population densities, selection favors adaptations that promote rapid
reproduction such as increased fecundity and earlier maturity (r-selected).

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Characteristics of K-Selected and r-Selected Species or
Populations

o K-selected species or populations, also known

as equilibrial populations, are those that are
likely to be living at a density near the limit
imposed by their resources, which is K or
carrying capacity.

o r-selected species or populations, also known

as opportunistic populations, are likely to be
found in variable environments in which
population densities fluctuate.
Traits or characteriestics of K-selected species/populations
and r-selected species/populations. Adapted from Anon
(n.d)

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Characteristics of K-Selected and r-Selected Species or
Populations

Traits or characteriestics of K-selected species/populations

and r-selected species/populations. Adapted from Anon
(n.d)

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 Factors That Regulate Populations Growth

o Density-dependent factors are the factors that influence the size and
growth of population depending on the density of the population. For
example; predation, competition for territory or natural resources,
diseases, parasitism.

o Density-independent factors are the factors that influence the size and
growth of population irrespective of the population density. For example;
catastrophic events such as fires/hurricanes/volcanic eruption, extreme
climate change, deforestation, pollutants.

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 Density-dependent Factors

o Density-dependent factors reduce the population

growth rate by decreasing reproduction or by
increasing mortality in a crowded population.

o The factors that limits a population’s growth can be

said to determine the carrying capacity of the
environment.

o For example; Reproductive success decreases

and mortality rates increase as population size of
Song Sparrow (Melospiza melodia) increases.

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 Density-dependent Factors
Predation

o The regulation of a population by

predation takes place within a predatory-
prey relationship.

o The effect of predation intensifies as the

population density increases.

o Predation regulates population size of

prey, and prey’s population size regulates
population size of predator.

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 Density-dependent Factors
Competition

o Competition for territory, food, nutrients, mating

partner, sunlight etc can be within the same or
different species.

o Intra-specific competition: the reliance of Intra-specific competition. Photo by Lachowski (2011)

individuals of the same species on the same
limited resources. For example: Antelope vs
Antelope

o Inter-specific competition: the reliance of

individuals from the different species on the
same limited resources. For example: Lions vs
Hyenas.
Inter-specific competition. Photo by Anon (2020)
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 Density-dependent Factors
Competition

o Interference competition: occurs directly via

aggression display (to exclude one another from
particular habitats) when individuals interfere with
foraging, survival or reproduction of others. For
example; dominant male defending his territory
via physical aggression.
Interference competition. Photo by Anon (2022)

o Exploitative competition: occurs when individuals

use the same limiting resources, thus depleting
the amount available to others. For example;
competition for berries in cardinals & shading by
neighboring plants.

o Note: Both can occur within (intra-specific) and

between (inter-specific) species.
Exploitative competition. Photo by Anon (2022)
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 Density-dependent Factors
Disease and parasitism

o High population density make the spread of

disease easier to transmit. For example;
Insect-borne diseases.

Diseases. Photo by Anon (n.d)

o High population density make it easier for

parasites to find hosts, and then spread
diseases. For example; Parasitic wasp eggs
and larvae.

Parasitism. Photo by Anon (n.d)

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 Density-independent Factors
o Density-independent factors are unrelated to
population size; they affect the same percentage
of individuals regardless of population size.

o A variety of factors; catastrophic events such as

fires/hurricanes/volcanic eruption, extreme climate
change, extreme cold winter, droughts, storms,
deforestation, pollutants.

o Populations in area where such events occurs will
display erratic growth pattern.
o Erratic growth pattern: the populations increase
rapidly when conditions are benign, but exhibit
large reductions whenever the environment turns
hostile.
Density-independent regulation of population size of the
genus Thrips. Population of genus Thrips grow rapidly
during spring (September to November in southern
hemisphere) in the flowers that provide both food and
shelter. Before the population reaches carrying capacity,
however, numbers are drastically reduced during the dry
Australian summer (December to February in southern
hemisphere). Adapted from Campbell Biology Textbook.
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 The Interaction of Regulating Factors

o In some cases, density-dependent and density-independent factors acts together

to regulate a population.

o For example; during extreme cold winter (which is density-independent factor),

many deer and other herbivores may starve to death when deeper snow makes it
harder to find food. But the effect is also density-dependent factor because each
individuals in a large population must compete (density-dependent factors) for
what little food is available during extreme cold winter.

o The relative importance of density-dependent and density-independent factors

may vary seasonally. Most populations are probably regulated by some mix of
density-dependent and density-independent factors.

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Regulating Factors and Population
Cycles

o A population cycle is a roughly periodic variation

over time in the size or composition of a
population.

o In some populations, density-dependent factors

lead not to an equilibrium population size but to
cyclic patterns of increase and decrease.
Predation (density-dependent factor) could also cause
populations to oscillate if increases in prey are followed by

o Whereas in other populations, density- increases in the number of predators, which in turn become
so numerous that they cause the prey densities to decrease.

independent factors such as cyclic climatic Adapted from Campbell Biology Textbook.

pattern may be responsible for population

cycles.
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 Regulating Factors and Population Cycles

o The exact causes of population cycles vary among species and perhaps
even among populations of the same species;

o Hypothesis I: Population cycles are caused by crowding, perhaps by

affecting the organisms’ endocrine system (may alter hormonal
balance, which in turn reduces fertility, increases aggressiveness
and induces the mass emigrations).

o Hypothesis II: Population cycles are caused by a time lag in the

response to density-dependent factors, creating large fluctuations of
population size above and below carrying capacity.

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 Demography
(from the Greek; demos = the people, grapbos = measurement)

What is demography?
Demography is the statistical study of factors that affect birth and death rates
in a population (the statistical study of population changes through time).

Which demographic factors determine growth rates or future population size?

o Sex ratio
o Age structure
o Generation time

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 Demographic Factors

What is sex ratio?

o Sex ratio is the proportion of individuals of
each sex (male : female).

o The number of females is usually directly

related to the number of births (growth rates or
future population size).

o The number of males less significant in

species in which a single male able to mate Population by sex and sex ratio in Malaysia. Source:
with several females. Department of Statistics Malaysia.

o However, in monogamous pair-bond species,

any significant reduction in males will affect the
number of births.
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 Demographic Factors

What is age structure?

o Age structure is the relative number of
individuals of each age or cohort. Cohort is a
group of individuals of the same age.

o Age structure is very important in determining

the rate at which it is going. Each cohort has a
Age structure of Malaysia. Source: Anon (n.d).
characteristic birth and death.

o Birth rate or fecundity, is the number of o Death rate or mortality is the number
offspring produced during a certain amount of of individuals that die during certain
time, is often greatest for individuals of amount of time, is highest in the first
intermediate age. year and in old age.

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 Demographic Factors

Demographers often use population pyramids (age pyramids) to show the age
structure of a population. A population pyramids is very important in determining
the rate at which it is growing: predict demographic trends in births and deaths.

Bottom portions represent pre-reproductive years

(ages 0-14), middle portions represent reproductive
years (ages 15-44) and top portions represent post-
reproductive years (ages 45-85).

A triangular pyramid is characteristic of a country

that will exhibit rapid growth (Kenya, Nigeria, Saudi
Arabia).

A rectangular pyramid is characteristic of countries

whose populations are stable and exhibit zero
growth (Denmark, Austria, Italy).

An inverted triangle pyramid is characteristic of a

country with shrinking population or negative
growth, usually as a result of sharply declining
birthrates (Germany, Bulgaria, Hungary).

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 Demographic Factors

What is generation time?

o Generation time is the average span between the
birth of individuals and the birth of their offspring.

o Generation time is strongly related to body size in

broad range of organisms.

o Small organisms generally have short generation

time, achieving reproductive maturity quickly.
Generation time and body size (Sammarco and
Strychar, 2009).

o Large organisms generally have long generation time,

because its take longer to reach maturity or the size
at which they can reproduce.
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 Life Table

What is life table?

Life table is a demographic tool used by ecologist and demographer to access how
population in nature changing in size, which requires knowing birth rates as well as
death rates.

How to construct a life table?

One way to construct a life table is to follow the fate of a cohort, a group of
individuals of the same age, from birth until all are dead. The table is constructed
from the number of individuals that die and the number of offspring born to each
member of each age group during the defined time period.

Note: A graphic way of representing some of the data in a life table is to draw a
survivorship curve, a plot of the numbers in a cohort still alive at each age.

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Life Table

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 Survivorship Curves

What is survivorship?
Survivorship is the percentage of an original
population that survives to a given age.

What is survivorship curves?

Survivorship curves is a plot of the numbers in a
cohort still alive at each age and can be
classified into three general types;

o Type I
o Type II
o Type III
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 Survivorship Curves

Type I
o Curve is relatively flat at the start, reflecting
low death rates during early and middle life.

o Then the curve dropping steeply as death

rates increase among older age group.

o Human and and many other large mammals

that produce relatively few offspring but
provide parental care often exhibit this kind of
curve.

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 Survivorship Curves

Type II
o Curve is intermediate, with mortality more
constant over the lifespan.

o This type of survivorship has been observed

in some annual plants, various invertebrates
such as Hydra, lizard, rodent and bird.

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 Survivorship Curves

Type III
o Curve drops sharply at the start, reflecting
very high death rates for the young.

o Then the curve flattens out as death rates

decline for those individuals that have
survived to a certain critical age.

o This type of curve usually associated with

organisms that produce very large numbers
of offspring but provide little or no parental
care such as invertebrate and fishes.

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 Organism’s Schedule of Reproduction and Death
Make-up Its Life History

The relationship between life history and the cost of reproduction:

o The complete life cycle of an organism constitutes its life history. Natural
selection will favor the life history that maximizes lifetime reproductive success.

o Low costs of reproduction may occur when resources are abundant, such that
producing offspring does not impair survival or the ability to produce many
offspring in subsequent year.

o When costs of reproduction are high, lifetime reproductive success may be

maximized by deferring or minimizing current reproduction to enhance growth
and survival rates.
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 Organism’s Schedule of Reproduction and Death
Make-up Its Life History

Investment per offspring:

o In the context of natural selection, the number of offspring produced is not as

important as how many of those offspring survive to reproduce.

o A key reproductive trade-off concerns how many resources to invest in producing

any single offspring. Assuming that the amounts of energy to be invested in
offspring is limited, a trade-off must occur between the clutch size (number of
offspring produced at each cycle) and the size of each offspring.

o Producing many offspring with little chance of survival might not be the best
strategy, producing extra-ordinary robust single offspring also would not
maximize the number of surviving offspring. Rather, producing several fairly large
offspring should maximize the number of surviving offspring.
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 Organism’s Schedule of Reproduction and Death
Make-up Its Life History

Number of reproductive episodes per lifetime:

o Semelparity: a life history adaptation in plants and animals that invest most of
their energy in growth and development. Then, expend this energy in a single
large reproductive effort, and then die. Example; salmon, some insect, bamboos
and century plants.

o Iteroparity: a life history adaptation in plants and animals that produce fewer
offspring at a time over a span of many seasons. Example; birds, mammals,
most reptiles, most fish, perennial plants.

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 Organism’s Schedule of Reproduction and Death
Make-up Its Life History

Age at first reproduction:

o Longer-lived species: demonstrated delayed reproduction, so that juveniles gain

experience before expending the high costs of reproduction. For example; human
and other mammals.

o Short-lived species: demonstrated quick reproduction is more critical than

juvenile training. For example; insects.

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Further Reading

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