PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRIC

AND ELECTRONICS

BEKG 1123

CHAPTER 2
Direct Current (DC) Circuits
1
 Learning Outcomes:
❑ Calculate power/energy and determine whether energy
is supplied or absorbed by circuit elements.

❑ State and apply Ohm’s law.

❑ Recognize series and parallel circuits and calculate the

total resistance.

❑ Apply the suitable theorem of circuit theory (voltage/

current divider or Kirchhoff’s Laws or Mesh/Node
Analysis) to solve electrical circuits.

2
Chapter 2: Direct Current (DC) Circuits
• In this chapter, we will cover:
– 2.1 DC Source
– 2.2 Ohm’s Law
– 2.3 Power and Energy
– 2.4 Resistor
– 2.5 Capacitor
– 2.6 Inductor
– 2.7 Nodes, Branch and Loop
– 2.8 Kirchhoff's Law
– 2.9 Series Circuits
– 2.10 Parallel Circuits
– 2.11 Series-parallel Circuits
– 2.12 Current and Voltage Divider
– 2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation
– 2.14 Node/Nodal Analysis
– 2.15 Mesh Analysis
3
 2.1 DC Sources

• Direct current (DC): a constant flow of electric

charge with time

• For ideal voltage source and ideal current source,

they supply fixed voltage and fixed current
respectively.
• Ideal sources do not exist. It use to simplify circuit
analysis.

4
 2.1 DC Sources: Voltage source
• There are two types of voltage sources – independent and
dependent voltage source.
• Independent voltage source- is an active element that provides
specific voltage that is completely independent of other circuit
elements connected to it.
• Dependent voltage source - is an active element in which the
source quantity is controlled by another voltage or current

5
 2.1 DC Sources: Voltage source
• Two types of dependent voltage source
are voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS)
and current controlled voltage source (CCVS).

• The sign of voltage can be negative.

6
7
 2.1 DC Sources: Voltage source
• Voltage source can be connected in series. In this connection
the voltage value is added.

• But can not connect in parallel. Could easily cause component

failure.

BEKG 1123
Principles of Electric and Chapter 2 : Direct Current (DC) 8
Electronics Circuits
 2.1 DC Sources: Current source
• There are two types of current sources - independent and
dependent current source.
• Independent current source- is an active element that
provides specific current that is completely independent of
other circuit elements connected to it.
• Dependent current source - the current produced may depend
on some other circuit variable such as current or voltage.

9
 2.1 DC Sources: Current source
• Two types of dependent current source are voltage
controlled current source (VCCS) and current controlled
current source (CCCS).
• The sign of current can be negative.

10
 2.1 DC Sources: Current source
• Ideal current sources cannot be connected in series.

• However it is allowed if the sources is connected in parallel.

11
 2.2 Ohm’s Law
• Resistance is a characteristic of material to resists the flow of
electric charge and is represented by the symbol R.
• The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional
area A depends on A and its length, l .
• In mathematical form,

*where ρ is known as the resistivity of the material in ohm-meter

12
2.2 Ohm’s Law

13
 2.2 Ohm’s Law
• Ohm's Law defines the relationships between (P) power, (V)
voltage, (I) current, and (R) resistance. One Ohm (Ω) is the
resistance value through which one volt will maintain a
current of one ampere.
• Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a resistor is directly
proportional to the current I flowing through the resistor.

14
 2.2 Ohm’s Law
• Good conductors, such as copper and aluminum, have low
resistivity, while insulators, such as mica and paper, have high
resistivity.
• Two extreme possible values of R = 0 (zero) and R = ∞
(infinite) are related with two basic circuit concepts: short
circuit and open circuit.

Short circuit
Let V=5V
• but the current is not zero; could
be anything. Open circuit
• In practice (simple circuit), a
short circuit is always a
connecting wire assumed to be a
perfect conductor.
15
 Unwanted Short Circuit
• A short circuit is a circuit in which the electricity has found
an alternative path to return to the source without going
through an appropriate load

The wire will

heat instantly
and probably
melt

If the wire inside the drill comes loose and

touches the other wire, a new path exists
where the current can return to the source
without going through a load (drill)

Short Circuit
Video 16
 2.2 Ohm’s Law
• Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric
current; it is the reciprocal of resistance R and is measured in
mhos or siemens.

• The power dissipated by a resistor:

17
 2.2 Ohm’s Law
EXAMPLE

Calculate:
1. Current, I
2. Conductance, G
3. Power, p

18
 2.2 Ohm’s Law
Solution

1
.

2
.

3
.

19
 2.2 Ohm’s Law
EXAMPLE

For the given circuit, calculate the voltage v, the conductance G

and the power p.

Answer: 20V, 100µS, 40mW

20
 2.3 Power and Energy
• Power is the time rate of expanding or absorbing energy,
measured in watts (W).
• Mathematical expression:

21
 2.3 Power and Energy
• If the current enters through the positive terminal of an
element,
p = +vi ….absorbing power
• Passive element such as resistor, inductor and capacitor will
absorb power
• If the current enters through the negative terminal of an
element
p = −vi ….supplying power
• Active element such as current/voltage source will supply
power
Absorbing power Supplying Power

22
 2.3 Power and Energy
EXAMPLE

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Two cases of an Two cases of

element with an absorbing an element with a supplying
power of 12 W: power of 12 W:
(a) p = 4 × 3 = 12 W, (c) p = 4 × (−3) = −12 W,
(b) p = 4 × 3 = 12 W. (d) p = 4 × (−3) = −12 W.
23
 2.3 Power and Energy
• The law of conservation of energy ; the algebraic
sum of power in a circuit at any instant of time,
must be zero:

* power supplied to the circuit must balance the total power

absorbed

• The energy absorbed or supplied by an element

from time t0 to time t is:

24
* the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J)
 Exercise
Compute the power for each element shown in Figure Q1. For each
element, state whether energy is being absorbed by the elements or
supplied by it.
Given the magnitude of va and ia are 30V and 2A respectively.

25
 Exercise
State the law of conservation of energy.
For Figure Q2, prove the law of conversation of energy using the
calculation.
100
Ω

5V

150
Ω
Figure Q2

26
 2.4 Resistor

• The resistor is far and away the simplest circuit

element.
• In a resistor, the voltage v is proportional to the
current i, with the constant of proportionality R
known as the resistance.
• Resistor is an element denotes its ability to resist the
flow of electric current, it is measured in ohms (Ω).

27
2.4 Resistor: Color code and ratings

28
*Better Be Right Or Your Great Big Venture Goes Worse
29
 …continued
Number Colour Petua
0 hitam Haji
1 Perang Pak
2 merah Mat
3 oren Orang
4 Kuning Kaya
5 Hijau Hendak
6 Biru Beli
7 Ungu Ubi
8 Kelabu Kayu
9 Putih Putih
± 5% Emas Enggan
±10% Perak Pulang tolerance
±20% Tak berwarna Tanpa wang
30
 2.4 Resistor: Color code and ratings

• The above resistance is 1,000,000 Ω or 1MΩ.

• The 10% means the actual resistance is between 900kΩ and
1.1M Ω (100k Ω tolerance).

31
 2.4 Resistor: Color code and ratings

• The above resistance is 150,000 Ω or 150kΩ.

• The 5% means the actual resistance is between 142.5kΩ and
157.5kΩ.

32
 2.4 Resistor: Color code and ratings

• The above resistance is 3,300 Ω or 3.3kΩ.

• The 5% means the actual resistance is between 3,135Ω and
3,465Ω.

33
 2.5 Capacitor
• Unlike resistor which dissipate energy, capacitor store energy,
which can be retrieved at later time. It is a passive elements.
• Also called storage elements. The energy is stored in its electric
field.
• The unit to measure the capacitance of a capacitor, C is farad
(F).

Capacitor Capacitor type

symbol
34
 2.5 Capacitor
• Capacitor acts as a storage element:

1. There is a capacitor in parallel with the

resistor and light bulb. The way the capacitor
functions is by acting as a very low
resistance load when the circuit is initially
turned on. Note: In electrical circuit, current
will always flow through a path with least
resistance

2. Initially, the capacitor has a very low

resistance, almost 0. Since electricity takes the
path of least resistance, almost all the
electricity flows through the capacitor, not
the resistor, as the resistor has considerably 35

higher resistance.
 2.5 Capacitor

3. As a capacitor charges, its resistance

increases as it gains more and more charge.
As the resistance of the capacitor climbs,
electricity begins to flow not only to the
capacitor, but through the resistor as well.

4. Once the capacitor's voltage equals that of

the battery, meaning it is fully charged, it
will not allow any current to pass through
it. As a capacitor charges its resistance
increases and becomes effectively infinite
(open connection) and all the electricity
flows through the resistor.

36
 2.5 Capacitor

6. Once the voltage source is disconnected, the

capacitor will act as a voltage source itself.

7. As time goes on, the capacitor's charge

begins to drop, and so does its voltage. This
means less current flowing through the
resistor.

8. Once the capacitor is fully discharged, no

current will flow.
37
2.5 Capacitor: Code

38
 2.6 Inductor
• It is a passive element designed to store energy in its
magnetic field.
• Inductor, L consists of a coil of conducting wire.
• Inductance is measured in henrys (H).

Inductor
symbol
Inductor 39
type
 2.6 Inductor
EXAMPLE

What you see here is

a battery, a light bulb,
a coil of wire around
a piece of iron
(yellow) and a switch.
The coil of wire is an
inductor.

40
 2.6 Inductor
■ Without the inductor in this circuit, what you would have is a
normal flashlight. You close the switch and the bulb lights up.

■ If there is an inductor, when the switch is closed the bulb

burns brightly and then gets dimmer. When the switch is
opened, the bulb burns very brightly and then quickly goes out.

■ The reason for this strange behavior is the inductor. When

current first starts flowing in the coil, the coil wants to build
up a magnetic field.

41
 2.6 Inductor
■ While the field is building, the coil prevents the flow of current.
Once the field is built, current can flow normally through the
wire (coil).

■ A large amount of current will flow through this coil let only a
small amount of current flow to the light bulb. This is why the
bulb gets dimmer.

■ When the switch gets opened, the magnetic field around the
coil keeps current flowing in the coil until the field collapses.
This current keeps the bulb lit for a period of time even though
the switch is open. In other words, an inductor can store
energy in its magnetic field, and an inductor tends to resist any
change in the amount of current flowing through it.
42
2.6 Inductor: Colour code

43
 2.7 Nodes, Branches and Loops
• A branch represents a single
element such as a voltage
source or a resistor

• A node is the point of

connection between two or
more branches

• A loop is any closed path in a

circuit.

44
 2.7 Nodes, Branches and Loops

• An independent loop is a loop that contain at

least one branch which is not part of any other
independent loop.
• A network with b branches, n nodes, and l
independent loops will satisfy the fundamental
theorem of network topology:

45
 2.7 Nodes, Branches and Loops
EXAMPLE

Original circuit

How many branches, nodes, loops and independent loops

are there?

Equivalent circuit 3 nodes, 5 branches, 3

loops
46
 2.7 Nodes, Branches and Loops
Rules
I1 I2
a
I1 =
I2
Two or more elements are in series and carry the same current if
they exclusively share a single node

v v v v1 = v 2 =
1 2 3

v3
Two or more elements are in parallel and have the same voltage if
they connected to the same two nodes
47
 2.8 Kirchhoff's Law
• The foundation of circuit analysis is:
– The defining equations for circuit elements (e.g. ohm’s law)
• Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)

• The defining equations tell how the voltage and current within
a circuit element are related.

• Kirchhoff’s laws tell us how the voltages and currents in

different branches are related.

48
 2.8 Kirchhoff's Law: KCL
■ Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of
currents entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero.

N = number of branches connected to a node.

As a rule of thumb for calculation :

current entering a node is regarded as
positive (+ve), current leaving a node is
regarded as negative (-ve).

49
 2.8 Kirchhoff's Law: KCL
EXAMPLE 1

Applying KCL:

4 + i = 5 + 11
thus, i = 12A

50
 2.8 Kirchhoff's Law: KCL

Original Equivalent
circuit circuit

• When current sources are connected in parallel, KCL can be

applied to obtain the total current.
• The combined current is the algebraic sum of the current
supplied by the individual sources.
• A circuit cannot contain two different currents, I1 and I2, in
series, unless I1 = I2; otherwise KCL will be violated.

51
 2.8 Kirchhoff's Law: KCL
PRACTISE PROBLEM 2.7 (Pg42)-Sadiku
Find vo and io in the circuit of the following figure:
a

Solution:
Apply KCL at node a +6 – i o - (i o/4) - i x=0
But we know : i o = v o/2, i x = v o/8
Substituting 6 = (v o/2) + (v o/8) + (v o/8)
We get v o = 8V and i o = 4A
52 52
 2.8 Kirchhoff's Law: KVL
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic
sum of all voltages around a closed path (or loop) is zero.

“Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage supplied”

Mathematically, Thus, the KVL

equation :
-v1 + v 2 +v3 –v4 +v5 = 0

53
 2.8 Kirchhoff's Law: KVL

The KVL
equation :

o
r

Equivalent
Original circuit
circuit
• When voltage sources are connected in series, KVL can be
applied to obtain the total voltage
• The combined voltage is the algebraic sum of the voltages of the
individual sources

54
 2.8 Kirchhoff's Law: KVL
EXAMPLE
• Applying the KVL equation for the circuit of the
figure below to find the current, I.

-va+v1+vb+v2+v3 = 0

V1 = IR1 v2 = IR2 v3 = IR3

⇒ va-vb = I(R 1 + R 2 + R 3)

55
 2.8 Kirchhoff's Law: KVL
PRACTISE PROBLEM 2.5 (Pg41) KVL

Find v1 and v2 in the circuit of the following figure:

Solution:
Apply KVL -10+v 1- 8 -v 2 =0 and v 1=4i, v2=-2i
Substituting => -10 + 4i – 8 - (-2i) = 0
We get => 18 = 6i, hence i=3A
Thus V 1=12V, V 2=-6V

56
 2.8 Kirchhoff's Law: KVL
PRACTISE PROBLEM 2.6 (Pg41) KVL

Find vx and vo in the circuit of the following figure:

Solution:
Apply KVL -35 +v x + 2v x - v o=0 and v x=10i, v o=-5i
Substituting => -35 + 10i + 2(10i) - (-5i) = 0
We get => 35 = 35i, hence i=1A
Hence v x=10V, v o=-5V

57
 2.8 Kirchhoff's Law:
PRACTISE PROBLEM 2.8 (Pg43)-Sadiku

Find the currents and voltages in the circuit shown in the

following figure

58
KCL at the top node;
a

KVL at loop 1;

KVL at loop 2; The steps will be easier /

shorter when NODAL
ANALYSIS is applied – will
be learned in the
subsequent subtopic
Substituting (2) and (3) into (1) yields

V2 = 2V hence V 1 = 3V, V3 = 5V
i1 =1.5 A, i2 =0.25A, i 3 =1.25A
59
 2.9 Series Circuits

• Series: Two or more elements are in series if they are

cascaded or connected sequentially and consequently carry
the same current.
• The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors
connected in a series is the sum of the individual resistances.

60
 2.10 Parallel Circuits

• Parallel: Two or more elements are in parallel if they are

connected to the same two nodes and consequently have the
same voltage across them.
• The equivalent resistance of a circuit with N resistors in
parallel is:

61
 2.10 Series-Parallel Circuits

EXAMPLE 2.9 (Pg.47)-Sadiku

Find Req for the circuit shown in the following figure

Answer:
14.4 ohm

62
 2.11 Series-Parallel Circuits
PRACTISE PROBLEM 2.9 (Pg.48)-Sadiku

By combining the resistors in the following fig, find Req.

Answer:
6 ohm

63
 2.11 Series-Parallel Circuits
EXAMPLE 2.10 (Pg.48)-Sadiku

Calculate the equivalent resistance Rab in the following circuit:

Answer:
11.2 ohm

64
 2.11 Series-Parallel Circuits
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2.10 (Pg.49)-Sadiku

Calculate the equivalent resistance Rab in the following circuit:

Answer:
11 ohm
65
 2.12 Current and Voltage Divider
• Recall: The current that pass through the series elements has
the same value.

Thus,
i1 = i 2 = i 3

66
 2.12 Current and Voltage Divider
• Consider the following figure:

where Req = R 1 + R 2

67
 2.11 Current and Voltage Divider
• Consider the following figure:

• Applying Ohm’s law to each of the resistors,

v1 = iR 1 , v2 = iR 2 (1)

68
 2.12 Current and Voltage Divider

• KVL (clockwise):
v1 + v 2 – v = 0 (2)
• Combining both the above equation,
v = v 1+ v 2 = i(R 1 + R 2)

or (3)

69
 2.12 Current and Voltage Divider
• For 2 resistors R 1 and R2 with supply voltage V s;

• The above equation is called the principle of voltage division.

• The source voltage v is divided among the resistors in direct

proportion to their resistances; the larger the resistance, the
larger the voltage drop.

70
 Voltage Divider
• Find v1 and v2 in the circuit of the
following figure by using voltage
divider:

V1=12V,
V2=-6V

71
 Voltage Divider
Calculate V o in the circuit of the following figure:
(6.4V)

72
 Voltage Divider
• Find voltage across 6Ω

V= 4.5V

73
• Find voltage across 5Ω

V=20V

74
 2.12 Current and Voltage Divider

Note that elements in parallel have the same voltage

drops across them.

75
 2.12 Current and Voltage Divider
• Consider the following figure:

where

76
 2.12 Current and Voltage Divider
• Consider the following figure:

• Applying Ohm’s law to each of the resistors,

v = i 1 R1 , v = i 2 R2

77 77
 2.12 Current and Voltage Divider
or
(4)

• Applying KCL at node a gives the total current i

as
i = i1 + i 2 (5)

• Substituting eq 4 into 5, yields

(6)
78 78
 2.12 Current and Voltage Divider

• From eq 6

(7)

• Substituting eq 7 into 4 gives,

(8)

• Equation 8 is known as the principle of current

division.
79 79
EXERCISE

EXAMPLE 2.12 (Pg.50)-Sadiku

Find io and vo in the circuit below. Calculate the power dissipated

in the 3Ω resistor.

Answer:
vo =4 V, io =4/3 A, 5.333 W

80 80
EXERCISE

EXAMPLE 2.13 (Pg.51)-Sadiku

For the circuit shown below, determine:
(a) the voltage vo,
(b) the power supplied by the current source,
(c) the power absorbed by each resistor.

Answer: (a) vo = 180 V, (b) 5.4 W, P 12kΩ=1.2W, P9kΩ=3.6W, P6kΩ=0.6W,

81 81
82
EXERCISE
PRACTISE PROBLEM 2.13 (Pg.52)-Sadiku
For the circuit shown below, find:
(a) v 1 and v 2,
(b) the power dissipated in the 3-kΩ and 20-kΩ resistors, and
(c) the power supplied by the current source.

Answer: (a) 15 V, 20 V, (b) 75 mW, 20 mW, (c) 200 mW.

83 83
84
EXERCISE

PRACTISE PROBLME 2.12 (Pg.51)-Sadiku

Find v1 and v2 in the circuit shown below. Also calculate i1
and i2 and the power dissipated in the 12Ω and 40Ω resistors.

Answer: v1 = 5 V, i1 = 416.7 mA, p1 = 2.083 W, v2 = 10 V,

i2 = 250 mA, p2 = 2.5 W.

85 85
 2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation

• Some resistors are combined neither in series nor

parallel. For example,

86 86
 2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation
• These type of connection can be simplified by using
three-terminal equivalent network.

87 87
 2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation
• The wye (Y) / tee (T) network and the delta (Δ) / pi (π).

• The wye network can be converted into the delta network and
vice versa.

• This conversion will simplify the circuit analysis.

• Note: This conversion did not take anything out of the circuit
or put in anything new.

88 88
 2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation
• Delta-Wye conversion:

89 89
 2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation
• Wye-Delta conversion:

90 90
 cont’d..
useful when the resistors are
neither in parallel nor in series

Delta -> Star Star -> Delta

91
91
 2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation
EXAMPLE

1) Convert the delta network to wye network

92 92
2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation

93 93
 2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation
Converted delta to wye network:

94 94
 2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation

2) Convert the wye network to delta network

Answer:
Ra = 140Ω; Rb = 70Ω ; Rc = 35Ω

95
 2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation
3) Obtain the equivalent resistance Rab for the circuit
below.

96 96
2.13 Wye-Delta Transformation

Answer: Rab = 9.632Ω & i = 12.458A

97 97
98
 Practice Problem 2.15 (Pg 58)
For the bridge network below, find Rab and i.

Answer: 40Ω , 2.5 A.

99
100
2.14 Node/Nodal Analysis
• Nodal voltage or Branch voltage analysis provides a general
procedure for analyzing circuits using node voltages as the
circuit variables.

• EXAMPLE
Practice 1 3.1 (pg85) – circuit with independent current source
Problem

10
101 1
 2.14 Node/Nodal Analysis
• Steps:

1. Select a node as the reference node.

2. Assign voltages v 1,v2,…,vn-1 to the remaining n-1
nodes. The voltages are referenced with respect
to the reference node.
3. Label the current direction in each branch & sign
(+/-)
4. Apply KCL to each of the n-1 non-reference
nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the branch
currents in terms of node voltages.
5. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to
obtain the unknown node voltages and currents
10
102 2
 2.14 Node/Nodal Analysis
EXAMPLE 1
Apply KCL at
node 1 and 2

v1 v2

10
103 3
 i2

i1 i3

*Answer v 1 = -2V, v 2 = -14V 104

Solving 2 equations using calculator

105
Example 3.2 (pg86) – current with dependant current
source

106
 Rearranging the terms,

107
*Answer v1 = 4.8V, v2 = 2.4V, v3 = -2.4V
 2.15 Mesh Analysis
• Mesh (Loop) analysis provides another
general procedure for analyzing circuits
using mesh currents as the circuit variables.
• Nodal analysis applies KCL to find unknown
voltages in a given circuit, while mesh
analysis applies KVL to find unknown
currents.
• A mesh is a loop which does not contain any
other loops within it.

108
 2.15 Mesh Analysis
Steps to determine the mesh currents:
1. Identify mesh (loops)
2. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, …, in to the n
meshes.
3. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use
Ohm’s law to express the voltages in terms
of the mesh currents.
4. Solve the resulting n simultaneous
equations to get the mesh currents.
109
 2.15 Mesh Analysis
Steps to determine the mesh currents:
1. Identify meshes (loops)

110
 2.15 Mesh Analysis
Steps to determine the mesh currents:
2. Assign mesh currents i 1, i 2, …, i n to the n meshes.

111
 2.15 Mesh Analysis
Steps to determine the mesh currents:
3. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express
the voltages in terms of the mesh currents.

Remember …..

V R = I1 R VR = (I1 – I2 ) R
Loop 1 –V1 + 1000I1 + 1000(I1 – I2) = 0
2000I1 – 1000I2 = V1 ……………….….(1)

Loop 2 1000(I2 – I1)+ 1000I2 + V2 = 0

-1000I1 + 2000I2 = –V2………….….(2)
112
 2.15 Mesh Analysis
Steps to determine the mesh currents:
4. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh
currents.
1kΩ 1kΩ

+ 1kΩ +
V I1 I2 V
– –
1 2

Let: V1 = 7V and V2 = 4V
Results:
I1 = 3.33 mA
I2 = –0.33 mA
Finally
Vout = (I1 – I2) 1kΩ = 3.66V
113
Example 1 – circuit with dependent voltage source

Find I1 , I 2 , I3

114
Example 2 – circuit with dependent voltage source

Calculate the mesh currents i1 and i2 in the circuit below :

115
Example 3 - circuit with dependent voltage source

Find I0

I 1 = 2.25A, I 2= 0.75A, I 3 = 1.5A

I o = I 1-I2 =1.5A 116

Example 4 – circuit with dependent & Independent voltage sources

Using mesh analysis, find io in the circuit below:

   

I 1 = -3.214A, I 2 = -9.643A, I 3 = -5A,

I0 = I3 117
Example 5 – circuit with current source

Using mesh analysis, find current through 6Ω resistor in the circuit below:

In loop
1;

In loop
2;
Let

118
 Nodal versus Mesh Analysis
To select the method that results in the smaller number of
equations;

1. Choose nodal analysis for circuit with fewer nodes than

meshes.
*Choose mesh analysis for circuit with fewer meshes
than nodes.
*Networks that contain many series connected elements,
voltage sources, or supermeshes are more suitable for
mesh analysis.
*Networks with parallel-connected elements, current
sources, or supernodes are more suitable for nodal
analysis.

2. If node voltages are required, it may be expedient to apply

nodal analysis. If branch or mesh currents are required, it
may be better to use mesh analysis.
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 THANK YOU..
O

Chapter 2 120