BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

2 DC CIRCUITS

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Electrical circuits may have one or more sources of energy and number of electrical
parameters, connected in different ways. There are different electrical parameters such as
resistors, capacitors and inductors. Combination of the three contributes to the complexity of
electrical circuits which is generally referred as networks. Terms circuit and network have the
same meaning in electrical literature.
D.C(Direct Current) circuits consists of only resistance and d.c. sources of energy and the circuit
analysis means to find the total current or voltage across any branch of the circuit. This chapter
will discuss techniques in analyzing d.c circuits.
This chapter includes basic terminology used in network analysis and classification of networks.
s law, Kirchh
series- parallel combinations.
2.2 TERMINOLOGY
In this section, different network terminology will be defined.
2.2.1 NETWORK
Any arrangement of circuit elements together with electrical energy sources.

2.2.2 NETWORK ELEMENT

Any circuit element with two terminals which can be connected to other circuit element.
It can be active or passive elements. Active elements are elements which supply power or energy
to the network. Voltage and Current source are the example of active elements. Passive elements
are the elements which store or dissipate energy in the form of heat. Resistor, Inductor and
Capacitor are the three basic passive elements. Inductors and capacitors can store energy and
resistors dissipate energy in the form of heat.

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2.2.3 BRANCH
Part of a network which connects various points of the network with one another. In the
Fig. 2.1, AB, BC, CD, DA, DE, CF and EF are the various branches. A branch may consist more
than one element.

2.2.4 JUNCTION POINT

It is where three or more branches meet. Point D and C are the junction points in the
Fig.2.1.

2.2.5 NODE
This is where two or more elements are joined together. Junction points are also the
nodes of the network. In Fig.2.1, A, B, C, D, E and F are the nodes.

2.2.4 MESH (LOOP)

Set of branches forming a closed path or loop wherein if one branch is removed then
remaining branches do not form a closed path. It is a closed path which originates from a
particular node, having same terminal, travelling through various other node, without travelling
through any node twice. In the Fig.2.1 loop A-B-C-D-A, A-B-C-F-E-D-A, D-C-F-E-D etc. are
the loops of the network.

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2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL NETWORKS

1) Linear Network
Circuit or network whose parameters are elements like resistances, inductances and capacitances
are always constant irrespective of the change in time, voltage, temperature etc. is known as
Linear Network. twork. The mathematical equations of
such network can be obtained by using law of superposition. The response of the various
network elements is linear with respect to the excitation applied to them.
2)Non-Linear Network
A circuit whose parameters change their values with change in time, temperature, voltage etc.

superposition. The response of the various elements is not linear with respect to their excitation.
The best example is a circuit consisting of a diode where diode current does not vary linearly
with the voltage applied to it.
3)Bilateral Network
A circuit whose characteristics is same irrespective of the direction of current through various
elements. Network consisting only resistance is an example of bilateral network.
4) Unilateral Network
A circuit whose operation is dependent on the direction of the current through various elements.
Circuit consisting diodes, which allows flow of current only in one direction is good example of
unilateral circuit.
5) Active Network
Circuit which contains at least one source of energy. An energy source may be a voltage or
current source.

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6) Passive Network

A circuit which contains no energy source.

7) Lumped Network
A network in which all the network elements are physically separable. Most of the electric
networks are lumped in nature, which consists of elements like R,L,C, Voltage Source etc.
8) Distributed Network
A network in which the circuit elements like resistance, inductance etc. cannot be physically
separated for analysis purposes. The best example of such network is a transmission line where
resistance, inductance and capacitance of a transmission line are distributed all along its length
and cannot be shown as an individual element, anywhere in the circuit.

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2.4 ENERGY SOURCES

Energy sources are classified as 1) Ideal source and 2) Practical source.
2.4.1 VOLTAGE SOURCE
Energy source which gives constant voltage across its terminals irrespective of the current drawn
through its terminals. The symbol for ideal voltage source is shown in Fig.2.4 (a) Connected to
the load as shown in Fig.2.4 (b). At any instant the value of voltage at load terminals remains
same. This is indicated by V-I characteristics shown in Fig. 2.4 (c)

Practical Voltage source:

Every voltage source has small internal resistance shown in series with voltage source and is
represented by Rse as shown in the Fig.2.5.

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Because of the Rse, voltage across terminals decreases slightly with increase in current it is given
by expression,

For ideal voltage source, Rse = 0

Voltage sources are classified as follows,
1) Time Invariant Sources
Voltage source which is not varying with time are known as time invariant voltage sources or
D.C sources. Denoted by capital letters.

2) Time Variant Sources

Voltage source which is varying with time are known as time variant voltage sources or A.C
sources and denoted by small letters.

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2.4.2 CURRENT SOURCE

Source which gives constant current at its terminals irrespective of the voltage appearing across
its terminals. Symbol for ideal current source is shown in Fig. 2.7 (a). This is connected to the
load as shown in the Fig.2.7(b). At any time, the value of the current flowing through load I L is
same irrespective of voltage appearing across its terminals. This is explained by V-I
characteristics shown in the Fig.2.7(c).

Every current source has high internal resistance, shown in parallel with current source and its is
represented by Rsh. This is shown in the Fig.2.8

Because of Rsh, current through its terminals decreases slightly with increase in voltage at its
terminals.
For Ideal current source, Rsh =
Like voltage sources, current sources are classified as follows:
1) Time Invariant Sources
Sources in which currents is not varying with time are known as time invariant current source or
D.C sources. These are denoted by capital letters.

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2) Time Variant Sources:

Sources in which currents is varying with time are known as time variant current source or A.C
sources. These are denoted by small letters.

2.4.3 DEPENDENT SOURCES

Dependent sources are sources which depends on voltage or current in the circuit. Such sources
are indicated by diamond as shown in the Fig.2.10 and further classified as,
1) Voltage Dependent Voltage Source
It produces a voltage as a function of voltages elsewhere in the given circuit. This is called
VDVS. It is shown in the Fig.2.10(a)
2) Current Dependent Current Source
It produces a current as a function of currents elsewhere in the given circuit. This is called
CDCS. It is shown in the Fig. 2.10 (b).
3) Current Dependent Voltage Source
It produces a voltage as a function of current elsewhere in the given circuit. This is called CDVS.
It is shown in the Fig.2.10(c).
4) Voltage Dependent Current Source
It produces a current as a function of voltage elsewhere in the given circuit. This is called VDCS.
It is shown in the Fig.2.10(d).

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K is constant and V1 and I1 are the voltage and current respectively, present elsewhere in the
given circuit. The dependent sources are also known as controlled sources.

2.5
It is discovered by Dr. Ohm in 1872, this law gives relationship between potential
difference (V) , the current (I) and the resistance (R) of a d.c circuit. Also, it states that,
: The current flowing trough electric circuit s directly proportional to the potential
difference across the circuit and inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit, provided
that the temperature remains constant.

Mathematically,

I current flowing in amperes (A)

V potential across the circuit (V)
R

Therefore,

The ratio of potential difference (V) between any two points of a conductor to the current (I)
flowing between them is constant, provided that the temperature of the conductor remains
constant.
aw can be applied either to the entire circuit or the part of a circuit. If it is
applied to entire circuit, the voltage across the entire circuit and resistance of the entire circuit
a circuit, then the
resistance of that part and potential across that part should be used.

1) It is not applicable to nonlinear devices. (Diodes, Zener Diodes, Voltage Regulators, etc.)
2) It does not hold good for non-metallic conductors such as silicon carbide.
3) It is applicable as long as temperature remains constant.

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EXAMPLE 1.10

Solution:
Substitute R by 2 and V by 6 in Ohm's law V = R I.
6=2I
Solve for I
I=6/2
I=3A

EXAMPLE 1.11
The current passing through a resistor in a circuit is 0.01 A when the voltage across the same
resistor is 5 V. What current passes through this resistor when the voltage across it is 7.5 V?
Solution:
Use Ohm's law V = R I to find the resistor R in this circuit.
5 = R (0.01)
Solve for R

We now use Ohm's law V = R I and the value of R to find the current when the voltage is 7.5.
7.5 = 500 I
Solve for I
I = 7.5 / 500 = 0.0125 A

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2.6 RESISTANCES IN SERIES

When some conductors having resistances R1, R2 and R3 etc. are joined end-on-end as in Fig.
2.11 a, they are said to be connected in series. It can be proved that the equivalent resistance or
total resistance between points A and D is equal to the sum of the three individual resistances.
Being a series circuit, it should be remembered that (i) current is the same through all the three
conductors (ii) but voltage drop across each is different due to its different resistance and is given

three conductors. There is a progressive fall in potential as we go from point A to D as shown in

Fig. 2.11 b

Fig
2.11
a

Fig 2.11 b

1. Same current flows through all parts of the circuit.

2. Different resistors have their individual voltage drops.
3. Voltage drops are additive.
4. Applied voltage equals the sum of different voltage drops.
5. Resistances are additive.
6. Powers are additive.

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EXAMPLE 1.12
Using Ohms Law, calculate the equivalent series resistance, the series current, voltage drop and
power for each resistor in the following resistors in series circuit.

Get the total Resistance

RT = R1 + R2 + R3
RT
RT

Solve for I ; VT = 12V

I = 0.2A
Therefore,
Since IT = I1 = I2 = I3
RT
V1 = I1R1
IT = 0.2A
V2 = I2R2
V1 = 2V
V3 = I3R3
V2 = 4V
V3 = 6V

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2.7 RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL

The Parallel circuit is one in which several resistances are
connected across one another in such a way that one terminal of
each is connected to form a junction point while the remaining
ends are also joined to form another junction point. Consider a
parallel circuit shown in the Fig. 2.13.
In the parallel connection shown, the three resistances R1, R2 and
R3 are connected in parallel and combination is connected across

In Parallel circuit current passing through each resistance is

different. Let total current drawn
paths for this current, one through R1, second through R2 and
third through R3. Depending upon the values of R1, R2 and R3 the
appropriate fraction of total current passes through them. These
individual currents are shown as I1, I2 and I3. While the voltage across the two ends of each
resistances R1, R2 and R3 is the same and equals the supply voltage V.
V = I1R1, V = I2R2, V = I3R3

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Main characteristics of parallel resistances are:

1. Same voltage acts across all parts of the circuit
2. Different resistors have their individual current.
3. branch currents are additive.
4. Conductance are additive.
5. Powers are additive.

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EXAMPLE 1.13
What is the value of the unknown resistor
resistor is 2.5 volts? All resistances are in ohm.

Fig. 2.14

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EXAMPLE 1.14
Calculate the effective resistance of the
following combination of resistances and the
voltage drop across each resistance when a
P.D. of 60V is applied between points A and B.

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EXAMPLE 1.15
A circuit consists of four 100 W lamps are connected in parallel across a 230-V supply.
Inadvertently, a voltmeter has been connected in series with the lamps. The resistance of the

burning normally. What will be the reading of the voltmeter?

Fig.2.15
SOLUTION: The circuit is shown in Fig 2.15. The wattage of a lamp is given by:
W = I2R = V2/R
100 = 2302/R

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EXAMPLE 1.16
A 50-ohm resistor is in parallel with 100-ohm resistor. Current in 50-ohm resistor is 7.2A. How
will you add a third resistor and what will be its value if the value of the total line-current is tobe
12.1A?

EXAMPLE 1.17
Find current through 4 resistance.

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2.8 SHORT AND OPEN CIRCUITS

When two points of circuit are connected together by a thick metallic wire, they are said
to be short-circuited
facts:
a) no voltage can exist across it because V=IR = I X 0 = 0
b) current through it (short-circuit current) is very large (theoretically, infinity)

Two points are said to be open-circuited when there is no direct connection between them.

a) resistance between two points is infinite.

b) there is no flow of current between
the two points.

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