HBEC2103 Language & Literacy For Early Childhood

HBEC2103
Language and Literacy for

Early Childhood Education
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

HBEC2103
LANGUAGE AND
LITERACY FOR EARLY
CHILDHOOD
EDUCATION
Abdul Hameed Abdul Majid

Project Directors: Prof Dr Widad Othman
Dr Aliza Ali
Open University Malaysia
Module Writer: Abdul Hameed Abdul Majid
Moderator: Teh Lai Ling

Enhancer: Falilnesa Mohamed Arfan
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, November 2011

Second Edition, December 2019 (MREP)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), December 2019, HBEC2103

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide ixăxiv
Topic 1 Languange Development in Children 1

1.1 Differences in Individual Abilities 2
1.1.1 Health and Physical Development 2
1.1.2 Social-emotional Development 3
1.1.3 Cognitive Development 4
1.2 Stages of Language Development 7
1.2.1 Babies, Newborn to Six Months 7
1.2.2 Babies Aged Six to 12 Months 8
1.2.3 Toddlers Aged 12 to 18 Months 9
1.2.4 Toddlers Aged 18 Months to Two Years 9
1.2.5 Children at Daycare Aged Two to Three Years 10
1.2.6 Daycare Children Aged Three to Four Years 11
1.2.7 Preschool Children Aged Four to Five Years 11
1.2.8 Preschool Children Aged Five to Six Years 12
1.3 Environment 12
1.3.1 Peer Influence in Language Development 13
1.3.2 Family Influence in Language Development 13
1.3.3 Community Influence in Language Development 14
1.3.4 Influence of Culture in Language Development 15
Summary 16
Key Terms 17
Reference 17
Topic 2 Foundations of Language 18

2.1 Language System 19
2.1.1 Phonetics 19
2.1.2 Syntax 20
2.1.3 Semantics 22
2.1.4 Morphology 22
2.2 Development of Language Structure 24
2.2.1 Development of Speech 24
2.2.2 Individual Differences 25
2.2.3 Language and Thought 25
Summary 27
Key Terms 27

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 3 Types of Literacy 28

3.1 Definition of Literacy 29
3.2 Types of Literacy 33
3.2.1 Personal Literacy 33
3.2.2 Functional Literacy 35
3.2.3 School Literacy 36
3.2.4 Biliteracy 38
Summary 39
Key Terms 40
References 40
Topic 4 Language and the Curriculum Component 41

4.1 Language and Preschool Curriculum 42
4.1.1 Language Component 42
4.1.2 Learning Objectives and Content and 43
Learning Standards
4.1.3 Language Activities 46
Summary 52
Key Terms 52
References 53
Topic 5 Books and Children 54

5.1 ChildrenÊs Book Genre 55
5.1.1 Traditional Literature 55
5.1.2 Why Do We Use Traditional Literature with 57
Children?
5.2 Choosing ChildrenÊs Books 58
5.2.1 Types of Books 59
5.2.2 Evaluating the Contents of a Book 60
5.2.3 Reading Activities 61
Summary 63
Key Terms 64
Topic 6 Story Telling 65

6.1 Selecting a Story: Factors to Consider 66
6.2 Building Their Own Stories 68
6.2.1 Talking about Experiences 69
6.2.2 Stories of Childhood: Making Your Own Fairy Tales 69
6.3 Telling Their Own Stories 70
6.3.1 Delivery Techniques 71
6.3.2 Planning a Storytelling Activity 73
Summary 74
Key Terms 74

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Topic 7 Puppets 75
7.1 Planning Puppet Plays for Children 76
7.1.1 Types of Puppets 77
7.1.2 Materials and Tools to Make Puppets 81
7.1.3 Puppet Making 82
7.2 Planning Puppet Shows 83
7.2.1 Making Arrangements before the Stage Performance 84
7.2.2 Staging a Short Puppet Play 85
Summary 87
Key Terms 87
Topic 8 Literacy Instruction for Minority Students 88

8.1 Literacy Instruction for Minority Students 89
8.1.1 Models of Biliteracy Instruction 89
8.1.2 Issues in Literacy Reading and Instruction 92
Summary 96
Key Terms 97
Topic 9 Language Skills 98

9.1 Listening 99
9.1.1 Listening Experience 99
9.1.2 The Hearing versus Listening Perception 100
9.1.3 Phonological Awareness Skills 101
9.1.4 Activities to Improve Phonological Awareness 102
9.2 Reading 104
9.2.1 Reading Methods 104
9.2.2 Factors Encouraging Reading 108
9.2.3 Activities to Enhance Reading Abilities 109
9.3 Writing 110
9.3.1 Development of Writing 110
9.3.2 Playing with Materials in Writing 111
9.3.3 Environmental Print and Writing 113
Summary 114
Key Terms 115

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 10 Parent-school Involvement 116

10.1 Parent-school Partnership 117
10.1.1 Types of Parent-school Communications 117
10.2 Helping Parents Strengthen a ChildÊs Language Growth 118
10.3 Helping Parents Understand How Young Children 123
Develop Language and Communication
Summary 126
Key Terms 126

COURSE GUIDE  ix
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please refer to the Course Guide from
time to time as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HBEC2103 Language and Literacy for Early Childhood Education is one of the
courses offered at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3
credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks. This course is intended
to give learners a foundation in childhood language learning and literacy. Upon
completing this course, learners will have a grasp of issues related to language
and literacy in early childhood education.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all students taking the Bachelor of Early Childhood
Education with Honours programme. This module aims to impart the basics of
language teaching and literacy. It also prepares learners to execute language
teaching and literacy programmes and also to evaluate the programmes.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please ensure that you have the
right course material and understand the course requirements as well as how the
course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

x  COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussions 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Explain language teaching approaches and techniques;
2. Evaluate language teaching and learning activities; and
3. Plan language teaching and learning activities.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is listed as
follows:
Topic 1 begins with a discussion on language development. A theoretical view of

language development is presented. The language development in a child
through the different stages i.e. babies, toddlers, children at daycare and
preschool are discussed. How the environment plays a role in shaping language
development is also discussed.
Topic 2 introduces the foundations of language. This topic discusses the

language system. Introduction to phonetics, syntax, semantics and morphology is
systematically presented. The topic moves on to discuss the development of
language structure by highlighting how speech is developed, individual
differences in speech development and concludes with language and thought.

COURSE GUIDE  xi
Topic 3 defines literacy in detail. This topic gives the different views on literacy.
Personal literacy, functional literacy, school literacy and biliteracy are discussed
in detail.
Topic 4 discusses language curriculum and literacy development. Among the

pertinent issues discussed in this topic are language and preschool curriculum
and literacy development. In relation to language curriculum and literacy
development, issues discussed are language components, learning outcomes and
objectives and language activities. As for literacy development, approaches to
reading instructions and development of writing are explored.
Topic 5 looks at books and children. Different book genres are explained.
Children book genres cover both traditional and modern. Books portraying
concepts as well as information will be discussed too. The topic also deals with
how to choose books for children. The different types of books are presented. A
discussion on evaluating book content is also available. Finally, the topic
discusses reading activities for children.
Topic 6 highlights the art of storytelling for children. It deals with how to select
an age-appropriate story for children. Different story types are also presented.
The need to take into consideration childrenÊs language ability is also pointed
out. This topic moves on to explain how to teach children to build their own
stories by talking about their experiences. A discussion about coming up with
childhood stories and creating the childÊs own fairy tale is also examined.
Learners are also introduced to techniques of delivering a story and planning for
a storytelling activity.
Topic 7 introduces learners to puppets in the classroom. Puppets are very useful
in language and literacy development in childhood. This topic demonstrates how
a teacher could plan puppet plays for young children. Prior to that, learners are
introduced to the types of puppets, materials and tools to make puppets and the
art of making a puppet. The topic proceeds with planning for puppet shows.
Finally, planning a stage activity and making arrangements for a puppet show is
introduced.
Topic 8 moves to shed some light on literacy instruction for minority students.
The intricacies in dealing with language and literacy with minority students are
discussed, together with some helpful suggestions. This topic also highlights
different models of biliteracy instruction for children. The topic is concluded
with a discussion of issues in literacy reading and instruction.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
Topic 9 introduces the need for parent-school involvement as a scaffold for the
development of language and literacy in children. Parent-centre partnershipÊs
advantage in supporting language and literacy development is discussed.
Additionally, learners are shown how parents can strengthen a childÊs language
development. Learners are also taught how to produce materials that can help
parents understand language development.
Topic 10 culminates the course by introducing the topic of family literacy and
childhood literacy readiness. Issues of literacy readiness in the family and the
child are highlighted. Finally, the topic ends with a presentation of some models
for intervention to promote literacy readiness in the family and children.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to
solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or research.
It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an
Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module and
apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage yourself in higher
order thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate
instead of only having to recall and define.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Main References
Beaty, J. J., & Pratt, L. (2007). Early literacy in preschool and kindergarten: A
multicultural perspective (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Whitehead, M. R. (2007). Developing language and literacy with young children

(3rd ed.). London, England: Paul Chapman Publishing.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Additional References
Machado, J. M. (2005). Early childhood experiences in language arts: Emerging

literacy (7th ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning.
Nelsen, M. R., & Nelsen-Parish, J. (2002). Peak with books: An early childhood
resource for balanced literacy (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Thomson Delmar
Learning.
Sawyer, W. (2004). Growing up with literature (4th ed.). New York, NY:
Thomson Delmar Learning.
Sowers, J. (2000). Language arts in early education. Melbourne, Australia:

Delmar/Thomson Learning.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books247, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

Topic  Language
Development
1 in Children
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the topic, you should be able to:

1. Explain how physical, social-emotional and cognitive development
account for differences in individual abilities;
2. Identify different stages of language development in children; and
3. Discuss how the environment plays a vital role in shaping language
development in children.
 INTRODUCTION
Child development refers to the traits, attitudes and abilities of the child to
progressively perform tasks of greater complexity as he or she advances in years.
Child development is primarily made up of language, social and motor skills.
Even though the sequence at which a child develops is orderly and quite
predictable, not every child will reach language milestones at the same age. It tends
to vary from one child to another.
This introductory topic begins with a discussion on the differences in individual

abilities across three major domains of child development. We will then trace the
various stages of language development that a child goes through, beginning from
baby to toddler, child at daycare right through to preschool. The role of the
environment in fostering language development among young children is also
given due consideration.

2  TOPIC 1 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN
1.1 DIFFERENCES IN INDIVIDUAL ABILITIES

Several factors contribute to the variations in the rate of children development. We
need to understand this well in order to stay unbiased, positive and appreciative
of the uniqueness of a childÊs differing talents, abilities, strengths and relative
weaknesses or deficits, acquired or innate. Given that children between the ages
of two and five are especially vulnerable to these influences, it is imperative that
parents and caregivers alike should be aware and mindful of them as well.
Let us now take a look at some factors responsible for individual differences
among children, namely (refer to Figure 1.1):
Figure 1.1: Factors of individual differences
1.1.1 Health and Physical Development

Physical development is specifically characterised by a childÊs gross and fine
motor skills and balance capabilities demonstrated through activities like catching
a ball, jumping, hopping, skipping, making arts and crafts and playing with
building blocks, among others. These skills make them active and help develop
coordination, control and movement.
However, poor nutrition, physiological health issues combined with weak motor
skills, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and malnutrition, can
adversely affect a childÊs physical agility. Insufficiently developed vocal cords and
speech related facial muscles will inhibit a childÊs efforts at effective oral
communication. The same applies to fine motor skills which are necessary to write
or draw letters and symbols. An absence in any one area can seriously hinder a
childÊs physical growth and communication skills.

TOPIC 1 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN  3
To illustrate further, a sickly child is not only unable to learn a language properly
but also exhibits regression and backwardness in all types of development.
Prolonged illness and poor health affect both the childÊs level of physical fitness
and hearing, which creates problems with understanding spoken language and
other auditory cues. This, in turn, affects speech and literacy-related development.
In comparison, children who are physically healthy and have properly developed
sensory organs are able to receive correct stimuli from their surroundings and tend
to pick up language quickly and confidently. They have a wholesome personality,
are curious and interested in the environment, and motivated and driven to learn.
1.1.2 Social-emotional Development
Does the child enjoy playing games like „Hide and Seek‰?
Does the child approach other children and offer help?
Does the child take turns when playing games?
Does the child enjoy humour such as being able to laugh at silly faces or
voices?
Does the child reach out to comfort and hug a classmate who is crying or
overwhelmed by something or someone?
These questions represent a decent cross section of social-emotional characteristics

of children that teachers closely look out for and monitor. Your answers to the
questions will serve as a fair indicator of the observable behavioural traits of a
childÊs social-emotional competences portrayed via his or her social and emotional
experience, self-expression, intrapersonal and interpersonal skills, management of
emotions and the ability to establish positive and fulfilling relationships with other
children and adults.
Indeed, children acquire language through interaction ă not just with their parents
but with other adults and children in varying environments. Moreover, no place
is as challenging and telling for young children as the classroom where silence is
not golden. Most of the time, what transpires in the classroom is a reflection and
carryover of what transpires at home.

Parents have a significant influence on how their children turn out, in terms of
personality, ability to regulate self-conscious emotions such as feelings of
insecurity, constant frustrations and anxieties, including behavioural habits.
Equally important is the manner in which family members bond and communicate
with the child and how much opportunity the child gets to speak, their
encouragement and others which have a direct bearing on the emotional and social
development of the child. A child who feels secure, happy, valued and listened to,
is much more likely to develop a healthy sense of self-identity and competence,
show compassion and emotional intelligence, and experience increasing positive
growth in all other areas of language development and communication, both at
home as well as in the classroom.
Other than helping the child articulate his or her emotions, parental behaviours
also influence how the child learns to understand social roles and rules and to
respond appropriately to the emotions of those around them. If a child has a
difficult time communicating his or her thoughts and desires verbally to others, it
can lead to strained relationships with peers and parents. Consequently, it would
be really hard for the child to get along with and build healthy, prosocial
attachments with other adults throughout life. Besides, language development
issues can spill over to other aspects of his or her learning and cognitive
development.
1.1.3 Cognitive Development

Cognitive development can be defined as how children think, explore and learn to
figure things out. It entails the progressive building of knowledge, learning skills,
problem-solving and dispositions, which serve to enhance childrenÊs ability to
explore, perceive, think about and gain understanding of the world around them.
Through this interplay of genetic and learned factors, children are able to process
sensory information and eventually learn to evaluate, analyse, recall, make
comparisons and understand cause and effect.
Table 1.1 provides a snapshot of typical cognitive activities observed in children

from 0 to 5 years of age.

Table 1.1: Cognitive Activities in Children Aged 0 to 5 Years
Age Activity
One month  Looks at person when spoken to.
Two months  Smiles at familiar person talking.
 Begins to follow moving person with eyes.
Four months  Shows interest in the bottle, breast, familiar toy or new surroundings.
Five months  Smiles at own image in mirror.
 Looks for fallen objects.
Six months  May stick out tongue in imitation.
 Laughs at peekaboo game.
 Vocalises at mirror image.
 May act shy around strangers.
Seven  Responds to own name.
months  Tries to establish contact with a person by cough or other noise.
Eight  Reaches for toys out of reach.
months  Responds to „no.‰
Nine months  Shows likes and dislikes.
 May try to prevent face-washing or other activity that is disliked.
 Shows excitement and interest in food or toys that are well-liked.
Ten months  Starts to understand some words.
 Waves bye-bye.
 Holds out arm or leg to help when being dressed.
Eleven  Repeats performance that is laughed at.
months  Likes repetitive play.
 Shows interest in books.
Twelve  May understand some „Where is...?‰ questions.
months  May kiss on request.
Fifteen  Asks for objects by pointing.
months  Starts to feed self.
 Negativism begins.
Eighteen  Points to familiar objects when asked „Where is...?‰
months  Mimics familiar adult activities.
 Knows some body parts.
 Obeys two or three simple orders.

Two years  Names a few familiar objects.

 Draws with crayons.
 Obeys simple orders.
 Participates in parallel play.
Two-and-a-  Names several common objects.
half years  Begins to take interest in sex organs.
 Gives full names.
 Helps to put things away.
 Peak of negativism.
Three years  Constantly asks questions.
 May count to 10.
 Begins to draw specific objects.
 Dresses and undress doll.
 Participates in cooperative play.
 Talks about things that have happened.
Four years  May make up silly words and stories.
 Begins to draw pictures that represent familiar things.
 Pretends to read and write.
 May recognise a few common words, such as own name.
Five years  Can recognise and reproduce many shapes, letters, and numbers.
 Tells long stories.
 Begins to understand the difference between real events and make-
believe ones.
 Asks meanings of words.
Source: Adapted from Encyclopedia of ChildrenÊs Health (2019)
On the flip side, cognitive impairment is the general loss or lack of development
of cognitive abilities, particularly autism and learning disabilities. These
limitations can show up in many ways, such as specific difficulties linked to
spoken and written language, coordination, self-control or attention. Such
difficulties extend to schoolwork and can impede learning to read or write or to
do mathematics. A child who has a learning disability may have other conditions,
such as hearing problems or a serious emotional disturbance.

ACTIVITY 1.1
1. Young children can be affected by physical and social-emotional

factors both in positive and negative ways. Discuss this statement
with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum.
2. Cognitive development is the construction of thought processes,

including remembering, problem-solving and decision-making.
Explain what this means to you and share your thoughts with your
coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum.
1.2 STAGES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

In this subtopic, we will learn the stages of language development in children
according to their age. Let us look at this in a detailed manner.
1.2.1 Babies, Newborn to Six Months

Newborn babies up to the age of six months cry in different ways to
communicate their feelings and wants. They cry in different ways to say, „I am
hurt‰, „I am wet‰, „I am hungry‰ or „I am lonely‰. Babies at this stage also make
noises to show displeasure or satisfaction. Babbling is also significant among
babies. Babies tend to look for voices and can recognise familiar faces.
During this stage, language skills can be nurtured by responding with the same
sound when they babble, gurgle and coo. Talking to babies as they are feeding,
dressing or playing is very helpful to nurture their language development. Babies
should be sung to and they love to listen to soft music.

1.2.2 Babies Aged Six to 12 Months

At this stage, babies are able to wave goodbye and respond when their names are
called. Most often, babies are able to understand the names of familiar objects
around them. They are also able to show interest in picture books and can pay
attention to conversations. Some babies are able to utter their first words at this
stage while others may be slightly delayed. Babies can be seen to babble
expressively as if they are talking. Saying „da-da‰ and „ma-ma‰ are common.
You should nurture the babiesÊ language skill at this stage by teaching them their
names and the names of familiar objects. Talking to them about what is
happening and what you are doing is definitely helpful. Playing peekaboo also
makes them very happy (refer to Figure 1.2). Reading to them while holding out
pictures, magazines or books will greatly spark language development.
Figure 1.2: Playing peekaboo

Source: https://www.rdiconnect.com/co-regulation-the-bridge-to-
communication/peek-a-boo-baby/

1.2.3 Toddlers Aged 12 to 18 Months

Starting from the age of 12 months, toddlers are able to identify family members
and familiar objects. They are also able to point to some body parts such as the
nose, ears and eyes. Following simple one-step instructions is now possible. They
start to utter two or more words and can imitate familiar noises like the sound of
cars, planes and birds. Additionally, they are able to repeat a few words and look
at a person talking. Saying „Hi‰ or „Bye‰ if reminded is usual at this stage. They
point to objects if they want them and are able to identify objects in pictures.
Teaching children the names of people, body parts and objects is essential now.
They should be taught the sound of different things around them. Read simple
stories to them. Sit with them and make scrapbooks that have bright colourful
familiar objects. Read to them the contents of the scrapbook. Speak to them clearly
using full simple words. Do not use baby talk at this stage as baby talk confuses
the process of learning to talk.
1.2.4 Toddlers Aged 18 Months to Two Years

Language development grows faster at this stage. They are able to utter about 50
words and can comprehend more. Parrot-like echoing is common. They tend to
imitate single words spoken by others. Toddlers at this age quite commonly jabber
or talk to themselves expressively. More familiar objects are identified and names
uttered. Telegraphic speech containing two to three sentences like „Daddy‰, „Bye-
bye‰ emerge. They try to sing simple songs or hum and even enjoy listening to
short stories, point to more parts of the body and are able to say „Please‰ and
„Thank you‰ if properly prompted.
Reading at least one book a day to children at this stage is most rewarding (refer
to Figure 1.3). Encourage them to repeat short sentences. Start giving them short
instructions. Read rhymes with interesting sounds as they enjoy sounds, actions
and pictures.

Figure 1.3: It is good for a parent to read daily to a child

Source: https://www.leapfrog.com/en-ie/summer-club/types/articles/when-will-my-
child-learn-to-read
1.2.5 Children at Daycare Aged Two to Three Years

As children approach two to three years of age, they are able to identify up to 10
pictures in a book. Simple sentences and phrases are easily uttered. Children at
this age are able to respond when called by their name and are also able to respond
to simple directions. Their grammar starts to build because they are able to use
plural and past tense forms.
They enjoy simple stories, rhymes and also songs. Their vocabulary will expand to
about 500 words. At this stage, children love to play word games such as „This
Little Piggy‰ or „High as a House‰. It is rewarding for you to continue listening,
reading and talking to them every day. Continue teaching them simple songs and
nursery rhymes.

1.2.6 Daycare Children Aged Three to Four Years

Speech starts to develop at a faster rate now. Children at this age are able to talk
more. About 75 to 80 per cent of their speech is comprehensible already. They are
able to say their own first and last name. Using prepositions to show locations and
directions become prevalent. Awareness of time is also apparent. At this age,
children start asking questions why, who, what, where, when and how. Speech
becomes clearer with the ability to form sentences with three to five words.
Sentences become more complete. Although they may sometimes stumble over
words, they do not stammer. Listening to stories with familiar words without any
changes is very much enjoyed. They also like to tell simple stories from pictures or
books. They can also recognise colours at this stage.
As a teacher, parent or caregiver, it is absolutely necessary for you to include

children at this age into everyday conversations. Tell them what you plan to do
and ask them lots of questions and listen to them attentively. Start giving them a
few books and teach them how to care for the books.
1.2.7 Preschool Children Aged Four to Five Years

Letter recognition begins to take shape now if they are taught to do so. Some
children are even able to write letters of the alphabet. They are able to recognise
common signboards such as fast food signboards. Speech starts to become more
complex as they are able to utter long, full sentences. Children at this stage enjoy
singing, reciting rhymes and nonsensical words. Interestingly, children at this age
are able to adapt language to the level of their listenerÊs understanding. If they talk
to the caregiver, they may say „Daddy go bye-bye‰ and if they talk to their mother,
they say „Daddy went to the office‰. Ability to remember telephone numbers and
addresses is also quite common at this stage. More colours and shapes are
recognised. Children are also able to follow more than one instruction at this stage.
They also enjoy elaborate conversations and sometimes pick up forbidden words
and tell jokes that are not understood by adults.
It is rewarding to start bringing children of this age to libraries regularly. Always

play games that need colouring and counting. Encourage their language
development by getting them to tell stories and also make their own story books
with magazines, pictures or make scrapbooks. Record their storytelling session or
singing activity as it can motivate them when they listen to themselves.

1.2.8 Preschool Children Aged Five to Six Years

At the age of five to six years, children start to speak with correct grammar and
word form. They are able to pretend play and are more expressive. Their writing
ability becomes more profound; they can write their own names, some letters and
also numbers. They are also able to read certain simple words.
You should continue reading to them daily. Encourage them to pretend play with
friends using old sheets, cardboard and other household items. Playing „Doctor‰
or „Fireman Sam‰ is very often indulged in by children at this age. Allow them to
be part of what you are doing, especially while carrying out simple tasks such as
cutting out newspaper snippets or arranging books. Get them to find grocery items
at the store.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. Why do newborn babies cry in different ways?
2. At what age are toddlers able to identify family members and

familiar objects?
1.3 ENVIRONMENT
The environment plays a role in shaping everything a child does and learns is
undisputable. This is because the environment plays a crucial role in influencing
language development as early as infancy. It starts with the use of language at
home through vocabulary, tone, modelled reading, attitudes about reading and a
print-rich environment that leaves language everywhere. In this subtopic, we shall
explore the factors within the environment that can positively or negatively impact
a childÊs language development.

1.3.1 Peer Influence in Language Development

Children develop language mostly by listening to speech sounds around them.
Exposing children to as much language as possible during the formative years
have proven to be beneficial. One way to expose them to authentic language is
through interaction with their peers.
Peers act as an important language resource for them especially during the
beginning years, such as their preschool years. Peers are perceived as role models
for children. Generally, children are able to capitalise on their peerÊs language
skills. In fact, they are more at ease and relaxed and converse with and learn from
their peers because unlike parents, peers are more accommodating and
understanding.
While being with their peers, especially with those who have better language
skills, children develop both speech and understanding of words faster. A
classroom which has children with better language skills will definitely enhance
other childrenÊs language acquisition.
1.3.2 Family Influence in Language Development

The family is viewed as an environment that plays a strategic role on childrenÊs
overall development. To begin with, the family is the first social group that is at
the centre of the childÊs identification. Further to that, a family is the first
environment to introduce the concept of values in life. Family members are
significant people who play a role in developing childrenÊs personality. The family
institution facilitates the basic needs of a human in terms of physical, biological,
psychological and social needs; children spend much of their time in the family
environment.
Apart from that, the family institution plays a critical role in moulding or
hindering the childÊs language development. No one can deny that language is an
extremely important tool to possess to interact with people around us. Beginning
with the language from home, children learn to express their feelings, their needs
and confidently ask questions. Language in the family is modified to suit the
childrenÊs situation. For example, when we talk to small children, we use a set of
different words compared to when conducting business or a meeting. Even our
tone is different. We send a message with words, gestures or actions, which
somebody else receives to respond and communicate effectively. All these are
fundamental building blocks towards helping develop a childÊs language.

Through language spoken by the family, children can connect with others and
make sense of their experiences. A child who does not have a good family
language background will not be exposed to the language input needed in order
to survive and succeed. The familyÊs language shapes a childÊs language
development to reflect the identity, values and experiences of the family and its
community.
Therefore, creating a warm and comfortable environment in which children can

grow to learn the complexities of language is of paramount importance. The
communication skills that children learn early in life will be the foundation for
their communication abilities in future. In short, strong language skills picked up
from the family are an invaluable lifeline that will promote a lifetime of effective
communication.
1.3.3 Community Influence in Language Development

Apart from their peers and family, another factor contributing to childrenÊs
language development is the community itself. The community in which children
live in plays an important role in early language development.
Vocabulary acquisition, for instance, can be promoted by visiting new places in the
community. A visit to interesting places such as zoos, museums and parks
increases and stimulates new vocabulary and language development (refer to
Figure 1.4).
Figure 1.4: Parents and child visit a zoo

Source: http://babiestravellite.com/zoo-safety-for-children-and-parents/

Children enjoy simple outings such as trips to the local store or to the mall.
These visits play an important role in giving children opportunities to expand their
language experience. By allowing children to get close to language found in
communal places, parents are actually increasing the positive outcome of language
acquisition among children.
1.3.4 Influence of Culture in Language Development

The development of language is very dependent on culture. Babies who are just a
few days old are able to discern one language from another. Children are also pre-
programmed mentally for language development according to different stages.
This development is very much inclined towards oneÊs culture. It means that if a
culture deems that children are to be spoken to only at a particular age, then the
childrenÊs language skills surely will be delayed and even hampered. On the
contrary, if the culture values speaking to children from the onset of birth, then the
children will be able to communicate with ease within the culture.
Culture is unique because it is very specific and has shared knowledge among its
members. Culture is fascinating to learn because it enables communication
between people of different languages. Apart from being an important tool for
communication, language shapes each culture, too. Culture also determines how
one learns. How people learn, how they share knowledge and how they perceive
knowledge may not be the same from one culture to the other.
Our daily routines are also influenced by culture. All our daily endeavours use
language and symbols within certain cultural contexts. Children respond to
situations according to the culture they have been brought up in. If they are
brought up in a culture that respects rules, they will then follow rules. However,
if they are brought up in an environment that does not respect rules, then they may
be outright defiant and possibly react aggressively to symbols of authority. In
other words, the cultural practices surrounding children have great impact on
their learning and language development. Hence, a positive culture with a vibrant
communication between its community members will naturally engender and
accelerate positive language growth.

SELF-CHECK 1.2
1. How can you, as a preschool teacher, help boost childrenÊs

language acquisition?
2. Explain the parentsÊ role in developing their childÊs language

acquisition.
ACTIVITY 1.2
1. In your opinion, how do peers contribute to a childÊs language

development?
2. What is the effect on language development if a child belongs to a

culture that does not place importance on early language
intervention?
Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.
 Early children development encompasses physical, social-emotional, cognitive

development from 0 to 6 years of age.
 The physical, social-emotional and cognitive development of young children

have a direct effect on their overall development.
 Physical development in children refers to both the physiological state and

development of their motor skills, which involves using their bodies.
 Emotional involvement of parents really does matter and affects the long- term
outcome of their childÊs social-emotional competence and regulation.
 The language of family members affects the language development of the

child.
 The areas of cognitive development in children include information

processing, intelligence, reasoning, language development and memory.

 The environment plays a crucial role in influencing language development

from as early as infancy.
 It starts with the use of language at home through vocabulary, tone, modelled
reading, attitudes about reading and a print-rich environment that leaves
language everywhere.
 A childÊs peers, family, community and culture play a pivotal role in language
development as well.
Children development Family influence

Cognitive development Peer influence
Community influence Physical development
Cultural influence Social-emotional development
Environment
Encyclopedia of ChildrenÊs Health. (2019). Cognitive development. Retrieved

from: http://www.healthofchildren.com/C/Cognitive-Development.html

Topic  Foundations of
Language
2
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Identify the components of the language system;
2. Discuss the development of language structure by highlighting how
speech is developed; and
3. Explain the individual differences in speech development and also in
language and thought.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic introduces the foundations of language. Here you will be learn about
the components of the language system which is made up of phonetics, syntax,
semantics and morphology. Next, we will proceed to discuss the development of
language structure by highlighting how speech is developed and what the
individual differences are in speech development. Finally, the discussion
concludes with insights into language and thought.

TOPIC 2 FOUNDATIONS OF LANGUAGE  19
2.1 LANGUAGE SYSTEM

The language system refers to a system of linguistic units or elements used in a
particular language. Basically, a language system is composed of elements of
phonetics, syntax, semantics and morphology. Each of these elements will be
explained in the following subtopics separately.
2.1.1 Phonetics
Phonetics is the branch of linguistics that deals with human speech, encompassing
the articulatory, acoustic and auditory properties of the sounds of human language
(refer to Figure 2.1). The study of phonetics enables the person learning a language
to discern the sound system of the particular language.
Figure 2.1: Constituents of phonetics
In the English language for example, many non-native English speakers find that
the different English vowels sound the same. The sound „bit‰ and „beat‰, „bid‰
and „bead‰, and groups like „bad‰, „bud‰ and „barred‰ are very problematic for
foreign or second language learners of English.
The study of phonetics facilitates the ability to understand, hear and reproduce
different vowel qualities. Apart from the pronunciation of speech sounds
themselves, another important aspect of phonetics that is often neglected in
foreign language learning and teaching is intonation. Both learners and teachers
often forget that intonation carries meaning and expresses speakersÊ emotions and
attitudes.

20  TOPIC 2 FOUNDATIONS OF LANGUAGE
When learning a foreign language, students tend to transfer the intonation habits
from their native language into the second language, forgetting that when used
inappropriately, intonation can lead to misunderstanding and even result in
communication breakdown between speakers coming from two different
linguistic backgrounds. This is when phonetics comes in handy. Moreover,
phonetics also describes intonation and helps students to recognise, understand
and practise intonation patterns.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
List the three constituents of phonetics.
2.1.2 Syntax
Syntax is the study of the structure of sentences. Experts describe how words
combine into phrases and clauses and how these then combine to form sentences.
For example, „I found a coin yesterday‰ is embedded as a relative clause in „The
coin which I found yesterday is quite valuable.‰
So, the role of the experts here will be to describe the rules necessary for converting
the first sentence into the second. In linguistics, we can describe the syntax of a
sentence in several ways as follows:
(a) Using the Correct Sequence of the Parts of Speech

For example:
Salleh kicked the ball.
Subject Salleh (followed by a verb „kicked‰).
Object the ball (article the followed by a noun ball)

(b) Using Transformational Rules

For example:
Salleh kicked the ball.
Sentence Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase Verb

Phrase Verb Phrase + Noun Phrase Noun
Phrase Article + Noun
Verb Phrase = kicked the ball

Noun Phrase = Salleh, the ball
(c) Using Parsing Diagrams

In Parsing Diagrams, a sentence is depicted graphically to emphasise the
hierarchical relationships between the constituents of a sentence (refer to
Figure 2.2).
For example:
Figure 2.2: Parsing Diagram
In this sentence, the is the article, boy is the noun, went is the verb and home
is the noun. The previous example illustrates the basic syntactic structure of
sentences in the English language. By using this method, we can easily
observe how different structures relate to each other.
To sum up rules governing how structure of phrases and how phrases can
be joined are called the syntax of a language. The syntax of a language
however varies across languages, such as the syntax of English may not be
similar to the syntax of the Malay language. However, by using the method
of Parsing, we can study the grammar of any language, for that matter. Even
computer language can be parsed.

2.1.3 Semantics
The systematic study of transmission of meanings in a language is known as
semantics. The study of semantics aims at giving people an understanding of how
language is matched with its intended meaning according to situations. The
following example illustrates a sentence that can semantically mean different
things according to different situations, sometimes with unintended, hilarious
consequences.
We saw the Eiffel Tower flying from London to Paris.
This sentence could mean two things. One, that you saw the Eiffel Tower flying
from London to Paris and the other, you saw the Eiffel Tower while you were
flying in an aeroplane from London to Paris. It really depends on the situation you
are in.
The ambiguities in the sentence arise because in linguistics, lexical or semantic

ambiguities arise out of the fact that a word may have more than one meaning. In
most cases, the intended meaning is made clear by the context. Therefore, the
study of semantics may not be separated from literacy development.
2.1.4 Morphology
Now, let us examine what is meant by morphology. It is that part of the language
system which studies the structure of the word, its components and functions and
also how the word is formed as follows:
(a) Root Words

The root is the main part of the English word. It does not have any prefixes,
suffixes, etc., for example: kind, mix, hope.
(b) Affixes (Prefix and Suffix)

Affixes are added to the root and it changes the meaning. Affixes consist
of prefixes that are placed in front of the root and suffixes which are placed
at the end of the word. Look at the following examples (refer to Table 2.1).
Table 2.1: Root Words and Affixes
Root Word Prefix Suffix

tidy un + tidy = untidy -
kind - kind + ness = kindness

(c) Morpheme
A morpheme is a meaningful linguistic unit consisting of a word, such as
man or word element, such as -ed in the word „walked‰, that cannot be
divided into smaller meaningful parts.
(d) Phoneme
The phoneme is the smallest unit of the language sound system. Some
examples of phonemes are: /b/, /j/, /o/.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
Define prefix and suffix.
ACTIVITY 2.1
1. Why is semantics vital for literacy development?
2. Fill in the tables below accordingly.
Prefix Two Examples

bi-
im-
non-
dis-
Suffix Two Examples

-able
-est
-fully
-less

forum.

2.2 DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE

STRUCTURE
Human speech and language development take place most intensively during the
first three years of a childÊs life. This is the time when the brain develops and
matures. Language and speech develop at their best during this stage as children
absorb the rich sounds from the consistent exposure to speech and language from
around them. Like sponge absorbing water, children too absorb just about
everything.
In this subtopic, we will discuss the development of speech in children, their

individual differences in language development and also their language and
thought.
2.2.1 Development of Speech

There is much evidence to show that there are critical periods for speech and
language development in infants and young children. This puts forth the notion
that the developing brain is best able to absorb any language during this critical
period. In this respect, learning a language will be an arduous task, and perhaps
less efficient or effective if these critical periods are allowed to pass without early
exposure to a language.
The way a child starts to communicate is fascinating. From the time they are
newborns, children learn that they will be given food, comfort and companionship
when they cry. Apart from that, they also recognise sounds within their
environment. They grow to distinguish the speech sounds they hear. They are able
to make out words in their language.
Infants are able to recognise basic sounds of their mother tongue by the age of
six months. Infants are able to produce sounds as their speech organs mature. This
sound production begins with cooing a sweetly pitched sound made by infants.
The next step is when the infant starts to babble. Babbling is where infants make
repetitive sounds such as „ba,ba‰, „ma,ma‰ and „da,da‰. This babbling is usually
nonsensical speech. It has tones of human speech but very often does not have any
real words. Nearing the end of the first year, the baby is often able to utter a few
simple words. These words are not understood by them but as soon as the infant
realises that people respond to those words, he or she capitalises on the words by
repeating them to get attention.

Development of speech continues. By 18 months, most children grasp about 10

words. By the age of two, they develop telegraphic speech where two to three word
sentences are uttered. „Daddy go, bye-bye‰ is an example of telegraphic speech.
The development of speech in children continues steadily at the ages of three, four
and five. Their vocabulary increases as they grow and begin to master grammar of
the language.
2.2.2 Individual Differences

The development of language may not be the same for everyone. Each child is an
individual. Some children meet their developmental milestones earlier than
others. It is common to hear people say „She spoke her first word when she was
just seven months‰. „Her brother has not uttered a word and he is two years old‰.
ChildrenÊs language development is a very individual thing as each child develops
at his or her own pace.
Nevertheless, there are certain periods of time when children usually learn to
speak. Just like most children learn to walk between 9 and 15 months, there is no
need to worry if a 13-month-old child has yet to take his or her first steps. The child
may soon walk as he or she may not be ready yet at 13 months. However, if the
child surpasses the normal range of time to start walking i.e. 15 months, then there
is reason for you to be concerned. The child should be taken to a doctor for further
assessment. Similarly, if a child does not show any sign of language development
according to the stages of speech development as suggested in Topic 1, it is
warranted to get the child assessed by clinical specialists who are specifically
trained in various areas of development. These include speech pathologists,
occupational and physical therapists, developmental psychologists and
audiologists.
2.2.3 Language and Thought

Language development can be measured both qualitatively and quantitatively.
Vocabulary development in preschool children is very much linked to the
treatment and experience they get from teachers, parents and the environment.
Children from a deficient language background, where language exposure is
restricted, often face the problem of language development. Children from poor
neighbourhoods are said to face this problem. Conversely, children from homes
that place great importance on language and are supportive of the language needs
of children, have more superior language development.

It is an established fact that language is a tool to gain more understanding. A child

having no language or whose language development is slow will face a hurdle to
develop his or her thoughts. Thus, as an adult, parent, teacher or caregiver, you
have a pivotal role to help children develop their language and thinking. By
interacting with adults, children will use language and understand its role better.
Conversations with adults, for instance, increase the ability of thinking and
understanding among children (refer to Figure 2.3). With continued support of
adults, children will be motivated to acquire and develop communication skills
that will automatically result in the development of language.
Figure 2.3: Coversation between a child and an adult

Source: https://says.com/my/lifestyle/things-parents-should-not-say-to-their-kids
SELF-CHECK 2.3
What is telegraphic speech?
ACTIVITY 2.2
1. As a teacher, how can you reduce the anxiety of a parent who is

overly concerned about his or her childÊs delayed speech
development?
2. Why do children from poor socioeconomic backgrounds lack

language development and thought?

forum.

 A language system comprises mainly of phonetics, syntax, semantics and

morphology.
 Phonetics is concerned with the study of the description of isolated speech

sounds.
 Semantics is defined as the study of meaning in a language.
 Syntax is the study of the structure of sentences. It describes how words,

phrases and clauses combine to form sentences.
 Morphology examines the structure of the word, its components and functions
and how the word is formed.
 Language and speech develop at their best during the first three years of age.
 Children absorb the rich sounds from consistent exposure to speech and
language from around their surroundings.
Individual differences Phonetics

Language structure Semantics
Language system Syntax
Morphology

Topic  Types of
Literacy
3
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Define literacy from traditional and modern perspectives;
2. Discuss how 21st century skills impact teaching and learning of
literacy skills in the early childhood education context; and
3. Explain the significance of the four types of literacy: personal literacy,
functional literacy, school literacy and biliteracy.
 INTRODUCTION
There are many skills that are necessary to function in todayÊs world. One such
skill is literacy (Unesco, 2014). In this topic, we will briefly examine salient issues
associated with the traditional representation of literacy alongside the critical
literacy skills required to enable early-years children to cope with the demands of
a world that is becoming increasingly interconnected. The importance and features
of what constitutes personal literacy, functional literacy, school literacy and
biliteracy will be looked at in detail, together with examples of opportunities and
challenges for developing new literacy skills needed by kindergarteners and
preschoolers in the 21st century.

TOPIC 3 TYPES OF LITERACY  29
3.1 DEFINITION OF LITERACY

Literacy extends beyond the conservative definition of just being able to read and
use printed materials to construct meaning at an extremely basic level. Much more
than that, literacy embraces the ability of the child to use printed and written
information to function in society, to achieve oneÊs goals and to develop oneÊs
knowledge and ultimately participate with others around the world as
technologically-literate global citizens. In view of this, teachers firstly must be able
to make a clear distinction on how information substantially differs from literacy
(refer to Table 3.1).
Table 3.1: Definitions of Information and Literacy
Information Literacy
 Knowledge that you get about  Ability to identify, understand,
someone or something: facts or details interpret, create, communicate and
about a subject (Merriam Webster compute, using printed and written
Online, n.d.). materials associated with varying
 A term with many meanings contexts. Literacy involves continuum
depending on context, but is as a rule of learning in enabling individuals to
closely related to such concepts as achieve their goals, to develop their
meaning, knowledge, instruction, knowledge and potential, and to
communication, representation and participate fully in their community
mental stimulus (Wikipedia, n.d.). and wider society (Unesco, 2014).
Source: Adapted from the Ministry of Education, Malaysia (2019)
In addition to understanding the four types of literacy which will be explained

next, teachers have to be equally alert and sensitive to newly emerging literacy
trends arising from advances in communication and information technology (refer
to Figure 3.1).

30  TOPIC 3 TYPES OF LITERACY
Figure 3.1: New literacy skills
These new literacy skills cannot be simply brushed aside because they affect and
form a vital part of our childrenÊs future. Above all, teachers need to be able to
demonstrate how literacy and language development are closely interlinked.
There is no denying that we live in an age of rapid change. TodayÊs children need
more than the traditional 3Rs (reading, writing and arithmetic) to propel them on
a firm path towards developing 21st century skills that focus more on the 4Cs (refer
to Figure 3.2):

Figure 3.2: The 4Cs
Essentially, 21st century skills are a combination of new and old. They encompass
the traditional learning areas of literacy, mathematics, science and social studies,
coupled with critical life skills such as collaboration, problem-solving and
creativity, and career skills such as innovation, technology and global awareness
(refer to Figure 3.3).
Figure 3.3: 21st century learners

While some of these 21st century skills may not have immediate relevance for
young children, it is definitely never too early to provide them with a good
foundation in these skills that they need to survive and thrive as 21st century
learners, workers and citizens.
Table 3.2 showcases a number of useful literacy tips to support teachers in

promoting strong 21st century skills among children, especially in areas related to
information and communication, collaboration and creativity.
Table 3.2: Literacy Tips
Tips Description
Online  The BBC has excellent interactive videos and resources to get
children to come to grips with reading, writing, spelling,
grammar and listening.
 Example: www.bbc.co.uk/skillswise/english
Get blogging  Sit together and start a great blog about special events such as
the holidays. This encourages a reflective mindset and provides
a great record to refer back to in the future. Top tip: Make sure
your child does not post inappropriate information!
 Example: http://neverseconds.blogspot.com
Play games  Some suggestions include Taboo, Scrabble, Hangman,
Articulate! and Boggle. Do not forget to read the rules first!
Conversations  At mealtimes, ask each other how the day went. Get better
responses by avoiding questions with yes/no answers and use
„second-level‰ questioning:
Q: What did you enjoy doing today?
A: Art
Q: What was it about Art that you liked doing?
A: We used acrylic paints to draw pictures in the style of
Picasso⁄
Have a laugh  Buy a clean joke book and share jokes over the dinner table.
Avoid using the web where jokes may be age-inappropriate.
E-books  Encourage gadget-loving reticent readers. Some feature inbuilt
dictionaries, making it quick and easy to look up unfamiliar
words. Starting at around £29 (RM155).
Read by  Whether it is a recipe, newspaper or magazine, children typically
example imitate the habits of older people in the family. So pick up a good
book for a Sunday afternoon read!

Reading books  Every secondary school student should be able to engage in a

suitable reading book. The key to this is finding a book of
interest. You could start by showing an age-appropriate film and
then finding similar books. For example: the Harry Porter series
by JK Rowling and Bend it like Beckham by Narinder Dhami.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
Schools are beginning to make the shift towards 21st century standards.
What is meant by 21st century skills? What are the skills involved?
3.2 TYPES OF LITERACY

The four types of literacy referred to in this topic are personal literacy, functional
literacy, school literacy and biliteracy. Let us proceed to study each one a little bit
more.
3.2.1 Personal Literacy

Basically, personal literacy denotes an individualÊs ability to read and write.
Generally, childrenÊs ability to read and write differs. Some are able to read and
write at an average age while others start much later.
The development of a childÊs personal literacy depends on factors such as how

early he or she was exposed to reading and writing. There are children who are
exposed very early to reading by their parents through bedtime stories. Their
parents read to them books containing large print and colourful pictures. The
reading experience then progressed to longer stories and fables. There are also
homes enriched with newspapers, magazines, encyclopaedias and a wide selection
of reading materials. On the other hand, there are also homes that do not have a
favourable reading culture. Hence it is hardly surprising for children from homes
with a positive reading culture to develop literacy skills much quickly than those
who do not. Similarly, if a child is taken to the library from a young age to get
acquainted with books and encouraged to get involved with various literacy
activities such as storytelling, vocabulary and colouring activities, his or her
personal literacy level has already been given the right jumpstart.

A childÊs personal literacy development also has much to do with the nature and
quality of the learning experience he or she goes through. A child having a positive
and helpful teacher is more inclined to receive adequate scaffolding, become more
motivated and literate. Likewise, a teacher, caregiver or parent who indulges
children with pleasurable and exciting activities will have set the stage for positive
future personal literacy development. In short, a child who experiences
stimulating and pleasurable reading and writing experiences from a very young
age is more likely to grow to be a successful reader and writer. Therefore, it is all
the more crucial for parents, caregivers and teachers to set up an encouraging
literacy development environment for reading and writing by providing fun-filled
and meaningful materials and activities (refer to Figure 3.4).
Figure 3.4: Activity to bolster a childÊs personal literacy

Source: https://www.pinayhomeschooler.com/2019/03/spring-preschool-and-
kindergarten.html
ACTIVITY 3.1
As a parent, what forms of positive personal literacy culture can you

promote at home?

forum.

3.2.2 Functional Literacy

Having discussed personal literacy development in the earlier subtopic, we shall
now move on to look at functional literacy. Functional literacy can be defined in
many ways. One of the definitions is that functional literacy is the basic literacy for
everyday life. In other words, it is the ability of a person to have a basic level of
reading and writing ability to cope and function, either as an adult or child,
depending on the situation.
A person who has functional literacy is said to be able to engage in all the activities
needing literacy for him or her to function efficiently in the community. This
translates to the capability of the person to read and write and comprehend all
necessary information and materials in the community. This ability will ensure his
or her full participation and contribution to the communityÊs development as he
or she is seen as being able to exert a higher degree of control over every day events
compared with others.
As an example, a person who is functionally illiterate will not be able to

comprehend and use to good advantage reading materials pertaining to health
care issues in a community. The inability to perform relatively challenging literacy
tasks will result in a community that is backward and unable to care for and
manage its own pressing health matters as well as that of the environment as a
whole.
ACTIVITY 3.2
We have discussed the importance of functional literacy in terms of

wellness and health care issues in society. In what other ways do you
think functional literacy is important in the community?
Share your answer with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.

3.2.3 School Literacy

A literate child is said to be able to communicate by reading, writing, speaking and
also listening. These four skills are interrelated in the sense that the development
of one skill will impact the others.
School literacy development plays an important role in an individualÊs personal

and functional literacy levels. How is this possible?
We know that the key to literacy is reading development; dealing with a

progression of skills such as awareness of letters and sounds (phonics), strategies
for figuring out words, fluency, accuracy and also comprehension. Schools must
therefore consciously incorporate early reading strategies as an integral
component of a schoolwide literacy action plan to improve student engagement
and literacy development across all domains of their academic and social learning.
Over and above holding a school literacy night, displaying learnersÊ group project
work or putting up a talent time show, schools are also tasked with the
responsibility of not just formatting teaching learning activities in typical teacher-
learner interactions but more importantly, to deliver content and values through
computer-mediated instruction via useful kindergarten websites, which of late has
become the favoured medium in early childhood education centres.
To keep up with changing times, let us look at Figure 3.5 for a peek at how both
modes of delivery are specifically integrated into school literacy plans ă designed
to motivate, create and accelerate the childÊs language and literacy development.
Figure 3.5: Engendering collaboration, communication, problem-solving and creativity

Source: https://www.amanceria-kindergarten.com/

In addition, schools should set up viable literacy intervention plans to tackle issues
of struggling readers and writers. To this effect, schools could organise literacy-
based activities such as conducting special classes during school hours, personal
mentoring, after school sessions as well as Saturday classes. Classes like these
go a long way in mitigating the negative impact of literacy deficit among young
children.
Other teachers are also expected to take on collective responsibility and work in
unison with the language or reading teachers to help establish and enhance school
literacy. Developing literacy should not be seen as a task only for the language or
reading teacher but for all teachers. This is because school literacy is the bridge to
a childÊs personal literacy development in todayÊs fast-moving world of
digitalisation. Turning a deaf ear or a blind eye to school literacy development may
spell serious adolescent illiteracy issues and inability to compete with the needs
and expectations of the 21st century workplace of tomorrow.
The following are examples of a school-compiled literacy package together with

suggested activities gleaned from several kindergarten websites to enhance
childrenÊs mastery of early reading and writing skills (refer to Table 3.3):
Table 3.3: School Literacy Package Derived from Kindergarten Websites
Suggested Activity School-compiled Literacy Package

Word Clouds http://www.abcya.com/word_clouds.htm
Sight Words http://www.abcya.com/dolch_sight_word_bingo.htm
Keyboard Zoo http://www.abcya.com/keyboarding_practice.htm
ABCYa Paint http://www.abcya.com/abcya_paint.htm
SELF-CHECK 3.2
Why do you think school literacy is important for children?

3.2.4 Biliteracy
One is said to be bilingual when he or she speaks two languages. A person who
speaks more than two languages is called „multilingual‰ (although the term
„bilingualism‰ can be used for both situations). Multilingualism is not unusual; in
fact, it is the norm for most of the worldÊs societies. It is possible for a person to
know and use three, four or even more languages fluently.
You may become bilingual either by acquiring two languages simultaneously in

childhood or by learning a second language sometime after acquiring your first
language. In our country, it is quite common for a child to acquire two languages
at the same time during childhood.
People who are bilingual are those who can speak two languages. The languages
they speak are usually their mother tongue, which is spoken at home, and
another language. In our Malaysian context, most Malay children speak Malay at
home and English at school because English is the second language in the country.
For Indian and Chinese children, they are not only bilingual, but multilingual as
they speak either Tamil or Mandarin as their mother tongue, Bahasa Malaysia (the
Malay language) as the language of instruction in school, and English as the official
second language of the country.
There are children who are bilingual at home because their parents are of
different ethnic origins. The father might be a Malay and the mother an Indian. If
the father speaks Malay to the child and the mother speaks Tamil, naturally the
child will be bilingual. This would be the same for a child who goes to a caregiver
of a different race. Sure enough, the child would be bilingual as he or she would
pick up the caregiverÊs language in no time.
Children who speak two languages or are bilingual since a young age grow up to
be native speakers of the language rather than speak it as a second language.
However, children who speak a second language after attaining the age of
puberty are rarely able to communicate as native speakers. This is due to the fact
that language is acquired with more ease before puberty compared to learning it
during adulthood.
Malaysia is a stellar example of a country where its people are not only bilingual
but many are multilingual owing to the nationÊs rich racial diversity. Thus, in a
bilingual society like Malaysia, biliteracy is a common phenomenon.

So, as a teacher, what could you do to capitalise on this racial diversity in schools?
The following may give you some ideas on what could be done to promote
or foster biliteracy in the classroom:
(a) Promote appropriate activities that can enhance biliteracy by being aware of
the differences in the system of each language;
(b) Select appropriate methods of instruction to enhance second-language

acquisition, literacy development and content-area knowledge;
(c) Structure step-by-step lessons to include presentations of concepts and

vocabulary and ample opportunities for guided and independent practice;
(d) Plan for high levels of student involvement focused on both process and
product of learning; and
(e) Provide ample guided and shared reading and writing activities for students
to formulate their thoughts and ideas into stories and narratives.
ACTIVITY 3.3
As a teacher:
(a) What are the challenges you face teaching a bilingual class?
(b) What could you do to improve your teaching strategies in a class

of bilingual students?
Share all your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online
forum.
 Traditionally defined as the ability to read and write printed materials, literacy
can be interpreted in a multiplicity of ways. The concept of literacy has evolved
in meaning and scope to reflect the changing needs of society.
 Personal literacy is the ability of an individual to read and write.
 Functional literacy refers to a person whose skills in reading and writing are
sufficient to enable him or her to cope and function efficiently in ordinary
practical needs. It is the basic literacy for everyday life.

 School literacy encompasses an individualÊs ability to communicate by

reading, writing, speaking and also listening.
 Biliteracy denotes the ability to read and write proficiently in two languages.
 Fluency in both reading and writing is present in biliteracy.
21st century skills Literacy

Biliteracy Personal literacy
Functional literacy School literacy
Information. (n.d.). Merriam Webster Online. Retrieved December 5, 2019, from

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/information
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

(2014). UNESCO Education Strategy 2014ă2021. Retrieved from
https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000231288
Wikipedia. (n.d.). Information. Retrieved from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

Information

Topic  Language and
the Curriculum
4 Component
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Explain the role of language in the Malaysian preschool curriculum;
2. Outline language components in the curriculum;
3. Identify learning objectives, content and learning standards in the
curriculum; and
4. Plan appropriate language-based activities.
 INTRODUCTION
In 2003, all public and private preschools (excluding preschools run by
international schools) were required to comply with the National Preschool
Curriculum formulated by the Malaysian Ministry of Education (Adelina Asmawi
& Nazilah Seyed Hend, 2016). Later, several transformational initiatives were
made to the conceptual framework and pedagogical approaches of the curriculum
in 2010 and 2016 in a move to step up the national agenda of providing world class
preschool education and equity for all (Falilnesa Mohamed Arfan, 2018). In this
topic we will focus on salient areas of interest pertaining to the current preschool
standards-based curriculum towards attaining language and literacy
development. In relation to that, aspects of language component, learning
objectives, learning standards and language activities will be examined as well.

42  TOPIC 4 LANGUAGE AND THE CURRICULUM COMPONENT
4.1 LANGUAGE AND PRESCHOOL

CURRICULUM
The overarching goal of the revised National Preschool Standard Curriculum
(2017), also known as Kurikulum Standard Prasekolah Kebangsaan (KSPK), is to
ensure children will be taught a standard and holistic curriculum that ensures
balanced academic development for all. The KSPK is based on six core strands.
Communications is one of the major learning strands, wherein English, Bahasa
Malaysia and Mandarin are taught and learnt. Insofar as language is concerned,
the child-centred KSPK explicitly articulates that the primary objective of learning
and teaching languages is to enable preschoolers to use language to communicate
effectively. Four keywords underpin the planning and execution of all language
teaching events in the preschool classroom: enriching, engaging, safe and fun.
The foundation for language fluency is built through the development of listening,
speaking and early literacy skills. The Malaysian Preschool English Language
curriculum, for example, was designed to facilitate and nurture childrenÊs effective
communication with others in their immediate environment as well as to develop
an enjoyment and appreciation of the language via stories, rhymes, poems,
puppets, songs and games, etc. Through language play, it is envisioned that
children will be motivated to imagine and recreate meaningful, real experiences
for themselves and others around them.
In the following subtopics, we will focus on the major elements of the KSPK,
highlighting its language component, learning standards and objectives, together
with examples of language activities for classroom use.
4.1.1 Language Component

The KSPK exposes children to reading, writing, listening and speaking skills by
developing mastery of the language through use of real-life contexts.
Contextualisation includes exploiting objects from the real world, pictures,
puppets and other readily available props so that childrenÊs language experiences
transform to become something relatable and more meaningful to them.
For aural-oral competency, for example, English is taught by means of childrenÊs

active engagement in pretend play dialogues and conversations with peers and
others. Both verbal and non-verbal communication with appropriate use of body
language, gestures, facial expression and eye contact are given significant
prominence.

TOPIC 4 LANGUAGE AND THE CURRICULUM COMPONENT  43
One other language component stressed in the KSPK is vocabulary. How does the
curriculum facilitate the acquisition of vocabulary skills among children? It is
realised through use of language related to familiar experiences and things in the
environment along with simple selections drawn from popular childrenÊs
literature.
Development of emergent literacy among young children is further enhanced by

using a diverse array of teaching and learning resources for language activities.
Children are continually exposed to various materials and environmental print
representing the different forms and functions of the written word, such as word
cards, big books, charts, labels, signs and posters, among others.
4.1.2 Learning Objectives and Content and Learning

Standards
For purposes of our discussion regarding objectives and standards, we will draw
on relevant examples extracted from the KSPK English syllabus. The KSPK English
teaching learning objectives are designed to enable children to:
(a) Listen and respond using appropriate verbal and non-verbal responses;
(b) Communicate using simple sentences with manners;
(c) Read and understand simple sentences; and
(d) Write words and phrases.

(KSPK 2017, p.37)
The content of the standards-based KSPK curriculum is organised around three

broad areas known as content standard, learning standard and performance
standard (refer to Table 4.1).
Table 4.1: Content Organisation in KSPK
Content Standard Learning Standard Performance Standard

Specific statement on what Fixed criteria or quality Set of general criteria
children should know and learning indicator and describing the required
do regarding knowledge, measurable achievement for display of childrenÊs
skills and values during each content standard. performance levels to
schooling. indicate mastery of a
particular skill, etc.

For an overview of how the four English language skills of listening, speaking,
reading and writing are pulled together and developmentally sequenced against
the specified content and learning areas respectively, refer to Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Content and Learning Standards of KSPK
Content Learning Standard

Standard 4+ 5+
BI 1.0 Listening and Speaking
BI 1.1 Listen Pupils are able to: Pupils are able to:
to and identify BI 1.1.1 Listen to and identify BI 1.1.2 Listen to and
sounds common sounds in the environment. respond to stimulus given:
(i) Environmental sounds;
(ii) Voice sounds;
(iii) Rhythm and rhyme;
and
(iv) Alliteration
BI 1.1.3 Listen to and
identify rimes in nursery
rhymes and songs.
BI 1.2 Listen to Pupils are able to: Pupils are able to:
and respond BI 1.2.1 Listen to and recite nursery BI 1.2.6 Listen to and recite
appropriately rhymes poems and rhymes
BI 1.2.2 Listen to and sing songs BI 1.2.7 Listen to and
BI 1.2.3 Listen to and repeat greetings respond to stories
BI 1.2.4 Listen to and follow simple
instructions
BI 1.2.5 Listen to and enjoy simple
stories
BI 1.3 Listen Pupils are able to: Pupils are able to:
to, understand BI 1.3.1 Use simple sentences to BI 1.3.2 Talk about favourite
and respond participate in daily conversations things and activities
in a variety of with manners to: BI 1.3.3 Listen to and respond
contexts
(i) Exchange greetings; to oral texts
(ii) Show appreciation; BI 1.3.4 Talk about familiar
(iii) Introduce oneself; activities and experiences
(iv) Express feelings; and BI 1.3.5 Talk about stories
heard
(v) Make simple requests.
BI 1.3.6 Role play familiar
daily situations

BI 2.0 Reading
BI 2.2 Apply Pupils are able to: Pupils are able to:
sounds of BI 2.2.1 Recognise letters of the BI 2.2.5 Recognise and sound
letters to alphabet by their: out letters of the alphabet
recognise
(i) Shape; and BI 2.2.6 Recognise and sound
words
(ii) Name. out initial, medial and ending
sounds in a word
BI 2.2.2 Recognise small letters of the
BI 2.2.7 Blend phonemes
alphabet
(sounds) to form single
BI 2.2.3 Recognise capital letters of syllable words
the alphabet
BI 2.2.4 Name letters of the alphabet
BI 2.3 Pupils are able to: Pupils are able to:
Demonstrate BI 2.3.1 Recognise and read logos BI 2.3.3 Recognise and read
understanding and signs high frequency/sight words
of a variety of
BI 2.3.2 Read familiar words printed BI 2.3.4 Read simple phrases
texts in the
in the surroundings BI 2.3.5 Read simple
form of print
and non-print sentences
materials
BI 2.4 Develop Pupils are able to: Pupils are able to:
interest in BI 2.4.1 Recognise and name BI 2.4.2 Read text
reading pictures in books independently
independently
BI 2.4.3 Read and respond to
for
text read
information
and
enjoyment
BI 3.0 Writing
BI 3.1 Pupils are able to:
Developing BI 3.1.1 Demonstrate fine motor
prewriting control of hands and fingers by using
skills writing apparatus correctly
BI 3.1.2 Demonstrate correct posture
and pencil grip
BI 3.1.3 Engage in hand-eye
coordination through scribblings,
drawing lines and patterns

BI 3.2 Pupils are able to: Pupils are able to:

Developing BI 3.2.1 Write recognisable BI 3.2.5 Copy simple phrases
writing skills in legible print
letters
BI 3.2.2 Copy and write BI 3.2.6 Copy simple
small letters sentences in legible print
BI 3.2.3 Copy and write BI 3.2.7 Communicate
capital letters ideas and information by
using drawings, marks,
BI 3.2.4 Copy words in
symbols and writing with
legible print invented spelling
BI 3.2.8 Write words and
phrases in legible print
Source: KSPK, Ministry of Education Malaysia (2017)
SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. State the primary objective of learning languages in preschools.
2. What four keywords guide teachersÊ planning and delivery of

activities?
3. How is vocabulary taught and learnt in preschools?
4.1.3 Language Activities

A developing preschool child needs to be fed with fun language activities because
language activities stimulate literacy development. One of the ways to stimulate
language development is through language games. Language games can be very
useful to introduce children to rhymes, alliterations, parts of a sentence and
vocabulary. Besides, language games can be a fun way to prepare a preschooler
for kindergarten. It equips the preschooler with the necessary tools to become
more confident and creative with their language and social skills, too.

Apart from language games, other language activities that could be incorporated
for preschool literacy development are as follows:
(a) Picture Sentence

Picture sentence is used to talk about the basic structure of a sentence of
„who‰ is doing „what‰. It is an excellent way to help children put words
together to create simple sentences as most preschoolers at this stage are not
able to read yet. You can draw pictures of nouns, verbs, adjectives and
adverbs on cards and use them to construct sentences that can be stimulating
and fun for children.
Figure 4.1 shows you examples of picture sentences that can be used.
Figure 4.1: Picture sentence activity

Source: www.spectronicsinoz.com/product/picture-sentence-key
(b) Reading Detectives

Children could be enticed to read in a fun way. Make them listen to
interesting short stories. After listening, they can be directed to play the part
of the detective where they are asked questions about what the main
character in the story did and how the problem was solved. This activity
helps young children to listen attentively.

Figure 4.2 shows samples of reading detective activities.
Figure 4.2: Examples of reading detectives

Source: www.criticalthinking.com/series/015/index_p.jsp
(c) Rhyme Time

Rhymes are great for young children to learn to recognise speech patterns.
Teach children rhyming words with a set of flash cards either from a store or
make your own with rhyming word pairs. Children will enjoy pairing the
rhyming words.
Figure 4.3 provides examples of rhyme time cards.
Figure 4.3: Examples of rhyme cards

To develop early reading skills, Table 4.3 offers a selection of simple and practical
ideas to teach sight words for teachers to use.
Table 4.3: Ideas to Teach Sight Words
Teaching Idea Materials Description

The head chair Group size cards • Mark one chair in the circle as the „Head
Chair‰.
• Play begins when you flash a card to the
person in the „Head Chair‰.
• A child can stay in his or her chair only until
he or she misses a word. When he or she
misses a word, he or she goes to the end
chair and all the children will move up one
chair.
• The object of the game is to try to end up in
the „Head Chair‰.
Around the Word cards • All the students sit in a circle. (Or they can
world remain at their desks).
• One student stands behind a seated student.
The teacher flashes them a sight word.
• Whoever says it first moves on to the next
student. The student that makes it back to
his or her own desk or the starting point is
the winner.
• This is a pretty popular game, and the little
ones love to try to stop someone from
making it „Around the World‰!
Erase relay Word list on the • Write two columns of words on the
chalkboard chalkboard that are approximately equal in
difficulty. Write as many words on the
board as there are children in the relay.
• Children are divided into two teams, and
stand in two lines at right angles to the
chalkboard.
• At the signal, the first child in each line
points to the first word in his or her
respective column of words and
pronounces that word. If he or she
pronounces it correctly, he or she is allowed
to erase that word.
• The game is won by the side that erases all
the words first.

Team sight A group size of • The children are divided into two teams.
word race set sight words Each team takes a turn attempting to
pronounce a word turned up from a pile of
sight words.
• If one team misses, the opposite team then
receives a chance to pronounce that word in
addition to their regular turn.
• Score is kept on the number of words each
team pronounces correctly.
• Do not have members sit down when they
miss a word, but have each team member go
to the back of the line after each try, whether
successful or not.
• This enables all members to gain equal
practice and does not eliminate those people
who need practice the most.
Which word Newspaper, • Sit with your child and look at a newspaper
wins? highlighter, to see just how often sight words pop up in
word list print.
• Ask your child to choose a sight word from
the list and an article from the newspaper.
• Look for the word together. Highlight and
count the word each time it appears.
• Try the same thing with a second sight
word.
• Which word appears more often?
Jump on it • Copy sight words on index cards (one word
per card). Make a second set of the same
words.
• Scatter one set face up on the floor, leaving
about a foot between each card. Place the
other set in a stack face down.
• Turn over the first card in the stack. Have
your child read the word (offer help as
needed) and then jump on the
corresponding card on the floor.
• Turn over the next card and have your child
read it and jump to that word. Continue
until your child has jumped on all of the
words.
• Mix up the cards and play again!

As for word attack skills, teachers could experiment with some of the strategies
given as follows (refer to Table 4.4):
Table 4.4: Strategies for Word Attack Skills
Strategy Description
Picture clues By looking at the picture, we can get clues about the meaning of
words. There might be familiar objects or actions that may make
sense and aid understanding.
Letter chunks There might be letter chunks consisting of sounds/symbols,
prefixes, suffixes, endings, whole words or base words in the
sentence that make sense. Read each chunk before blending
them all together to sound out the word.
Connecting to a When faced with an unfamiliar word, the teacher can teach
familiar word children to associate the unfamiliar word with a word that is
familiar. By doing this, children may understand the meaning of
the unfamiliar word to a certain extent.
Rereading the Rereading a sentence several times sometimes aids
sentence understanding. Children can be told to reread the sentence and
try to infer its meaning.
Keep reading When faced with an unfamiliar word, children should be taught
to go on reading the next words and not be too bothered by the
unfamiliar ones. Sometimes, there would be clues in the sentence
that can help in aiding the comprehension of the difficult word.
Using prior Prior knowledge can assist children in comprehension. Children
knowledge should be helped to trigger their prior knowledge. Thinking
about the topic and relating it to their prior knowledge can
facilitate understanding.
Using the dictionary Once children have learnt the letters of the alphabet, and
mastered enough words to comprehend, they can be taught to
use the dictionary to find meanings of words.
ACTIVITY 4.1
Run through the spectrum of language activities suggested previously.

Do you think they are appropriate and feasible for use with your group
of preschoolers? Why?
Share your opinions with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.

 Children begin to build the foundation for fluency in English through the
development of listening, speaking, reading and writing proficiency, including
vocabulary.
 The National Preschool Standard Curriculum exposes children to vital

language skills by developing language through the use of context. Objects
from the real world, pictures, puppets and other props are regularly used so
that language experiences become meaningful and relevant.
 The primary objective of the National Preschool Standard Curriculum in

learning languages is to empower preschoolers to use language to
communicate effectively.
 One of the ways to spark language development and introduce children to

rhymes, alliteration and vocabulary is through language games.
 A host of stimulating and exciting language-based activities can be devised

and optimised in a fun and purposeful way to enable and prepare a
preschooler for a rewarding language learning experience in kindergarten and
onwards to primary school.
Content standard National Preschool Standard

Curriculum
Language activities
Preschool
Language component
Learning standard

Asmawi, A., & Seyed Hendi, N. (2016). Preschool English TeachersÊ Practices in
Early Literacy Instruction: A Multiple Case Study. Asian Education Studies,
1(2), 72.
Ministry of Education Malaysia. (2017). National preschool standard-based

curriculum. Retrieved from: https://www.academia.edu/36967036/KSPK_BI
Mohamed Arfan, F. (2018). HDPS2603 English for your children. Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia: Open University Malaysia.

Topic  Books and
Children
5
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Identify different book genres for children;
2. Select books for children based on the criteria learnt;
3. Evaluate content of childrenÊs books; and
4. Plan appropriate reading activities.
 INTRODUCTION
Reading should not be presented to children as a chore or duty. It should be

offered to them as a precious gift.
(Kate DiCamillo)
There are many types of reading materials available for children. In this topic, we
will examine different children book genres, covering both traditional and modern
categories. Books portraying concepts as well as information will be included. The
topic also presents several guidelines for teachers to follow when selecting
childrenÊs books for use in the classroom. In addition, some examples of different
types of books are provided, apart from useful pointers on how to evaluate the
contents of childrenÊs books. Finally, suggestions are given for reading activities in
the classroom and beyond.

TOPIC 5 BOOKS AND CHILDREN  55
5.1 CHILDREN’S BOOK GENRE

ChildrenÊs literature can be classified into traditional literature and modern
literature. Table 5.1 will help us to understand the differences between traditional
and modern literature.
Table 5.1: Differences between Traditional and Modern Literature
Traditional Literature Modern Literature

• Also known as folklore or folk literature. • Rooted in traditional literature.
• Made up of customs, beliefs, manners • Includes modern fantasy stories by
and superstitions of a certain group. Hans Christian Andersen, science
Thus, children are able to view and fiction and fractured fairy tales.
understand their forefatherÊs culture. Fractured fairy tales are traditional
• Often passed down orally or in the stories retold by authors with a new
written form from one generation to the twist.
other. Sometimes the tales may differ in • Has an identifiable author.
versions.
• Has no actual author. It is retold by
different people and thus variations may
appear.
We will discuss several subgenres of traditional literature in the following

subtopic.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
Differentiate between traditional literature and modern literature.
5.1.1 Traditional Literature

There are many types or subgenres of traditional literature. A sample is shown in
Figure 5.1. Let us now look at Table 5.2 which highlights the types of traditional
literature.

56  TOPIC 5 BOOKS AND CHILDREN
Table 5.2: Types of Traditional Literature
Type Description
Trickster tales This is the first one that you should know and use to teach
reading. These are stories where the character, usually an
animal, gets others into trouble. Trickster animals are symbols
of cunning exploits and deception. In the Malay culture, the sly
Sang Kancil or mousedeer, often triumphs over bigger and
more powerful animals by using its wit. A few notable
examples of this category are Peter Rabbit, Roadrunner, The Big
Bad Wolf and Hikayat Sang Kancil.
Animal stories Animal stories deal with a form of personification known as
anthropomorphism where human characteristics are given to
non-humans, especially animals or mythological gods.
Examples of animal stories containing elements of
anthropomorphism are The Lion and the Mouse, Chicken
Little, Goldilocks and the Three Bears and Sang Kancil becomes
a Judge.
Pourquoi tales In this type of stories, the reason for something happening is
explained. It begins with the question „Why?‰ Through
pourquoi stories we discover answers to questions such as
„Why do mosquitoes buzz in peopleÊs ears? Why do bears sport
short tails? Why are owls active at night?‰ and many more.
Cumulative tales These are tales that are made up of repeated and additional
lines such as The Little Red Hen and the well-known Bangau O
Bangau from Malay folklore.
Fairy tales There are usually elements of sorcery and magic involved, such
as Peter Pan and the Malay Pancha Delima.
Tall tales These are a type of far-fetched stories involving a lot of
exaggeration, such as the story of giant lumberjack Paul
Banyan.
Numbskull or droll These are tales that depict idiots or fools such as The Three
tales Stooges and the foolish simpletons of Malay folktales Pak
Pandir and Lebai Malang.
Folk tales They are culturally-rooted tales, such as The Little Mermaid
(Scandinavian), Rob Roy (Scottish) and Nakhoda Tenggang
(Asia-Pacific).

Figure 5.1: Example of traditional childrenÊs literature

Source: https://www.popularonline.com.my/malay/catalog/product/view/_ignore_
category/1/id/104434/s/9789674600280/?did=1996
5.1.2 Why Do We Use Traditional Literature with

Children?
Among the reasons for using traditional literature with children are:
(a) It is an excellent tool to inculcate interest in reading among young children

since it provides entertainment and portrays the rich heritage of a story;
(b) It narrates stories of the human experience that could ignite the imagination
of children;
(c) It serves as building blocks for contemporary literature or framework for

literature;

(d) It provides a window into diverse cultures and also promotes the strong oral
tradition of storytelling; and
(e) It provides moral models for children as the struggle between good and evil
is applied to incidents in their own lives.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
What are the benefits of using traditional literature to inculcate reading

interest in young learners?
5.2 CHOOSING CHILDREN’S BOOKS

When selecting books for children, you should be mindful of certain matters.
Firstly, the story should be appropriate to the developmental age of the children.
The story itself must be appealing and relevant. As far as possible, make sure that
the book narrates the original storyline. If the books have illustrations, ensure that
they are of good quality and provide assistance in interpreting the plot, characters
and theme of the story.
In the ensuing subtopics, we will sort out the criteria we need to bear in mind when
selecting childrenÊs books, such as determining the types of appropriate books for
children, as well as look at guidelines for evaluating the contents of childrenÊs
book, including exploring ways to carry out reading activities within the
classroom and outside.

5.2.1 Types of Books

Some of the common types of books for children are shown in Table 5.3:
Table 5.3: Types of Books for Children
Type Description
Picture books The stories in a picture book concentrate more on the illustrations
than the text. The text of the story compliments the artwork rather
than the pictures adding to the story. Picture storybooks remain
childrenÊs favourite books long after their preschool years.
Rhythmic books These books usually rhyme or have a musical component. Popular
examples include Green Eggs and Ham and The Cat in the Hat by
Dr Seuss (refer to Figure 5.2). This genre also includes nursery
rhymes and lullabies.
Folklore Tales such as these have been passed down through the generations
and oral traditions for centuries. Tomie dePaola, an author-
illustrator, frequently uses folktales to create stories for children.
Myths are often paired with folklore, and these stories specifically
attempt to explain different aspects of life. The ultimate goal of
these stories is to pass down knowledge to the younger
generations. Many of the stories have a moral concept or theme.
Fairytales Princes fighting for princesses dominate this particular subgenre.
These stories have a magical component and represent a more
detailed way of explaining the world.
Fantasy Fantasy stories are predominantly magical in nature but also
comment greatly on contemporary life through this lens. They often
depict an intense struggle of good versus evil.
First books Nowadays, children are introduced to stories even as newborns.
Public libraries run programmes where caregivers bring their
infants to the library and are taught how to read to them. Books
made out of board, cloth and plastic all make up this category and
their stories introduce babies to the basic outline of our world.
Concept books These books expand childrenÊs understanding of an idea,
relationship or theme. Concepts ranging from getting dressed to
sharing are covered in these stories. Informational books that
explain the seasons and weather are also considered concept books.
They are usually simple in style and feature non-fiction subjects that
are familiar to the childrenÊs environment.
Issue books A new trend in childrenÊs books is the introduction of controversial
issues that society faces today. Examples of topics include divorce,
abuse, sexuality and war. However, there is a debate surrounding
whether or not children should be exposed to these books at such a
young, impressionable age.

Figure 5.2: Dr SeussÊ much-beloved rhythmic book

Source: https://www.amazon.com/Cat-Hat-Dr-Seuss/dp/039480001X
5.2.2 Evaluating the Contents of a Book

As a teacher who teaches reading to young learners, it is important for you to have
knowledge on how to evaluate books. Here are the guidelines teachers can refer to
when evaluating the contents of a book:
(a) Ask yourself whether the book has an engaging storyline;
(b) Gauge whether the story is suited for the intended age and maturity level;
(c) Consider how well the book is written;
(d) Check whether the title and format of the book portrays the story;
(e) Consider whether the theme is relevant to your readers. Also, consider if the
plot is well-structured, believable and original;
(f) Consider the characters in the story, too. Selecting stories that depict the
characterÊs growth and changes due to their experience in the story is helpful
in building your young learnerÊs character;

(g) Also take note of the language appropriateness, illustrations, suitability in

terms of culture, sexuality and racial issues;
(h) Ensure that the book delivers factually correct information if you are
choosing books for factual purposes; and
(i) Analyse whether the book can help children to build their word power.
5.2.3 Reading Activities

To build a strong reading foundation, reading activities play an important role.
These activities can be carried out at different stages of reading: before (pre-
reading), while, or after (post-reading) children are done with the reading. For
example, in the pre-reading stage, children could be helped to build their
phonics and comprehension awareness through specific reading activities. These
activities may be tailored to suit individuals or groups as well as to accommodate
different learner styles.
Comprehension ability may be developed by having reading activities and

discussion sessions in the classroom. After completing a reading task, you may ask
students to answer questions related to the reading materials as a post-reading
activity. Sometimes, you may even ask questions as the children are reading
(while-reading activity). Children could be asked to predict the outcome of the
story or predict what will take place next. Retelling the story is another excellent
way to check for comprehension. Getting children to make comparisons and
contrasts of characters in a story are also fruitful to aid comprehension.
Reading activities may be enhanced with the support of graphic organisers. Since
there are different types of learners, the visually oriented learners enjoy the help
of visual aids.
Another way reading could be supported is through the use of audiovisual aids.
Among the audiovisual aids that can be used are stories which are filmed, listening
to a story from an audio CD or using the computer multimedia facility. Sometimes,
it would be good to get children to tell a story or read a full story or parts of a story
and audio tape them. This type of activity builds fluency in them.
Some reading activities are best suited for the whole class while others are more
appropriate for individual students. To teach individual students who may need
extra help on certain specific skills, a teacher should work with them individually.
For example, if a child needs extra help on phonics, you can coach him or her
individually while others are reading silently.

There are many other activities that could be carried out to teach reading. Some of
the activities are as follows (refer to Table 5.4):
Table 5.4: Reading Activities
Activity Description
Predicting Children may be taught to predict the outcome of a story. After
outcome making the oral prediction, they can be asked to read what really
happened and make a comparison. This activity is very motivating.
Reading aloud Reading aloud to children expands their imagination. Children get
new knowledge as their language acquisition is widened and
vocabulary increased. This activity creates interest and promotes
reading (refer to Figure 5.3). In fact, listening to a fluent, expressive
and animated reader can help children make connections between
written and spoken language.
Reading buddies Creating reading buddies is an excellent way to promote reading.
Children may be paired with older peers who can check on
their reading. This activity can enhance both reading and listening
skills.
Reading carnival Having a reading carnival at school is definitely a good idea to
promote reading. Children can be given a chance to showcase their
acquired reading ability to parents and teachers.
Reading A reading workshop is also another avenue worth looking into.
workshop Through this workshop, children are able to share books with
friends and talk about the books with their friends in small groups.
Figure 5.3: Reading aloud session

Source: https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/10-must-reads-for-today-44

SELF-CHECK 5.3
Describe briefly the factors you have to take into account when
evaluating the contents of childrenÊs books.
ACTIVITY 5.1
As a teacher, what are the considerations you have to make when

selecting books for your pupils?

forum.
 ChildrenÊs literature can be categorised into traditional literature and modern

literature. The difference between modern and traditional literature is that the
former has an identifiable author while the latter is unknown.
 Traditional literature is also known as folklore or folk literature, encompassing

the unique customs, beliefs, manners and superstitions of a certain group.
 Traditional literature is often transmitted orally or in the written form from one
generation to another. Through traditional literature, children are able to view
and understand the culture of their forefathers which recount narratives of the
human experience, thus serving to spike their imagination and curiosity.
 Traditional literature is an excellent tool to inculcate interest in reading among

young children as it provides entertainment and preserves the rich heritage of
a story.
 Tips for selecting childrenÊs books include ensuring the story is appropriate to
the developmental age and maturity of the children, has an appealing storyline
and contains good quality illustrations which provide assistance in
interpreting the plot, characters and theme of the story.
 Reading activities play an important role in building a strong foundation in

reading.

Fables Post-reading activities

Fairytales Pre-reading activities
Fantasy Traditional literature
Folklore While-reading activities
Modern literature

Topic  Story Telling
6
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Identify factors affecting selection of stories for children;
2. Teach children to build their own stories;
3. Elaborate on story delivering techniques; and
4. Plan for a storytelling activity.
 INTRODUCTION
Just close your eyes and think back to those early years of your life when
grandparents, parents and even your class teachers narrated wondrous stories,
and how you gushed with excitement and joy at being transported to fantasy
realms beyond your imagination. Indeed, those childhood memories have
remained forever etched in your mind and heart. As you can see, stories are the
richest cultural resource for all communities. And the most powerful way to put
ideas into the world is none other than through the timeless craft of storytelling.
Undeniably, storytelling plays a vital role in the growth and development of
children.
In this topic, we will focus on the art of storytelling for children and take note of
issues related to story selection for children. Next, we move on to assist children
to reconstruct their very own childhood stories and fairy tales by prompting them
to enthuse about their personal experiences. Additionally, techniques of how best
to deliver stories and planning for a storytelling activity are also considered.

66  TOPIC 6 STORY TELLING
6.1 SELECTING A STORY: FACTORS TO

CONSIDER
Storytelling is an age-old yet potent dramatic art form. Stories and events are told
through words, sounds and visual images. Through stories, we are able to transmit
knowledge and share varied experiences beyond time and space.
Storytelling has great value in terms of fostering a relaxed and intimate

atmosphere in the classroom. Before we examine the factors that influence the
selection of stories for young children, let us first highlight the numerous benefits
of storytelling in the classroom as follows:
(a) Introduce children to a range of story experiences;
(b) Provide young students with models of story patterns, themes, characters,
and incidents to help them in their own writing, oral language and thinking;
(c) Nurture and encourage a sense of humour in children;
(d) Help put childrenÊs own words into perspective;
(e) Increase knowledge and understanding of other places, races and beliefs;
(f) Introduce new ideas and be open to question established concepts without
threat to the individual;
(g) Lead to discussions that are far-ranging and often more satisfying than those
arising from formal lessons; and
(h) Serve as the most painless way of teaching children to listen, to concentrate,
and to follow the thread and logic of an argument.
Let us now continue to look at the factors that influence and guide teachers in
choosing appropriate stories for their young children (refer to Figure 6.1).

TOPIC 6 STORY TELLING  67
Figure 6.1: Considerations before selecting a story for children
To begin with, stories appropriate to the occasion should be selected in order to

motivate and sustain childrenÊs listening. The second factor to consider is interest.
A good storyteller can gauge what would interest children the most. Thus, as a
teacher, we must always strive to keep abreast with what children might be
interested in at a particular moment. Another important matter to take into
account is that a classroom teacher who wishes to use storytelling should choose a
simple story to start with. This means that the number of characters in the story
should be kept to a minimum. The plot should also be simple so as not to
complicate and confuse young children. Elements of action, adventure and
mystery should be present in the plot in order to fire up the imagination and
excitement level of the listeners and keep them riveted to the story being told. In
addition, the events in the story should unfold to a definite climax and lead to a
conclusion.

Teachers have to see to it that the story is not left hanging, that is, without some
indication of closure to the story which could be frustrating and disappointing for
children. In light of this, fairy tales and folklore are therefore very suitable for
storytelling. But at the same time, bear in mind the age of the children because
stories that are either too long and written in complicated language with a lengthy
plot are deemed not appropriate for young children. But above all, enjoyment
must be the most important consideration when choosing stories for young
children.
At this point, take note that although a storyteller need not be a star performer, he
or she must have a good memory and be a good listener. A skilful storyteller has
to sincerely like the story chosen and be able to recreate the story without looking
flustered or pretending to be interested. Of course, overacting is to be avoided at
all cost because in the process of doing so, the story may be compromised and
robbed of its original intent and flavour.
Yet another important consideration is that children should be given the

opportunity to explore the beauty and dramatic nuances of language use inherent
during storytelling. By doing so, children will be more able to construct meaning
and gather new perspectives for themselves regarding the world around them. In
fact, getting children to retell or recreate those stories heard may weave a new twist
of excitement to the story and enrich the childrenÊs language and literacy
experience as well.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
1. What are the benefits of storytelling in the classroom?
2. What factors should be considered before selecting a story?
6.2 BUILDING THEIR OWN STORIES

As a teacher, we should know that children are able to build their own stories. In
a preschool setting, this must be given due priority as stories can and do facilitate
childrenÊs language and communication skills. Although the stories told by
children are not crafted as well as a professional storytellerÊs, stories often allow
their creative voices to be heard. In this way, children try to project their perception
and understanding of their world via the stories they create themselves. Next, we
will discuss how children can build their stories by talking about their experiences
and childhood anecdotes.

6.2.1 Talking about Experiences

One of the ways to get children to talk is by getting them to share their experiences.
Children love to talk about their experiences, what they did, what they saw and
what they heard. Parents and teachers should invite children to tell stories in an
authentic way. For example, upon returning home from work, a parent could ask,
„What did you do all day today?‰ By doing this, the child is being invited to tell a
story, to share his or her personal narrative. What this means is that children enjoy
telling their parents what they did all day long.
Similarly, children who have been encouraged to tell stories at home will
continue to do so at school. It is therefore incumbent upon the teacher to continue
fostering this activity. For example, a child might go to class and announce
„Did you know that⁄?‰, „You know, yesterday my cat...‰, „Did you watch Star
Wars?‰, or „Sorry IÊm late, but do you know what happened⁄?‰
As a preschool teacher, you can positively promote and encourage language

development by letting young children talk freely about their daily experiences.
6.2.2 Stories of Childhood: Making Your Own Fairy

Tales
Young children enjoy living in fantasy and make-believe stories. Teachers can
harness childrenÊs creativity by tapping into their interest in make-believe by
stimulating childrenÊs imagination to create their own fairy tales.
How does one go about it? To encourage children to come up with their own fairy
tales based on their creativity, the first step is for the teacher to come up with a
basic storyline. An example of a simple storyline could be something like the
following:
A king who lives in his castle was robbed. A knight investigated and they
caught the culprit. The culprit turned out to be the princess. The princess
actually wanted to buy food for a poor family. The princess stole from the king
because she thought her parents would disapprove of her helping the poor
family⁄

This simple storyline can be the main plot outline to guide children to complete
the rest of the story on their own terms. Well, the next step for the teacher now is
to teach the children to name the characters in the story. The names can be
anything that the children fancy or can relate to.
Then, children could be asked to begin their story with a common fairy tale line
such as „Once upon a time...‰. As for the story ending, children could decide to
resolve the problems with all the characters „living happily ever after‰. For added
impact, children could also include a moral lesson in their story.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
1. What are two ways to get children to tell stories?
2. What should you do to encourage children to come up with their

own fairy tale?
6.3 TELLING THEIR OWN STORIES

Storytelling is an enjoyable and fascinating activity well-liked by children because
it further develops their imagination as well as enhances their oral capabilities.
An effective storyteller is keen to capture the attention of listeners in order to

enable him or her to entertain, convey information, teach an important life lesson,
or persuade listeners to take action of some kind. And to be able to help young
children better develop their oral expression skills and become effective
storytellers, teachers need to be familiar with and master the basic techniques of
storytelling.
Among others, storytelling techniques may incorporate a combination of tone

usage, animated sounds and gestures, and digital tools, and much more. The
following subtopic will examine some techniques involved in presenting and
narrating a story and also how to plan a storytelling activity for young children.
Let us read further.

6.3.1 Delivery Techniques

The techniques to consider when delivering a story cannot be learnt overnight;
rather, it entails a continual process of painstakingly refining and fine-tuning the
repertoire of techniques over time.
Here is a selection of storytelling strategies for teachers to pay careful attention to:
(a) Before beginning a storytelling session, get the child to either sit on the
floor or stand in front of the audience. Teach the child to look at the audience
with cheerful eyes and give a welcoming smile (refer to Figure 6.2).
Figure 6.2: Learning in action

Source: https://www.edencastleschool.com/preschool-learning-programs/
storytelling-sessions
(b) Children have to be taught to create the atmosphere by setting the scene
vividly. Stories should begin by mentioning the time, place and weather of
the story. In other words, the setting must be made clear first.
(c) Facial expressions must be used to show the emotions of characters. The
nature of the characters, whether they are sad, angry, happy or shy can be
portrayed through appropriate facial expressions.

(d) Teach children to project their voice according to the situation of the story.
Sometimes they might need to speak slowly and sometimes louder. The
speed, volume and pace must be adjusted accordingly. Also try to
accommodate children who are hard of hearing. For this, the voice should be
modulated and possess melody as per the character depicted.
(e) Use body language to the maximum. Miming and making timely gestures
can paint a thousand words and bring the story to live, by making it vibrant
and more colourful.
(f) The art of role-play is essential in storytelling. Children should be taught this
art. This will make storytelling more interesting as good role play helps the
audience to empathise with the characters and their situations.
(g) Incorporate animated sounds of animals, rain, wind and other appropriate
digital tools available that may help inject a dash of realism to the situation
being portrayed.
(h) Teach children to pause or be completely silent between certain words to

create a dramatic effect.
(i) Establish direct eye contact with the audience. Create surprises occasionally
by making loud noises but be careful not to frighten the audience
unnecessarily.
ACTIVITY 6.1
1. Why is it necessary to teach children good story delivering

techniques?
2. Why is it important for you as a teacher to be a good storyteller

yourself?

forum.

6.3.2 Planning a Storytelling Activity

In this subtopic, we will briefly examine how to organise a storytelling activity.
Organising a storytelling activity can be as simple as having a barbecue in your
backyard. Or, it can be as arduous as holding a public event for your community.
Well, it really depends on the scale of your event. Whatever the size, you will need
to put in some planning time to ensure a successful storytelling activity.
The first thing that must come to mind is the setting of the storytelling activity.
Where is the place? This can make a lot of difference to the listeners. Some of the
considerations for holding a storytelling activity are as follows:
(a) Where will you hold your event? At home, in a library, in school or outside?
(b) What time will you hold your event? Ghost stories could be told at night with
dim lights or candle/fire light. However, we rarely have the opportunity to
hold night activities with school children. Most of the time, it is a day event.
(c) What will your „stage‰ look like? It could be a simple, informal gathering, or
your group could plan to make scenes for each story, combining an arts-
based curriculum to your storytelling experience.
(d) How will you announce your event? Students can make a programme,
invitations and posters. If you are planning to invite participants from
outside, then you should consider allocating enough time for inviting
participants, adjudicators and other logistics.
Putting in some effort prior to carrying out a storytelling activity will be useful.
Spend some time planning with other teachers in your team. A well-planned
storytelling event will attract children to be interested to participate in future
events. And do not forget to give out gifts and certificates to participants; these
need not be expensive items though, as it is the thought that counts more.
ACTIVITY 6.2
Delivering the story well is essential in any storytelling. Do you agree

with this statement? Justify.
Share your opinions with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.

 Storytelling has great value in terms of fostering a relaxed and intimate

atmosphere in the classroom. Some benefits include helping children to put
their own words in perspective and leading on to discussions more satisfying
than those arising from formal lessons.
 Four aspects to consider before selecting a story for children are:

appropriateness, interest, simplicity and also critical elements in a plot.
 Children are capable of building their own stories, when properly guided. This
is something definitely worth cultivating since stories do facilitate and nurture
language and communication development in young children.
 One of the ways to get children to talk is by getting them excited to verbally
share about their day-to-day life experiences.
 Teachers can develop childrenÊs creativity by encouraging them to create their

very own fairy tales.
Fairy tales Storyline

Own stories Storytelling

Topic  Puppets
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. State the different types of puppets;
2. Identify materials and tools used to make puppets;
3. Explain the art of puppet making; and
4. Elaborate on the process of planning puppet shows.
 INTRODUCTION
When children pretend, they are using their imaginations to move beyond the
bounds of reality. A stick can be a magic wand. A sock can be a puppet. A small
child can be a superhero.
(Fred Rogers)
Puppets are very useful teaching tools to spur creativity, encourage social
interaction and boost language development of young children in the early
childhood classroom. In this topic, you will be introduced to the different types of
puppets, learn about the materials and tools used to make puppets, and discover
the art of making puppets. The topic proceeds with introspecting the key
arrangements necessary prior to staging the actual puppet performance itself.

76  TOPIC 7 PUPPETS
7.1 PLANNING PUPPET PLAYS FOR CHILDREN

Children love puppets. They derive great fun and confidence interacting with
puppets during puppet shows and story time (refer to Figure 7.1).
Figure 7.1: Children using puppets in the classroom

Source: http://perpustakaanalbasuti.blogspot.com/2016/11/its-play-time.html
Crafting a puppet can be very enjoyable. There is a wide range of puppets in the
world. Some are easy to make while others may be more complex. Some puppets
may be made using items that can be readily found around the house, for example,
a sock puppet made of socks. Let us now begin to look at some of the types of
puppets available.

TOPIC 7 PUPPETS  77
7.1.1 Types of Puppets

What puppets are you familiar with? There are actually many kinds of puppets.
Table 7.1 illustrates some of these different types.
Table 7.1: Types of Puppets
Type of Puppet Description Example

Animatronics or Animatronics is one of the
robotic puppets most fascinating types of
puppets. However, it is one of
the most complex.
Animatronics puppets are
basically robots. They are
mechanically operated from a
distance.
Robotic puppet
Black light or Black light puppetry requires
puppets using blackening out the entire
UV or neon performance venue, and using
lighting fluorescent puppets under UV
lighting. As the fluorescent
objects react to the UV lights,
they appear to glow and give
out a delightful and amazing
visual effect. Black light puppet
Bunraku or Bunraku (boon-rah-koo) is an
Japanese rod ancient art of puppetry
puppets developed in Japan. Bunraku
puppets are also known as
ningyo joruri in Japanese.
They are used in bunraku
performances. Bunrakus are
beautifully hand-carved
wooden rod puppets.
Bunraku

Caricature Caricature puppets are

(portrait) usually muppet-type puppets,
puppets or any glove puppets or marionettes.
puppet that They are designed and made
looks like a real to look like a real person.
person
Caricature puppet
Costume (body) Costume puppets are
puppets or costumes that you wear. Most
puppets that can people think of this as a fur
be worn suit or mascot, to be worn by a
human actor.
Costume puppet
Finger puppets Finger puppets are small tubes
or things you of material, which fit over
can put on your oneÊs finger. These tubes are
finger often decorated to look like
animals or human characters,
and can be quite detailed.
These puppets are sold in
childrenÊs toy stores because
they are simple for children,
and also parents, to use.
Finger puppet of a penguin

Found puppets Found puppets are puppets

created by manipulating
objects found around the
house. This is also why they
are also known as found
puppets. An example would
be a pair of tongs turned into
the jaws of a crocodile.
Found puppet
Glove puppets A glove puppet is a specially
and hand made glove which fits over
puppets oneÊs hand. Glove puppets are
also known as hand puppets.
Glove/Hand puppet
Karagozis or Karagozis is traditional Greek
Greek shadow shadow puppetry. Karagozis
puppets is the name of a particular
popular character in this
genre. Karagozis are made
using animal hide, which is
then tanned to translucency
and painted.
Karagozis

Marionettes or Perhaps marionettes are the

string puppets most easily recognised of all
puppets. Pinocchio is an
example of a marionette.
Marionettes are puppets
which are controlled by
strings.
Marionettes/String puppet
Sock puppets Sock puppets are made by
removing part of the toes of a
sock, and inserting and
attaching a mouth piece
(usually made out of stiff
cardboard) to the inside of the
toe area. Then the outside of
the sock is decorated with
facial features, hair, and so on.
These puppets are best used in
small theatres.
Sock puppet
Wayang kulit Wayang kulit is the name
Indonesian/ given to Indonesian/
Kelantanese Kelantanese shadow puppetry
shadow (Wayang means show and
puppetry kulit means leather). Wayang
kulit is therefore, flat leather
puppet shows. Wayang kulit
is distinctive due to its
particular character designs
that have angular shoulders;
long, skinny arms and legs; Wayang kulit
and also intricate carvings.

ACTIVITY 7.1
1. After reading about the various types of puppets, try to come up

with your own definition of what a puppet is. Compare your
definition with those of your coursemates in the myINSPIRE
online forum.
2. Animatronics or robotic puppets are not usually used in

classrooms. Why is this so? Share your answer with your
coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum.
7.1.2 Materials and Tools to Make Puppets

It is not quite possible to list down all the tools and materials required to produce
the various types of puppets in this topic. This is because each type of puppet may
require different tools and materials. Puppets can be made out of different kinds
of materials, depending upon the type of puppet you desire. Puppets may be made
from a sock, cardboard tube, felt or a paper bag. Finger puppets, for example, can
be created by wrapping a piece of paper around the finger and taping it. On the
other hand, to make a sock puppet, you would need to have a pair of socks, some
brightly-hued wool, multi-coloured markers, scissors, glue and items to form
small circles for the eyes and nose. Other materials such as wiggly eyes, pompoms,
sequins, yarn for hair, construction paper, fabric scraps, stickers, crayons, paint,
buttons, or any items suitable for crafting the puppets, should also be readily
available.
ACTIVITY 7.2
Carry out an Internet-based research related to materials and tools

needed to make the different types of puppets illustrated in Table 7.1.
Present your findings to your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online

forum.

7.1.3 Puppet Making

Children enjoy making and playing with puppets. It is also an educational
experience for them. It may not be possible, however, to exhaustively write about
how to make all the types of puppets but a few common ones will be explained. In
the ensuing paragraphs, a few, easy steps to make puppets that would tease the
creative talents of children will be presented.
Table 7.1: Steps in Puppet Making
Step Explanation
Puppet crafting The box used to store recyclable items at home is perfect to
source for puppet-making materials. You can use your
ingenuity and creativity to source for materials from recycled
and reusable materials.
Making sack and Preschoolers and older children enjoy puppets made from paper
sock puppets bags or old socks. As the teacher, you must decide on the amount
of time and artistic effort you want to put into the puppet project.
You may draw facial features with crayons and markers on the
socks and decorate them with objects found from the recycle box.
Objects such as buttons, faux jewels, pipe cleaners and yarn are
just some examples of objects you can use to embellish the sack
or sock puppet.
Nylon stocking Get an old wire hanger. The hanger can be bent into a diamond
puppet or even a circle shape. Then stretch a leg from a pantyhose over
the shaped hanger. Knot the stocking leg at the bottom hook of
the hanger. Children can see through the nylon like a mask and
pretend they are the puppet. You can decorate the puppet mask
with all kinds of glued-on materials. Glitter paint will make this
puppet mask even more attractive.
Stick puppets Stick puppets, as the name suggests, are puppets built and
manipulated using a stick. Making a stick puppet takes very
little time. Materials to be used for sticks can range from
yardsticks, tongue depressors, wooden spoons to even popsicle
sticks. The simplest stick puppet is a head shape cut from
construction paper. The shape can then be painted or drawn
with magic pens or markers. Attach the stick with some tape at
the back of the paper and the puppet is ready. You can make a
few different ones showing different facial emotions and get
children to talk about their emotions through puppet play.
Similarly, you can act out stories by drawing characters from
story books. Cut out and attach the pictures on the sticks and the
favourite tale could be told through puppeteering, as shown in
Figure 7.2.

Figure 7.2: Some story-based stick puppets

Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/169096160981175596/
ACTIVITY 7.3
Assuming you want to teach about an angry character in a story, which

puppet is more practical to use? A sock puppet or a stick puppet?
Justify your answer in the myINSPIRE online forum.
7.2 PLANNING PUPPET SHOWS

In the preceding subtopics, we discussed the various types of puppets and then
briefly looked at how to put the materials and tools together to create them. Now
it is time for teachers and students to work in unison to plan and execute the show
on stage.
How do you think this can be done? What factors need to be considered in order
to make your puppet show a success? Let us continue reading.

7.2.1 Making Arrangements before the Stage

Performance
Before planning any performance or stage activity, two pertinent questions must
be asked:
(a) What is the purpose of the activity? In this case, what is the purpose of the
puppet show? What do you want to do and what are your aims? This is
important as it will enable you to keep your objectives on track.
(b) What am I going to do? Am I going to create a puppet performance to tell a

story or a joke? To introduce a puppet character? Or to show an action, scene
or some other purpose?
Having asked these questions, you then have to consider the kind of impact you
want the show to have on the audience. Are you going to entertain, inform or
frighten the audience? Do you want to make them to laugh, think or elicit some
other response?
Next, you have to consider the audience. Who will be the audience? Will the
audience be children or adults? These are valid questions because the language
that you use will be different for children as opposed to older people.
The next consideration is the title and the idea for the puppet show itself. Once
that has been decided, you then need to set up and plan the production team.
Consider the things that need to be done and who will do what task. Think about
the puppeteers. Do you have enough puppeteers? Who plays which character?
Who can do voices? Who is good at staging?
Lastly, you will have to come up with a workable timetable for your show. Take
into account time needed to write the script, collect materials, design props and
special effects as well as scheduling the rehearsals. Include, too, how you plan to
promote and advertise, and determine the guest list for your show.
A graphical summary of the pre-puppet show arrangements is provided in

Figure 7.3.

Figure 7.3: Points to consider before staging a puppet play
7.2.2 Staging a Short Puppet Play

We are aware that children tend to pay more attention and remain focused on
stories when there are lots of visual cues like pictures and animation to accompany
the narrative. Staging a puppet show is a great way to get children to be actively
involved in telling the story. Moreover, they are consolidating their language skills
and self-esteem as they chat with the puppets.
Here are some pointers to help you plan and execute a short puppet play in class:
(a) Make Your Puppet Stage

Since you already have the puppets, you will now need to have a puppet
theatre, or something to serve as the theatre. For this purpose, a cardboard
box or an ironing board works just as well as a fancy puppet theatre. Teachers
will need to supply markers and other art materials to encourage children to
decorate the box as they wish and then use it in their puppet play.

(b) Organise Your Backstage Area

A well-organised backstage makes for a better show. See to it that the
puppets and props are organised in the order that they will be needed. A rule
of thumb here is to separate the props from the puppets. Stack the props in
one box and puppets in another so that things are easily accessible and it
becomes less frustrating and confusing for the child actors later on during
the performance.
(c) Establish the Procedural Format

The following are the explanations of the procedural format:
(i) Always keep procedures simple and doable. The less fuss, the better;
(ii) A teacher or a proficient child reader reads the story aloud while some
children act out the scenes using the puppets;
(iii) Choose a favourite picture book, a simple storybook or a nursery rhyme

to read from. Ensure that the story has a beginning, middle and ending.
Avoid stories which have too many characters and numerous scenes to
enact;
(iv) Have some soothing background music ready to play while scene and
puppet changeovers are taking place; and
(v) It would also be a good idea to finish and start your show with a catchy
and familiar song as an attention-seeking strategy and to set the right
mood and ambience for the event.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
1. What are two important questions you must ask before planning a
puppet show?
2. Why do you need to consider the age of the audience for a puppet
show?

 Puppets refer to a type of doll, whether in human or animal form, that is moved
by hands or strings by a puppeteer.
 Among the different types of puppets are animatronics or the robotic puppet,
black light puppet, bunraku, caricature puppet, costume puppet, found
puppet, finger puppet, glove/hand puppet, karagozis, marionette, sock
puppet and also the wayang kulit.
 A few, easy steps are all it takes to make sack/sock puppets, nylon stocking
puppets and stick puppets.
 Two pertinent questions that need to be asked when planning/staging a

puppet show are: the purpose of the show and also its details.
 Besides that, other points that need to be considered include the audience, the
title and the idea as well as the timetable.
Animatronics Found puppets

Bunraku puppets Glove/Hand puppets
Caricature puppets Karagozis
Finger puppets Puppeteer

Topic  Literacy
Instruction for
8 Minority
Students
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Explain literacy instruction for language-minority students,
2. Describe models of biliteracy instruction; and
3. Outline ways to enhance literacy development in language-minority
students.
 INTRODUCTION
Borders across the world are becoming increasingly fluid. Human migration
across the planet from economic migrants to refugees has grown by leaps and
bounds. This has resulted in unprecedented numbers of children from immigrant
families being enrolled in schools and classrooms. This topic seeks to shed some
light on issues of literacy instruction for minority students. Intricacies in managing
language and literacy with minority students are also in focus, along with some
suggestions for help. The topic will move on to highlight different models of
biliteracy instruction for these children. The topic concludes with a discussion of
pertinent issues related to literacy reading and instruction.

TOPIC 8 LITERACY INSTRUCTION FOR MINORITY STUDENTS  89
8.1 LITERACY INSTRUCTION FOR MINORITY

STUDENTS
In many English speaking countries, children from families in which English is not
the language of the home represent a rapidly increasing percentage of students
placed in schools and other educational settings. Collectively, these children make
up the language-minority students. „Minority‰ in this context can be defined as a
culturally, ethnically, or racially distinct group that coexists with but is
subordinate to a more dominant group. As such these children bring on board a
host of unique cultural and linguistic diversity with them while, at the same time,
struggle to come to terms with the new, foreign culture. Mostly poor and with
uneducated parents, they face daily challenges of intimidation and racial
discrimination, not to mention grappling with language barriers communicating
with their native English speaking peers as well.
The crux of the matter is whether in English speaking countries or in places where
English is spoken as a second language, there will always be a segment of students
who face difficulties in learning English due to sociocultural and language
differences. Underachievement of minority students is a long-standing concern,
and in view of this, language-minority students must be accorded necessary extra
instruction to help build their academic skills and literacy development from
within the classroom, and even extending beyond the mainstream teaching-
learning environment.
8.1.1 Models of Biliteracy Instruction

There are several models of biliteracy instruction. Understanding the different
models is essential so that effective programmes can be planned for language-
minority students. Although most bilingual programmes value bilingualism,
biliteracy, multiculturalism and childrenÊs academic achievement, they differ in
the functions and needs of students. Each biliteracy instruction model has a
separate structure with regards to the population, language used in the classroom,
societal and educational aims and also the language outcome.
The following are a few of the most common biliteracy instruction models. These
models may not be appropriate to be applied wholly in the Malaysian context, but
understanding them may allow teachers to adapt them in certain ways.

90  TOPIC 8 LITERACY INSTRUCTION FOR MINORITY STUDENTS
(a) Immersion Bilingual Programme

In the immersion bilingual programme, the teaching of the second language
is carried out wholly using the target language. Everyone in the class learns
using the target language. The target language is used as a tool to surround
students. They are immersed in the second language. Not only is the second
language used in the classroom, but learners are to speak in the target
language outside the classroom as well. In all their activities such as during
play, leisure and other everyday tasks, the target language must be used. In
fact, the target language is used across all learning subjects. An example to
illustrate this would be as follows (refer to Figure 8.1):
Figure 8.1: Bahasa Malaysia immersion programme
(b) Language Submersion Programme

The difference between an immersion programme and a submersion
programme is that in the former, everyone in the class learns the target
language. However, in the submersion (sink or swim) programme, only a
few students are placed in a class where the others are learning it as their first
language. In other words, we take a few foreign children and place them in
a class where all the other children are Malaysians learning Bahasa Malaysia.
In this situation, the foreign children have to be on their own without the
support of others. They have to grasp all that they can on their own.
(c) Dual Language Immersion Programme

In this type of immersion programme, both majority and minority language
speakers are put together in the same classroom. Both the majority and
minority languages are used as mediums of instruction. Figure 8.2 sets out
the goals of this programme:

Figure 8.2: Goals of dual language immersion programme
(d) Bilingual Programme

This programme is very much like the one we are practising in Malaysia
where two languages are used as a medium of instruction for all students.
English is taught as a language subject and Bahasa Malaysia is used as the
medium of instruction for all other subjects. In fact, for a number of years,
English was used as the language of instruction for mathematics and the
sciences. In vernacular schools, Bahasa Malaysia is taught as a language
subject and either Mandarin or Tamil is used as the medium of instruction
for all other subjects.
(e) English as a Second Language Programme

English as a second language or commonly known as ESL is a widely used
approach to teach English to people whose native language is not English. In
Malaysia, due to the fact that English is our second language, all schools
adopt this approach to teach English. All students learn English for several
periods in a week. They are taught all the language skills such as listening,
speaking, reading and writing as well as grammar and literature.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
Explain how the immersion bilingual programme is different from the

submersion programme.

ACTIVITY 8.1
1. In your opinion, can the immersion bilingual programme

discussed earlier be adopted in the Malaysian setting? Why?
2. What is the model adopted in Malaysian classrooms? Elaborate.
Share all your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online
forum.
8.1.2 Issues in Literacy Reading and Instruction

One of the main objectives of any literacy programme for minority students is the
literacy development of all participants. To achieve this objective, effective
instruction is key.
In this subtopic, we shall highlight several suggestions that could lead to the
successful literacy development of students in a reading programme.
(a) The Teacher Must Be a Good Role Model to Inculcate Positive Reading
Behaviour
As a teacher, you must show children that reading and writing are essential
in life. Teachers must be enthusiastic about reading. Teachers must
demonstrate that reading and writing are fun and rewarding to children. As
teachers, we must ourselves read a lot and show children that we are
passionate about reading. By doing this, children will also be spurred on to
read and write.
(b) Read to Children

One of the ways to make reading interesting is to read to children everyday.
Reading has many positive effects on children. Comprehension and
vocabulary skills are better in children who are read to everyday. Children
who are read to are by far better and more fluent readers.
In inculcating the reading habit in children, make sure you read good and
enjoyable reading materials. Keep a sharp eye out for great books in the
market to get children enthusiastic about reading. Do not forget to get the
help of your school librarian to recommend and source for good reads.

While reading, do so with fluency and accuracy. Reading fluently and

correctly is important because you need to model correct reading. Therefore,
prior to reading, read the book first yourself. Ensure children are comfortably
seated as they listen and talk to them about what you have read. Go ahead
and ask them questions about what they like or dislike in the story. In short,
a teacher must be a good storyteller.
(c) Provide Authentic Reading Materials

We should provide authentic reading materials such as books, magazines,
articles and reading materials fitting their real purpose and not merely
materials that are tailored for teaching language. Authentic materials or real
reading materials serve as great language support to building literacy.
Materials in textbooks or worksheets could sometimes not be applicable and
somewhat boring. For example, if you were to teach letter writing, why not
show children a real letter as a sample and get them to actually write a letter
to someone. Get them to post it. Wait for the reply and get them to read it to
the class. They will be thrilled to bits when a reply is received and they get
to share the message with their classmates.
(d) Allocate Enough Time for Reading

Children have to read a lot. They have to clearly understand the value of
reading. Ingrain upon them that if they read a lot they will become better
readers. Therefore, teachers must allocate enough reading time for children.
In school, try to allocate a certain amount of time to read every day. Teachers
also must work closely with parents to ensure parents encourage their
children to read for a specific time at home each day.
(e) Provide Children with a Literacy Rich Environment

The environmental effect on the growth of children is undisputable.
Similarly, children who are in an environment that promotes reading tend to
be better readers. Schools, classrooms and homes should have plenty of
books. If children come from homes that may not be able to afford books,
they should be encouraged to go to the school library and the public library
frequently (refer to Figure 8.3).

Figure 8.3: Children in a public library

Source: https://www.timeout.com/kuala-lumpur/things-to-do/
best-public-libraries-in-kl
(f) Have High Expectations of Children

When we show children that we have high expectations of them, they
become motivated and work harder to achieve success. We must tell them
that we expect them to be successful and give them all the encouragement
needed. Teachers and parents should praise children when they read
successfully. This will motivate them to go on reading more.
(g) Provide Interesting Language Background before Reading

Background knowledge is essential in any literacy development. The more
background knowledge one has about a subject matter, the more
understanding the person will have. Teachers have to talk to children and
build up their background knowledge regarding the reading material. For
example, if we were to get children to read about a certain celebration that
they are not familiar with, it is commendable then to talk a lot about the
celebration to build up their prior knowledge. This will facilitate
understanding when they are reading the actual text later.

(h) Connect Reading to Writing

One of the ways to make children become good readers and writers is by
getting them to connect reading with writing. By doing this, both skills will
be polished. For example, after reading a book, we can encourage children to
write their thoughts or feelings about the story in a simple journal. By doing
this, writing and spelling may be improved. Apart from writing a journal,
activities such as writerÊs workshops and rewriting a story in another
language can serve as excellent tools to connect reading with writing.
(i) Provide Children with Books that Interest Them

Another way to inculcate the reading habit among children is to provide
books that interest them. To do this, teachers and parents have to stay alert
and keep up with the times. Try to talk to other children about what things
are of interest at that particular time. Sometimes, what interests children may
be seasonal, just a passing fancy. The World Cup season, for example, might
get them hooked on reading materials related to football.
Gauging what children like to read is a task that should be explored. Talk to
librarians and fellow teachers or parents. They might be able to shed some
light. Try to get books that children like to read. By providing enjoyable
reading materials, reading proficiency could be developed and enhanced.
(j) Create Routines to Read

A successful reading programme also depends very much on routines.
Routines are practices carried out at specific times on a continuous basis.
One positive routine is to have a read aloud session at a specific time daily.
By doing this, children will be able to listen and read with pleasure. They will
also be able to encounter new ideas, characters, situations, and places
through the literature read to them.
Another positive routine to inculcate the reading habit is through sustained

silent reading. In this method, teachers make sure children are involved in
silent reading for a certain amount of time. They are made to read a book of
their choice. The time allocated should not be too long that it eats into other
learning time but just between five to 10 minutes. After the silent reading
time, children may be asked to share about what they had read.
The suggestions presented could lead to successful literacy development of

students in a reading programme. Carefully planned literacy instruction
ensures children get good support to build their literacy levels. Spending
time on planning for literacy development is always a fruitful and rewarding
endeavour.

SELF-CHECK 8.2
What are the instructional routines for a successful reading literacy

development?
ACTIVITY 8.2
As an early childhood literacy teacher, explain in detail how you would

promote effective literacy instruction.
Post your answer on the myINSPIRE online forum.
 Children in minority groups must be given as much help as possible to develop

both their academic and social skills in the classroom and beyond.
 There are several models of biliteracy instruction. They are: immersion

bilingual programme, language submersion programme, dual language
immersion programme, bilingual programme and English as a second
language programme.
 Literacy development of all participants is one of the goals of any literacy

programme. To achieve this objective, effective instruction is the key.
 A well-planned literacy instruction ensures children get good support to build

their literacy level.
 Spending time on planning for literacy development is always a fruitful

endeavour.

Bilingual programmes Language-minority students

Dual language immersion programme Language submersion programme
English as a second language Literacy instruction
programme
Literacy reading
Immersion bilingual programme

Topic  Language Skills
9
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Distinguish the differences between hearing and listening;
2. Outline activities to enhance childrenÊs phonological skills;
3. Briefly describe the four methods used to teach reading;
4. Explain factors to encourage positive reading habits;
5. Identify the developmental stages of early writing; and
6. Discuss the significance of play, materials and environmental print
in developing childrenÊs writing.
 INTRODUCTION
The topic of language skills will scrutinise the differences between hearing and
listening, and look at the need to seriously raise phonological awareness among
young children, together with accompanying practical classroom activities. Apart
from that, we will be highlighting several methods to teach reading as well as
understand the developmental stages involved in learning to write. The
significance and value attached to the use of play, materials and environmental
print to boost childrenÊs writing skills are also covered as well.

TOPIC 9 LANGUAGE SKILLS  99
9.1 LISTENING
Listening is a crucial skill for young children to acquire. Listening is one of the
building blocks of language and communication and particularly in the early
years of education, one of the main vehicles for a childÊs learning.
(Eleanor Johnson)
Parents and teachers are aware that hearing and speech are very important for a
childÊs development. What is as important is the skill of listening because it helps
to lay the foundation in assisting children to learn how to develop their language
and social skills.
9.1.1 Listening Experience

Listening is defined as the learnt or acquired skill in which we are able to receive
sounds through the ears and transform them into meaningful messages. Also
known as „active listening‰, it is basically the process of hearing, processing and
interpreting the meaning of words and sentences uttered by the speaker in a
conversation, and later providing feedback. Unlike hearing, listening is a bit
difficult because it requires concentration and attention. To put it simply, listening
is a process of communication, where if the person is not listening, it can lead to a
breakdown in communication.
In the context of early childhood education, an integral part of developing speech,

language and communication presupposes the ability of young children to listen
and respond to spoken language in the form of music, nursery rhymes, songs and
stories. So as they listen, children should be able to hear sounds within the words
and the connected sounds for comprehension in order to become competent
readers. Early success in listening and reading skills helps in the childÊs self-
concept.
The more babies observe and hear, the better it will be for their language
development. The more toddlers routinely interact with us and their peers, the
better it will be for them to listen and link certain words with their meanings or a
particular action. And the more preschoolers continue to listen and engage in
active conversations with us and the surroundings, the better equipped they will
be to handle more complex and challenging levels of listening competencies in
years to come.

100  TOPIC 9 LANGUAGE SKILLS
9.1.2 The Hearing versus Listening Perception

As one of our five senses, hearing is a physiological act of receiving sound
stimulation through the ear and relaying it to the brain for reception. Listening is
a step further than hearing, where after the brain receives the nerve impulses and
deciphers it, it then sends feedback. Though somewhat synonymous, hearing and
listening are not quite the same. Take the case of a child who was daydreaming in
class but able to pick up the drone of the teacherÊs voice and yet recalled nothing
whatsoever of what the teacher actually said. In other words, the student could
involuntarily detect a sound but consciously and deliberately choose not to attach
any meaning to the sound heard. Memory selectively erased. Little wonder that
most people are inclined towards being „hard of listening‰ rather than „hard of
hearing‰!
Study the comparison chart in Table 9.1 to capture the key differences between the
two.
Table 9.1: Comparison Chart: Hearing versus Listening
Basis for
Hearing Listening
Comparison
Meaning Hearing refers to oneÊs Listening is something done
ability to perceive sounds, by consciously, and it involves the
receiving vibrations through analysis and understanding of
ears. the sounds you hear.
What is it? An ability A skill
Nature Primary and continuous Secondary and temporary
Act Physiological Psychological
Involves Receive the message through Interpret the message received
the ears by the ears
Process Passive bodily process Active mental process
Occurs at Subconscious level Conscious level
Use of senses Only one More than one
Reason We are neither aware nor do We listen to acquire knowledge
we have any control over the and receive information
sounds we hear
Concentration Not required Required
Source: Surbhi (2017)

9.1.3 Phonological Awareness Skills

A vital part of the process of learning to read involves developing the ability to
work out and recognise previously unrecognised words. In order to do this, the
child needs a number of abilities. Phonological awareness is one of the most
important of these abilities. For example, a person needs to have phonological
awareness in order to identify which of these words does not rhyme: „cat‰, „bat‰,
„leg‰. Phonological awareness is an important pre-literacy skill because if there
are difficulties in this area, it can often lead to reading and writing difficulties.
Phonological awareness is defined as the ability of children to hear and play with
the smaller sounds in words, to recognise what the sounds are and how they come
together to make words. Take for instance the word „mat‰ which is composed of
three sounds: /m/, /a/, /t/. At the preschool level, for example, it means being
able to hear and pick out rhyming words and count the number of syllables in a
name. It also involves paying attention to and noticing how sounds repeat
themselves (alliteration,) such as in the nursery rhyme „Peter Piper picked a peck
of pickled peppers‰.
Generally, in developing their phonological awareness, children listen to identify

rhymes, segment words into syllables and single sounds, blend sounds together,
identify sounds in different positions in words and manipulate sounds within
words, as shown in Figure 9.1.

Figure 9.1: Phonological awareness skills

Source: https://bluehistory.net/phonological-awareness-activities-for-
kindergarten/phonological-awareness-activities-for-kindergarten-elegant-free-
phonemic-awareness-worksheets-interactive-and-picture-based/
Take note that phonological awareness is not phonics since it does not involve
print; it is about recognising, segmenting and manipulating sounds.
9.1.4 Activities to Improve Phonological Awareness

Table 9.2 outlines some activities for children to playfully engage in sound play
through which they learn to segment words into their separate sounds, and map
sounds onto printed letters, thus allowing them to begin to learn to read and write.
Children who perform well on sound awareness tasks become successful readers
and writers, while children who struggle with such tasks often do not make the
grade.

Table 9.2: Activities to Improve Phonological Awareness
Listen to sounds For example: sounds in the environment, songs, stories, words
and speech sounds.
Make sounds Talk about how sounds are made with your mouth and
practise making different sounds in front of the mirror (for
example, a snake makes a „sssss‰ sound).
Alphabet Look at alphabet books and sing alphabet songs.
Syllables Model and encourage the child to identify the number of
syllables in a word by clapping, drumming or stamping their
feet (for example, „butterfly‰ - but – ter –fly). Clap out the
name of the child as well as the names of pets, family members
and classmates.
Sing nursery rhymes Emphasise rhythm and rhyme in rhymes and songs, such as
and songs Incy Wincy Spider and Rain, Rain, Go Away (Rain, rain, go
away, Come again another day).
Read books together It stresses on the importance of sound play (for example:
rhyme, alliteration, or words that start with the same sound).
Point out to the child that the rhyming words sound the same
because they have the same endings (for example, „cat‰ and
„hat‰ both have an „at‰ sound in them).
„I Spy‰ Play games like „I Spy‰ and take turns to find objects that
begin with a specific sound (for example, „I spy with my little
eye something beginning with /f/‰)
SELF-CHECK 9.1
List three differences between hearing and listening.
ACTIVITY 9.1
One of the most important skills for reading is phonological awareness.

Why is this so? Elaborate with supporting examples.

forum.

9.2 READING
Reading is a fundamental life skill. Reading involves the child being able to decode
written symbols and signs, understand the meaning of words and to coordinate
these skills together for fluent reading. Teaching the child to read early brings
about multiple benefits, such as an improved attention span, better concentration,
enhanced linguistic skills and creativity, along with a stronger self-image.
The subsequent discussion will provide a brief look at some methods to teach
reading, factors motivating the reading habit and several practical reading ideas
to stimulate childrenÊs literacy development.
9.2.1 Reading Methods

Given that learning to read is a complex challenge, there is a host of different
methods for teachers to use to teach children to read. Four main reading methods
which we will be looking at are phonics, big book, look and say and language
experience approach. There has been much heated controversy as to which
method is the „best‰ for the child because what is „best‰ is largely determined by
the uniqueness of the circumstances at hand. Only you will be able to decide which
method or combination of methods works best for your students.
(a) Phonics Method

Probably the best known and widely used method to teach reading and
writing in the English language is the phonics-based method. Here, children
are taught the sounds of the alphabet. The teacher exposes children to simple
words such as „ball‰, „bus‰ and „car‰ at the beginning. The letters in the
words are sounded out one by one.
The phonics method exposes children to a multitude amount of vocabulary

from an early age. Exposing children to reading through this method enables
children to read widely, both at school and outside. Being able to read widely
is most rewarding for children.

The phonics method can be utilised in two ways (refer to Table 9.2):
Table 9.2: Synthetic Method and Analytic Method
Synthetic Method Analytic Method

• It teaches children the sounds of • It teaches children sounds of
letters in isolation. letters as part of a word. For
example, the sound „b‰ in the
• Children are taught that each letter word „bat‰. Both these methods
has an individual sound. For are different but they have the
example, the letter „b‰ sounds same objective; that is to enable
„buh‰. Children are taught to blend children to become independent
the different sounds that form readers.
words.
There are disadvantages of the phonics method, though. One of the

disadvantages is that some children have difficulties combining and
blending the sounds to form words. The other disadvantage is that some
children tend to focus too much on the pronunciation and neglect the
comprehension of the sentence. However, children who are beginning to
read can reap the benefits of using this approach as it supports other reading
methods.
(b) Big Book Method

The big book method is a reading approach that can be used with a learner
of any age to engage them in reading comprehension and learning text
features. In this approach, we use a big book to model how to read a book,
how to use picture clues, and it allows students to follow along while you
read. It consists of three readings: focusing on comprehension, choral
reading, and on a particular text feature. This can be done as a whole class
and will work with any age group, depending on the book that you choose.
However, the big book method is more engaging for lower level learners.
In using this method, the teacher has to gather all children in the class and
share a copy of the big book (refer to Figure 9.2). The pages of the book must
be large enough so that every child can see the contents well. In each page,
the number of text lines will usually be only between one to three, with a
large picture.

Figure 9.2: Using the big book method in a lesson

Source: greendaleprimary-english.blogspot.com/2010_02_01_archive.html
Usually, children will sit on a mat with the big book placed on a stand. The
teacher talks about the picture or talks about a story related to the picture.
Then, the teacher or a student who is able to read will read the story by
pointing to each word. The teacher needs to slow down the reading and
explain the pictures or use gestures and mimes to facilitate better
understanding, if necessary.
At the second reading, the teacher reads but the task of pointing to the words
is done by students in turn. Students who are able to read are asked to
volunteer first to avoid frustration among those who cannot read. The
reading may be carried on as a group or in pairs.
(c) Look and Say or Whole Word Method

The look and say method teaches reading at the word level. Since it overrides
the decoding process, students are not sounding out words but rather
learning to say the word by recognising its written form. Students will look
at a word which you sound, and in turn will repeat the sound (the word).
Here context is important and providing images such as flashcards or picture
cues can help.

Through rote memorisation, children learn to „sight read‰ the word,

recognising it through pattern recognition without making any conscious
effort to break the word down into its parts. Gradually children build up a
larger and larger vocabulary of „sight vocabulary‰ – words which are
recognised on sight. Familiar words may initially be presented on their own,
then in short sentences and eventually in longer sentences. These texts are
used with strictly controlled vocabularies consisting of just those words
which have been learnt.
(d) Language Experience Approach (LEA)

The language experience or whole language approach (LEA) is the fourth
method you may like to use. The LEA promotes reading and writing through
the use of personal experiences and oral language. The beauty of this
particular method is that it actually uses the studentÊs own language and
grammar to create reading materials. What this means is that children tell
the teacher a story and the teacher writes it down for them to read. Via this
method, children are encouraged to explore, think and talk. All the
communication skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking are
meaningfully combined into the lesson. The class then reads and rereads the
story out loud and discusses it. The final revised story can be conveyed in a
choral style, in small groups and pairs, and then individually. Extension
activities can also be set based on the finished student-generated text. Next,
the children move from reading their own dictation to reading other author
materials after having gained confidence and skill in the reading process.
This reading method can be aptly summarised as follows:
What I can say, I can write

What I can write, I can read
I can read what I write and what other people can write for me to read.

9.2.2 Factors Encouraging Reading

Most of the time, learning to read occurs after repeated encouragement, support
and intervention from the teacher. However, there are also other factors that have
been identified as key to motivating and spurring children to do more reading,
even among reluctant readers, namely:
(a) Classroom Environment

A literacy-rich classroom environment comprising varied written and oral
language resources is crucial to help children consolidate their literacy skills.
The opportunity to access a diverse range of books will also encourage
children to read more on their own free will. A well-trained teacher and
positive peer-based activities should be incorporated to offer the vital
support and literacy instruction needed.
(b) Parental Beliefs

Parental thoughts and beliefs on literacy development can also make a huge
difference on childrenÊs attitude and aptitude towards reading. For example,
parents who place a high premium on reading and literacy development are
more likely to be supportive of their childÊs literacy efforts than parents who
do not understand the need for certain literacy-based activities, such as look
and say or phonological awareness lessons. By the same token, parents who
are avid readers themselves are more inclined to engage their children in a
variety of non-book reading-related activities as well, such as playing board
games that involve written instructions or simply leaving reminder notes for
the child to discover at home.
(c) Read Aloud

Reading out loud to a child is also another factor because frequent use of this
classroom technique allows teachers to effectively model important reading
strategies and behaviours to children. Among others, it facilitates children to
develop comprehension skills by listening to an advanced reader summarise
story events and answering simple questions about the bookÊs plot as well as
prompts them to make use of mental activities that will become automatic
when they begin to read independently.
(d) Vocabulary Development

The importance of vocabulary in reading cannot be overemphasised. In order
to acquire reading comprehension skills particularly, children must have a
basic understanding of vocabulary. Those who struggle with reading or have
other learning and attention issues may find it hard to enjoy reading.
However, children who are involved in conversations and exposed to a range

of vocabulary at both home and school typically develop their vocabulary

quickly compared to those coming from low socioeconomic status homes
and less likely to be exposed to a wide range of vocabulary skills.
9.2.3 Activities to Enhance Reading Abilities

Some tips and activities to help teachers enhance the reading abilities of young
children as exemplified in Table 9.3.
Table 9.3: Activities to Enhance Reading Abilities
Choose books to read Choose a book that the child is interested in so that the
activity is fun for the child (for example, if they love cars,
choose a book about cars; if they like to lift flaps, choose
books that have pull tags).
Listen to the child read Notice how they are reading and choose books appropriate
to their reading level.
Letter awareness Expose the child to letters and numbers as often as you can
through books, newspapers, magazines, environmental
print.
Sound out words Help the child when they get stuck on a word. Help them to
use what they know about letters to sound out the word.
Alternatively, ask them to skip the word and read the whole
sentence and then think about what word might go in the
sentence or provide them with the word with which they are
having difficulty.
Take turns reading Begin with the child only reading a small section (and the
aloud adult reading the rest) and then increase the amount as they
get more confident.
Vocabulary Explain any unfamiliar vocabulary and try to reuse any new
words again within daily activities. The more times the child
hears a word, the more likely they are to learn it and to begin
using that word.
Ask questions Ask questions about what is happening in stories and what
might happen next.

SELF-CHECK 9.2
1. Explain the big book method to reading.
2. Compare the phonics method with the look and say method.
9.3 WRITING
Early writing is one of the best predictors of childrenÊs later reading success.
Although writing progresses in a developmental order, it is not necessarily the
case that children master one level before moving to the next (refer to Table 9.4).
Table 9.4: Development Stage of ChildrenÊs Writing
Performance Task Age Level

Scribbles on paper 10 to 12 months
Initiates horizontal, vertical and circular marks on paper Two years
Copies a horizontal line, vertical line and circle Three years
Copies a cross, right oblique line, square left diagonal line, left Four to five years
oblique cross, some letters and numbers and may be able to write
own name
Copies a triangle, prints own name, copies most upper and lower Five to six years
case letters. More words are spelt conventionally.
Many children move back and forth between levels of difficulty. Children often
combine different types of writing to represent their ideas and express themselves.
9.3.1 Development of Writing

Writing development in children begins by scribbling on paper. This usually
begins once children are able to hold a writing tool such as a pencil or pen.
Children who are not supervised will most often scribble on any available surface.
Children slowly develop their scribbles into handwriting.

A childÊs handwriting readiness depends very much on a number of sensorimotor

systems. Letter formation requires the integration of the visual, motor, sensory and
perceptual systems. Sufficient fine motor coordination is also needed to form
letters accurately.
There are six prerequisites that children must have before handwriting begins:
(a) Small muscle development;
(b) Hand-eye coordination;
(c) Ability to hold utensils or writing tools;
(d) Capacity to smoothly form basic strokes such as lines and circles;
(e) Letter perception, including the ability to recognise forms, notice likeness
and differences, infer the movements necessary for the production of form
and give accurate verbal descriptions of what is seen; and
(f) Orientation to printed language, which involves the visual analysis of

letters and words along with right/left discrimination.
ACTIVITY 9.2
Why is the visual, motor, sensory and perceptual system important in

the development of early writing?

forum.
9.3.2 Playing with Materials in Writing

Play provides young children with a highly engaging and meaningful context to
pick up essential early literacy concepts and skills. It is therefore understandable
why many preschool teachers provide an assortment of art and writing materials
and tools for children to play with as they write in their classrooms. And the truth
of the matter is experimenting with drawing and writing is one messy affair! (refer
to Figure 9.3).

Figure 9.3: Playing with crayons to draw and „write‰

Source: https://pxhere.com/en/photo/1196599
The repeated marks and shapes a child makes on the page such as open circles,
whirls, patterns or vertical lines as well as pictures with scribbling of words
underneath are all indicative of her growing understanding of how print and
sound work together in the writing system.
What Can Teachers or Parents Do to Encourage the ChildÊs Attempts to Write?
(a) Let the child experiment and play with a variety of art and writing materials
such as pencils, washable markers, chalk, crayons, paint brushes and even
her fingers for drawing and writing;
(b) Let the child mould clay letters for hands-on practice shaping letters of the
alphabet and drawing symbols like smiley faces;
(c) Encourage the child to use drawing to express ideas and tell stories; and
(d) Pretend play: Let the children take their „shopping list‰ to the supermarket
or mail their scribbled „Happy Birthday Teacher‰ cards to you. This is how
children learn that words are powerful and have meaning.

9.3.3 Environmental Print and Writing

Environmental print is the print we see every day in the world around us in the
form of logos and signs. Children typically read environmental print first before
reading print in books. The letters, shapes and colours found in logos, packaging
and other graphic symbols for commercial products and stores such as Giant,
Lego, Pizza Hut, Secret Recipe, Maggi, No Smoking and Nestum cereals provide
the first concrete exposure to print and the written word for them. Let us not forget
that childrenÊs classrooms are also filled with a plethora of homemade
environmental print, such as daily schedules, labels on shelves, reminders and
others. These early encounters with environmental print hold great meaning for
them as children get excited when they can „read‰ the print in their environment.
How Do Environmental Prints Support Emerging Writers?

Use of child-familiar environmental print is another way to build confidence in
young children and get them excited about reading. Children will be eager to
experiment and use these print resources to improve their writing and produce
authentic and readable texts. Just copying words from the environment into their
writing alone contribute to childrenÊs view of themselves as writers. In addition,
children may refer to the print as a resource for correct spelling of particular words
or phrases, such as the day of the week needed to convey a written message.
Sometimes they are even inspired to write about something based on the
environment print of their choice.
The environmental printing process continues with children gradually copying

letters and words from the environment to replace or supplement their initial
attempts to write through scribblings, drawings and letter-like forms. In short,
since prints now are perceived to carry meaning, children will learn much faster
and begin to make connections to the world around them. In so doing, children
will be able to make the transition into the functional print of school more easily.
Figure 9.4 illustrates some simple yet potentially useful ideas for capitalising
environmental print to stimulate and publish childrenÊs writing in the classroom
in the form of word walls, bulletin boards, pocket charts, class book and others.

Figure 9.4: Using environmental print to generate writing

Source: https://twitter.com/classroom106; https://kindergartenchaos.com/using-
environmental-print-in-the-classroom/
SELF-CHECK 9.3
1. Explain the importance of incorporating play and art materials and

tools in a childÊs early writing development.
2. Using environmental print in the classroom is very meaningful to

young children. Explain.
 Children begin to build the foundation for fluency through the development
of language skills comprising listening, speaking, reading and writing skills.
 Hearing refers to the ability to detect sounds while listening denotes the ability
to process, interpret and attach meaning to information heard and to verbally
respond to it.
 Phonological awareness is about understanding the sound structure of spoken

language. Children need to understand that spoken language consists of
sounds that can be broken down into smaller units.
 Among the most widely used methods to teach children how to read are the
phonics method, language experience approach (LEA), big book method and
look and say method.

 The phonics method guides children to decode the word by sounds and blend
them together to form a fluent word.
 In the look and say method, children learn to read by memorising and
recognising whole words or sentences, rather than by associating letters with
sounds.
 The big book method can be used with any grade of learner to engage students
in reading comprehension and learning text features. A big book is used to
model how to read a book and how to use picture clues, and it allows students
to follow along while you read.
 The language experience approach (LEA) is a method for teaching literacy

based on a childÊs existing experience of language and prior experiences to
develop reading, writing and listening skills.
 The classroom environment, parental beliefs, read aloud and vocabulary

development are some of the factors that will impact on a childÊs desire and
willingness to read.
 Writing development in children begins by scribbling on paper. This usually

begins once children are able to hold a writing tool such as a pencil or pen.
Children slowly develop their scribbles into handwriting.
 Recognising environmental print is one of the beginning stages of literacy

development. Children use environmental print to help identify words and
make connections to the world around them.
Big book method Look and say method

Environmental print Phonics method
Language experience approach (LEA) Phonological awareness
Language skills Writing development

Topic  Parent-school
Involvement
10
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. List types of parent-school communications;
2. Explain how parents can strengthen and support a childÊs language
growth; and
3. Point out ways and appropriate materials to help parents understand
childrenÊs language and communication development.
 INTRODUCTION
Literacy is one of the most important skills children will learn in order to secure
future academic achievement. Hence, establishing a collaborative and strong
partnership between parents and school is of paramount importance given the fact
that a trusting and reciprocal parent-class relationship can positively contribute to
and impact childrenÊs long-term success.
This topic addresses the need for parent-school engagement as a scaffold for the
development of language and literacy in children. We will be looking at various
types of parent-school communications as well as exploring a range of strategies
for parents to use to stimulate and support their childÊs language growth, in
tandem with possible activities to reinforce parentsÊ understanding of their
childrenÊs language and communication development.

TOPIC 10 PARENT-SCHOOL INVOLVEMENT  117
10.1 PARENT-SCHOOL PARTNERSHIP

One of the ways in which families can cooperate and stay connected with teachers
is through communicating and sharing information with regard to their childrenÊs
learning. Although in this digital age the how and when to share school
information has changed exponentially, the kinds of information that need to be
shared have not changed much, really. The following list will give you an idea of
the types of information parents expect from schools and vice versa in order to
keep both parties in the loop and develop mutually beneficial interactions.
10.1.1 Types of Parent-school Communications

Communication priorities of parents and schools can be categorised as follows:
(a) Updates on the childÊs coping skills and progress at home and in school,
including socioemotional aspects of the child;
(b) Time-sensitive notifications and emergency alerts to parents (for example,

when the childÊs grades are slipping, school policies) via multiple channels
of communication such as SMS texts, mobile applications, social media
platforms, blogs, email, school website, alongside non-digital
communications such as printed newsletters and flyers;
(c) SchoolÊs curriculum descriptions and information on instructional

programmes;
(d) Time-critical school information such as school closings, homework and

others;
(e) Calendar of school events and meetings, for example, PTA, major school
happenings;
(f) School-community outreach projects to allow for parentsÊ participation and

contribution, including fundraising activities, field trips, professional talks;
(g) SchoolÊs leadership and education improvement ideas such as parentsÊ

learning kits, family support group, literacy night, parentsÊ workshop and
others; and
(h) Stories and imagery of the schoolÊs impact on the community, for example:
human interest content, alumni, photos, videos and others.

118  TOPIC 10 PARENT-SCHOOL INVOLVEMENT
10.2 HELPING PARENTS STRENGTHEN A

CHILD’S LANGUAGE GROWTH
Nurturing language growth is not something that is to be left to caregivers or
teachers only. Parents can play a pivotal role in ensuring a childÊs language growth
develops holistically. There are several ways for parents to help develop language
growth in young children. The first step that parents could do to help develop a
childÊs language growth is by recognising the child as an individual. That is to say
parents should never compare a childÊs language ability with that of another child.
Apart from that, parents can also talk to the child about a variety of things around
them and also about anything that happens. The child should also be encouraged
to talk with their parents. This two-way interaction would enable them to share
ideas and ask questions that will make them think and be critical. On top of that,
it would also build curiosity and awareness in the child about how things work in
real life.
Let us turn to several other ways for parents to accelerate their childÊs language
growth:
(a) Listening and Listen to Your Child

Make your child understand that it is necessary to listen attentively to people
who are talking. You must first show your child that you are listening
attentively to him or her when he or she is talking to you. If you are talking
to your child and he or she is not paying attention, stop the conversation. Get
the childÊs attention first and then proceed.
Once you get your child to listen to you, it is also important for you to listen
to your child. As you listen to him or her, teach him or her how to find
relationships between ideas. Expose him or her to concepts of similarities,
differences, opposites, sequences, causes and effects and examples. Getting
children to recognise such things in the real world will facilitate their ability
to identify similar things in books and transfer them in their written work
later.
Besides that, children should be taught to say something in different words.

They should be taught how to paraphrase and simplify. Get them to convey
the same idea using different words occasionally.

To make it more effective, get everyone in the family involved in your childÊs
vocabulary study. Identify the words your child is learning. Then, try to use
the same words in your conversations with family members. Sharing
sentences or phrases using the new words with children is beneficial.
Perhaps targetting a new word each day would be helpful to build the childÊs
vocabulary.
(b) Read to Your Child

Reading to children can be very fruitful and rewarding. As parents, we
should read to them every day. It does not matter whether the child is too
young or old enough to read independently. The child must be exposed to
reading in order to face more difficult reading materials and concepts in
future.
Sometimes, there are children who enjoy being read to but do not like to read.
This situation calls for concern. Bring the child to the doctor to have the eyes
examined. Perhaps the child needs eyeglasses to correct blurry vision. What
if the child simply does not like to read? This is where parents need to play
a bigger role. Perhaps you need to spend more time with the child and expose
him or her to a lot more suitable reading materials.
Children sometimes tend to browse through a book by just looking at

pictures and graphics. They read little. As parents, you need not worry as
they are simply developing good previewing techniques. Not every word
needs to be read sometimes.
While reading to your child, it is good to pause once in a while to ask

questions about what is being read. Ask about the character(s), what will
happen next or anything that would promote thinking. Do not just ask
questions that have a right or wrong answer as this would not promote
thinking and creativity.
Helping children connect to what they are reading with real life is often
helpful. For example, if you are reading about pets, relate the story with your
own pet or the pet of someone you know. Try looking for differences or
similarities between what you read and that of real life.
On top of that, children should also be taught to see the value of reading.
They must realise that reading gives entertainment, pleasure as well as
information. When children are reading for information, for example,
encourage them to ask questions. This can make the reading more
purposeful.

Sometimes, children pronounce a word wrongly while reading. As long as

the meaning is not wrong, let the error pass. Do not make corrections. Most
of lifeÊs reading is for the purpose of comprehension and is done silently.
Most reading is neither done orally nor for perfection. However, if the error
is too obvious that the meaning is changed, correction may be done. At the
end of the sentence, ask the child „Did that make sense? „, „Did that sound
right?‰ or „Did it look right?‰.
As a parent, it is good for you to read the books that your child is reading.
This will allow you to have an insight into what your child is reading. By
doing this, you will be able to discuss the story with your child.
Forcing your child to read books that you think he or she should read will
not help. In fact, that will do more harm. Try finding out what interests the
child. Read about topics that the child enjoys. Once the child is hooked on a
particular book or author, the child will want to read more. Getting the first
ideal book is the difficult part sometimes. Subsequent reading materials
should not be too difficult to find. Do not force your child to finish reading a
book that he or she finds uninteresting. Just put aside the book and get
another one. Forcing him or her to finish it will not do any good.
The cheapest way to further encourage the reading habit in your children is
by taking them to the community library (refer to Figure 10.1). Not only that,
libraries usually have many literacy building activities that children can
participate in. All these can hopefully instil the love for reading in them.
Figure 10.1: Recreational reading in the library

Source: https://eu.clipdealer.com/photo/media/A:121570779

(c) Expose Speaking Skills to Your Child

Children need to be exposed to oral presentations too. If they are to make an
oral presentation, get them to practise in front of family members. Encourage
them to be expressive by allowing them to express their opinions and
describe things. Teach them how to talk about events and things. By doing
this, the child is helped to be fluent and learns how to organise his or her
thoughts.
In an oral presentation, if the child rambles without focus, occasionally stop

the child. Have the child think about the main point he or she is trying to put
forth. Then, ask the child to redeliver it in one or two sentences. Some of the
ways to help develop oral fluency are through role plays and puppet shows.
(d) Expose Writing Skills to Your Child

Children should be exposed to the many types of written language. They
must know that we write for different purposes and we use different forms
of writing. When you want your child to write a composition, ask questions
or give suggestions to help him or her narrow down the topic. Asking open-
ended questions about the topic will allow the child to generate ideas for
writing.
In encouraging children to write, always comment on the content first and

the mechanics later. Mechanics of writing ă such as punctuation and
capitalisation ă can be commented upon later. Offer compliments first before
making any comments.
One simple and practical way to encourage children to write is by

encouraging them to write letters and thank you notes to friends. If the task
of writing a letter is too lengthy, then you can just ask your child to write a
short note at the end of the letter (or e-mail for that matter) you are writing
to a friend or relative.
Writing is a process. As such, children should not be expected to write perfect

pieces at the onset. They should be encouraged to keep on writing although
they make mistakes. Provide children with ample tools for writing. Give
them different kinds of paper. Set aside a variety of writing tools such as a
pencil, pen, magic pens, crayons or colour pencils. Also provide them with a
dictionary and thesaurus appropriate to their age.

Basically, what we have discussed previously revolves around the four language
skills of listening, reading, speaking and writing. Apart from the ways discussed,
parents can also promote language growth at home through the following ways:
(a) Speak to the child in a clear, correct and simple manner. Never use baby talk;
(b) Make two-way conversations with your child. Take time to listen and then
talk;
(c) Make eye contact with your child as you listen and talk to him or her. Pause
and do not be hasty;
(d) Encourage the child to be orally expressive and not to use gestures only when
expressing ideas and feelings;
(e) Ask questions that require the child to express a choice;
(f) Enrich the childÊs vocabulary;
(g) Engage the child in activities that develop conversations and require the
following of directions;
(h) Read stories and sing nursery rhymes; and
(i) Discuss what you have read with him or her.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
List some of the ways a parent can help in a childÊs language growth.
ACTIVITY 10.1
Why do you think that the task of nurturing language development

should not be left only to caregivers or teachers?

forum.

10.3 HELPING PARENTS UNDERSTAND HOW

YOUNG CHILDREN DEVELOP LANGUAGE
AND COMMUNICATION
Parents can be helped to understand how young children develop language and
communication in several ways. The following points are worthy of note:
(a) Exposure
Exposing parents to the work of child development experts is beneficial. To
help, give parents books on child development or suggest reputable child-
rearing sites to read. Teachers could also suggest the following online
platforms to encourage parents to gather additional pointers and useful
strategies:
(i) pocketofpreschool.com
(ii) ateachableteacher.com
(iii) pre-kpages.com
(iv) time4kindergarten.com
(v) www.adi.org/journal/ss05/Graham-Clay.pdf
(vi) www.fortheteachers.org
However, do not patronise. Capitalise on any opportunity to help only when

parents are receptive and open to advice.
(b) Appropriate Activities

Choose an activity that matches the childÊs needs. For example, to
demonstrate developmental opportunities during tummy time for an infant,
find a comfortable, open space on the floor and introduce a colourful
storyboard or rattle. Parents are usually open to activities that engage
children in activities that release pent-up energy. Physical development is a
natural outcome of play. Children learn intellectually, socially and
emotionally through play that engages their senses.
Refer to Figure 10.2 for other useful teaching and learning activities designed
for parents to assist with the language and communication development of
their young children.

Figure 10.2: Parental Activities Galore!

Source: https://pocketofpreschool.com/building-skills-learning-at-home-parent/
(c) Interact with Children

Parents should be encouraged to play and interact with their young children.
Hands-on experience is the best learning platform for children. While
engaging in play with children, parents can observe and participate in their
childÊs learning and progress. By doing this, parents will better understand
the connections between movement, communication and healthy
development.
(d) Provide Children with Appropriate Developmental Tools

Providing children with developmentally-appropriate games, books and
toys promotes language development. Parents like to see their children
engage in safe, educational activities. When children have the appropriate
materials, they will be focused on their current developmental level.
Children can be taught about feelings, movement or nature using
storybooks. These books not only teach children, but also make parents
aware of the topics, ideas and concepts important to children.

(e) Support from Other Parents

Parents should be introduced to families with children at or near the same
age. By observing interactions between other parents and children, they will
gain new insights on their own childÊs developmental progress. Parents can
learn from others on how to deal with developmental issues and increase
awareness and sensitivity in coping with childrenÊs ever-changing needs.
(f) Have a Developmental Checklist

As a child literacy teacher, you can prepare a developmental milestone
checklist for parents and laminate it for display. This will help them better
recognise the needs of their children at different developmental stages.
Knowing what to expect from their children at different ages allows parents
to foster a healthy wholesome development through appropriate materials,
activities and communications.
SELF-CHECK 10.2
Explain ways for parents to understand how young children develop

language.
ACTIVITY 10.2
1. Suggest several activities that you can promote to parents to help

them understand language development.
2. How would parents benefit if they understand how their children

develop language?

forum.

 Parent-school partnership provides the necessary impetus and support to

spark a childÊs language and communication development, laying down the
foundation for success in learning and in life.
 Through communicating and timely sharing of vital information, both parents

and teachers are better equipped to assist, participate and contribute to the
childÊs learning process.
 Among the ways for parents to help strengthen their childrenÊs language
development are by exposing them to the four language skills, enriching the
childÊs vocabulary and engaging them in meaningful activities that develop
conversations, among others.
 Some of the ways to help parents understand their childÊs language growth are
by interacting with the child, exposing them to the work of child development
experts and by coming up with a developmental checklist.
Developmental checklist Parental support

Developmental tools Parent-school partnership

MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi )
Tel No.: 03-78012140
Fax No.: 03-78875911 / 03-78875966


HBEC2103 Language & Literacy For Early Childhood

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HBEC2103

Language and Literacy for

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writer: Abdul Hameed Abdul Majid

Moderator: Teh Lai Ling

Enhancer: Falilnesa Mohamed Arfan

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, November 2011

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), December 2019, HBEC2103

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Languange Development in Children 1

Topic 2 Foundations of Language 18

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 3 Types of Literacy 28

Topic 4 Language and the Curriculum Component 41

Topic 5 Books and Children 54

Topic 6 Story Telling 65

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 8 Literacy Instruction for Minority Students 88

Topic 9 Language Skills 98

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 10 Parent-school Involvement 116

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COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

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Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Explain language teaching approaches and techniques;

2. Evaluate language teaching and learning activities; and

3. Plan language teaching and learning activities.

Topic 1 begins with a discussion on language development. A theoretical view of

Topic 2 introduces the foundations of language. This topic discusses the

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 4 discusses language curriculum and literacy development. Among the

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TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

Whitehead, M. R. (2007). Developing language and literacy with young children

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Machado, J. M. (2005). Early childhood experiences in language arts: Emerging

Sowers, J. (2000). Language arts in early education. Melbourne, Australia:

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

By the end of the topic, you should be able to:

This introductory topic begins with a discussion on the differences in individual

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1.1 DIFFERENCES IN INDIVIDUAL ABILITIES

Figure 1.1: Factors of individual differences

1.1.1 Health and Physical Development

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1.1.2 Social-emotional Development

These questions represent a decent cross section of social-emotional characteristics

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.1.3 Cognitive Development

Table 1.1 provides a snapshot of typical cognitive activities observed in children

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1.1: Cognitive Activities in Children Aged 0 to 5 Years

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