EEE1001

BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIS ENGINEERING

What is an electric circuit?

An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements such

as sources and loads through wires (cables).

What is the purpose of electric circuit?

To transmit/deliver power from source to load/one place to

another.

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 Electric torch

A simple electric circuit.

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 A Microgrid

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Equivalent circuit of an electrical system
A theoretical circuit that retains all of the electrical
characteristics of the given system.

Studying electric circuits usually requires drawing or recognizing

circuit diagrams. Circuit diagrams can make electric circuits easier to
understand, electric circuits are usually represented by schematics.

A schematic is a simplified circuit diagram that shows the

interconnection of circuit components. It uses standard circuit symbols
according to the layout of the actual circuit connection. The circuit
symbols are the idealization and approximation of the actual circuit
components.

An electrical circuit consists of circuit elements such as sources,

resistances, inductances and capacitances that are connected in closed
paths by conductors.

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 INTRODUCTION

Electric circuit theory and Electromagnetic theory are

the two fundamental theories upon which all branches of electrical
engineering are built. Many branches of electrical engineering, such
as power, electric machines, control, electronics, communications,
and instrumentation, are based on electric circuit theory. Therefore,
the basic electric circuit theory course is the most important course
for an electrical engineering student, and always an excellent
starting point for a beginning student in electrical engineering
education.

An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements.

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 Electric circuit
A closed loop of pathway with electric charges or current
flowing through it.

Electrical Energy

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 The most basic quantity in an electric circuit is the electric
charge. Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles that the
charge e on an electron is negative and equal in magnitude to
1.602×10−19 C, while a proton carries a positive charge of the same
magnitude as the electron.

The coulomb is a large unit for charges. In 1 C of charge, there

are 1/(1.602 × 10−19) = 6.24 × 1018 electrons.

Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured

in amperes (A).
A direct current (dc) is a current that remains constant with time.
An alternating current (ac) is a current that varies sinusoidally
with time.

Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move

a unit charge through an element, measured in volts (V).

Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy,

measured in watts (W).

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There are two types of elements in electric circuits:
passive elements and active elements.
An active element is capable of generating energy while a
passive element is not.

Examples of passive elements are resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

Typical active elements include generators, batteries, and operational

amplifiers.

The most important active elements are voltage or current

sources that generally deliver power to the circuit connected to them.

There are two kinds of sources: independent and dependent

sources.

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 Independent sources

An ideal independent source is an active element that provides

a specified voltage or current that is completely independent of other
circuit variables.

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Ideal and Practical Voltage Sources

V
V

I I
IDEAL VOLTAGE SOURCE PRACTICAL VOLTAGE SOURCE

Note that an ideal voltage source can supply arbitrarily large currents without
any decrease in voltage.

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 Ideal and Practical Current Sources

V
V

I I
IDEAL CURRENT SOURCE PRACTICAL CURRENT SOURCE

Note that an ideal current source can supply arbitrarily large voltages without
any decrease in current.

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 Dependent sources

A dependent source is a voltage source or a

current source whose value depends on a voltage or current somewhere
else in the network. Dependent sources are useful, for example, in
modelling the behavior of amplifiers, transistors etc.

1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).

2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS).

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 What kind of sources used in this fig?

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 BASIC LAWS
Ohm’s law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is
directly proportional to the current (i) flowing through it.

When current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential

in order for V = IR.

If current flows from a lower potential to a higher potential, V = −IR.

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 Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric
current; it is measured in mhos or siemens (S).

The power dissipated by a resistor can be expressed in terms of R.

It should be pointed out that not all resistors obey Ohm’s law. A
resistor that obeys Ohm’s law is known as a linear resistor. It has a
constant resistance and thus its current-voltage characteristic is as
illustrated in Fig, its i-v graph is a straight line passing through the
origin. A nonlinear resistor does not obey Ohm’s law. Its resistance varies
with current and its i-v characteristic is typically shown in fig.

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 The i-v characteristic of:
(a) a linear resistor,
(b) a nonlinear resistor.

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 NODES, BRANCHES, AND LOOPS

A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.

A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.

A loop is any closed path in a circuit.

A loop is a closed path formed by starting at a node, passing through a

set of nodes, and returning to the starting node without passing through
any node more than once.

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 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum
of currents entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero.

The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of

the currents leaving the node.

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Using KCL

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 Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum
of all voltages around a closed path(or loop) is zero.

polarity of
a resistor
voltage is
generally
used to
indicate
the
current
direction.

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 Passive sign convention

The electrical engineering community uniformly adopts the

passive sign convention, which simply states that the power dissipated
by a load is a positive quantity (or, conversely, that the power generated
by a source is a positive quantity). Another way of phrasing the same
concept is to state that if current flows from a higher to a lower voltage
(+ to −), the power is dissipated and will be a positive quantity.
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P1.1. Find v1 and v2 in the circuit

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P1.2. Find the voltage across the current source and the current passing
through the voltage source.

Assume that I1=3A, R1=2Ω, R2=3Ω, R3=2Ω, I1=3A, V1=15V

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 Two or more elements are in series if they are cascaded or
connected sequentially and consequently carry the same current.

Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to

the same two node and consequently have the same voltage across
them.

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 SERIES RESISTORS AND VOLTAGE DIVISION
The two resistors are in series, since
the same current i flows in both of
them. Applying Ohm’s law to each of
the resistors, we obtain

The larger the resistance, the

larger the voltage drop. This is called
the principle of voltage division.

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 PARALLEL RESISTORS AND CURRENT DIVISION

Two resistors are connected in parallel and therefore have the same
voltage across them. From Ohm’s law,

Circuit is known as a
current divider.

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 This is known as the principle of current division.

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P1.3. Find Rab for the circuit.

Answer: 11 Ω

P1.4. Find v1 and v2 in the circuit. Also

calculate i1 and i2 and the power
dissipated in the 12Ω and 40Ω
resistors.

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P1.5. Find the voltages.

P1.6. Find I and Vab in the circuit of Fig.

I = 4 Amps
Vab = 28 V

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P1.7. Find Vab in the circuit of Fig.
P1.8.

Rab = 24 Ω

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 In Electric Circuit Analysis, there are two types of circuit analysis
based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s laws (KCL and KVL).

1. Mesh Current Analysis

2. Nodal Voltage Analysis

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 MESH ANALYSIS

Steps to Determine Mesh Currents :

1. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, . . . , in to the n

meshes.

2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s

law to express the voltages in terms of the mesh
currents.

3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to

get the mesh currents.

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P1.9. Using the mesh current method, find the loop currents.
V1 = 12 V; V2 = 6 V;
R1 = 3 ; R2 = 8 ; R3 = 6 ; R4 = 4 .

From loop 1

From loop 2

I1 = 6.9 A
From loop 3 I2 = 6.3 A
I3 = 4.5 A

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P1.10. Apply mesh analysis to find i in Fig. Ans: i=1.188 A

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P1.11. Use mesh and nodal analysis to find vab and io in the circuit in
Fig.

I1 = 2.66 A I2 = 2.66 A I3 = 1.78A Vab = 53.3 V

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to calculate the determinant of a 3 by 3 matrix, we repeat the first two
rows and cross multiply.

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 Nodal Voltage Analysis

Steps to Determine Node Voltages:

1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages v1,

v2, . . . , vn−1 to the remaining n − 1 nodes. The voltages
are referenced with respect to the reference node.

2. Apply KCL to each of the n − 1 nonreference nodes. Use

Ohm’s law to express the branch currents in terms of node
voltages.

3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the

unknown node voltages.

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P1.12. Calculate the node
voltages in the circuit shown in
Fig.
At node 1, applying KCL and
Ohm’s law gives

Multiplying each term in the last

equation by 4, we obtain

At node 2, we do the same thing and get

(1)
Multiplying each term by 12 results in

(2)
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To use Cramer’s rule, we need to put Eqs. (1) and (2) in matrix form as

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P1.13. Using node voltage analysis in the circuit of Figure, find the
voltage, v, across the 4-siemens conductance.

Ans: V1 = - 1.3 V, V2 = 0.34 V, V3 = - 1.12 V

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P1.14. write three node equations for nodes A, B, and C, with node D
as the reference, and find the node voltages.

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P1.15. Using node voltage analysis, find the power dissipated in 6Ω
resistor.

i1 = -1.22 A, i2 = 2.38 A I3 = 3.77A

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P1.16. Using node voltage analysis in the circuit of figure, find the node
voltages.

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 In general, if a circuit with independent current sources has N
nonreference nodes, the node-voltage equations can be written in
terms of the conductances as

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 THEVENIN’S THEOREM
It often occurs in
practice that a particular
element in a circuit is
variable (usually called the
load) while other elements
are fixed. As a typical
example, a household outlet
terminal may be connected
to different appliances
constituting a variable load.
Each time the variable
element is changed, the
entire circuit has to be
analyzed all over again. To
avoid this problem,
Thevenin’s theorem provides
a technique by which the
fixed part of the circuit is
replaced by an equivalent
circuit.
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 In general, a circuit is linear if it is both additive and
homogeneous. A linear circuit consists of only linear elements, linear
dependent sources, and independent sources.

The additivity property requires that the response to a sum of

inputs is the sum of the responses to each input applied separately.

The homogeneity property requires that if the input (also called

the excitation) is multiplied by a constant, then the output (also called
the response) is multiplied by the same constant.

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 Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can
be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh
in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the
terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals
when the independent sources are turned off.

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P1.17. Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in Fig.,
to the left of the terminals a-b. Then find the current through RL = 6, 16,
and 36 .

Solution:

Thevenin equivalent circuit

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 To find RTh

We find RTh by turning off the voltage source (replacing it with a

short circuit) and the current source (replacing it with an open circuit).
The circuit becomes what is shown in Fig.

To find VTh,

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Applying mesh analysis to the two loops, we obtain

Thevenin equivalent circuit

The current through RL is

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P1.18. Find the Thevenin equivalent looking into terminals a-b of the
circuit in Fig. and solve for ix .

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P1.19. For the circuit of Figure, find the Thevenin equivalent circuit
seen by the load resistor, RL.

Vth = 7.05 V, Rth = 7.05 Ω

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P1.20. Compute the load current, i, by the Thevenin equivalent method
in the circuit of Figure.

V = 24 V; I = 3 A; R1 = 4 ; R2 = 12 ; R3 = 6 .

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P1.21. Find the Thevenin equivalent at terminals a-b of the
circuit in Fig.

Vth = 92 V, Rth = 28 Ω

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P1.22. Find Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig.

Vth = 4 V, Rth = 4 Ω

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P1.23. Find Thevenin’s equivalent circuit for the circuit in Fig.

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P1.24. Obtain Thevenin’s equivalent as viewed from terminals:
(a) a-b (b) c-d
Across a&b
Rth = 2 Ω
Vth = 14 V

Across c&d
Rth = 1.5 Ω
Vth = 19 V

P1.25. Obtain Thevenin’s equivalent of the circuit in Fig. Find current i.

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P1.26. Determine the Thevenin equivalent at terminals a-b of
the circuit in Fig.

Rth = 22.5 Vth = 40 V IN = 1.77 A

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P1.27. Find I in 4 ohm resistor.

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P1.28. Determine vo in the circuit of Fig.

V0 = - 125 mV
V1 = 2V
V2 = - 7.125 V
V3 = 5V
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P1.29. Find current ix.

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 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER

The Thevenin equivalent is useful in finding the maximum power

a linear circuit can deliver to a load. the power delivered to the load is

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showing that the maximum power transfer takes place when the load
Resistance RL equals the Thevenin resistance RTh.

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 Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load
resistance equals the Thevenin resistance as seen from the load (RL =
RTh). called as Impedance matching.

The maximum power transferred is obtained as

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 In Antenna Signal amplifier for radio and TV receivers,

 can be used to design circuits where the maximum output

performance is desired for example to match an Amplifier with a
Loudspeaker to yield maximum power to the speaker and thus
produce maximum sound.

 In electronics, impedance matching is the practice of designing the

input impedance of an electrical load or the output impedance of
its corresponding signal source to maximize the power transfer or
minimize signal reflection from the load.

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P1.30. Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit
of Fig. Find the maximum power.

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Rth determination:

Vth determination:

Applying mesh analysis,

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 For maximum power transfer,

RL = RTh = 9 Ω

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P1.31. For what value of R is the power dissipated in R maximum?
Calculate that power.

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P1.32. Find the maximum power that can be delivered to the resistor R
in the circuit in Fig.

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P1.33. Find the current in 5 Ω resistor for the circuit shown in fig using
mesh method by applying source transformation.

Ans:
V3 = -8.42V
I5Ω= -3.68 A

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