CIVE 4753 / 5753

Engineering Soil Stabilization

Fall 2022
Week 12: Lecture 7

Monday, October 31, 2022

 Cement
Mix Design
 Mixture Design
• Analysis of native soil properties.
• Estimate the dosage rate of cement.
• Laboratory tests.
–Gradation and Atterberg limits of untreated soil.
–Atterberg limits of the CSS.
–Standard Proctor compaction.
–Unconfined compressive strength (optional for CMS).
–Free swell (optional).
–Unconfined compressive dry strength and wet strength
(after 10-day free swell).
• Cement used for CSS should comply with the latest
specifications for Portland cement.
–ASTM C150, ASTM C1157, AASHTO M85, ASTM C595,
AASHTO M240
 Mixture Design
• Sieve analysis (ASTM C136).
–100% passing 3-inch sieve.
–Minimum 95% passing 2-inch sieve.
–Minimum 55% passing no. 4 sieve.
• Moisture-density relationship (ASTM D558).
• Compressive strength (ASTM D1633).
–Series at different cement contents.
–Target is generally 300 – 400 psi.
–Additional strength may be required if materials are
moisture-sensitive or rather factors demand higher
strength.
–Balanced design provides sufficient strength without
creating a brittle section.
 Mixture Design – Steps
• Determine in situ moisture content and classify soil.
• Determine cement type and estimated dosage rate.
• Determine chemical compatibility (if necessary).
• Determine Atterberg limits of three different cement
content samples.
• Determine optimum moisture content and maximum
dry density.
• Determine unconfined compressive strength
(optional for CMS).
• Plot confined compressive strength to verify cement
content.
• Complete mix design.
Construction
 Cement Stabilization
• Cement is most commonly applied in a dry condition, in
which case the cement should be uniformly spread in a
controlled manner by a spreader truck equipped with a
mechanical spreader.
• However, cement can also be applied in slurry form from a
distributor truck equipped with an agitation system or
additives designed to keep the solids in suspension.
• Mixing should begin within 30 minutes of cement
placement.
• It is important to sufficiently pulverize the soil to the full
depth and width of mixing, especially for cohesive soils
such as silty clays and clays.
• The more finely the soils are pulverized, the more effective
the cement stabilization treatment will be.
 Cement Stabilization
•Truck being filled with cement.
 Cement Stabilization
•Dry application.
•Mix one time and compact soon.
 Cement Stabilization
•Water applied to the soil.
 Cement Stabilization
•Water can be applied to mixer directly.
•Typical curing time is usually shortened.
 Cement Stabilization
•Water applied to mixer directly.
 Cement Stabilization
• For the unconfined compressive strength tests, the
specimens should be immersed in water for four
hours prior to testing.
• For soils that are too dry, water can be added
immediately before or during initial pulverization.
• For highly plastic soils, mixing the cement in dry or
slurry form prior to adjusting the water content to
bring the soil to its optimum moisture may prevent
the clay from failing to provide the desired results.
• For overly wet soils, aeration of the soil may be
necessary prior to stabilization, or the soil can be
pretreated with a moisture-absorbent additive.
 Cement Stabilization
•Once the water, cement, and existing subgrade
materials have been mixed, compaction is the
next step.
•The time limit between mixing and compaction
should occur immediately after mixing.
•All construction operations should be completed
on the same day.
Construction
Quality Control
 Quality Control
•Check depth of chemical stabilization and content.

•After completing the final grade, use a color-

sensitive indicator solution, such as
phenolphthalein or thymol blue, to measure
the thickness and uniformity of the compacted
soil and chemical mixture in accordance with
Subsection 301.04.A(2), “Width and Thickness.”
Apply the indicator solution along the side of a
small hole excavated to the required depth of
chemical treatment and note the depth and
uniformity of the color change.
 Field Verification
• Ideally, we need a versatile and reliable method for
measuring stabilizer content in the field for any
additive type and at any time after mixing.
• Construction Quality Control
–Can inspect stabilized subgrade and make a determination
if enough stabilizer has been used and have any issues
fixed before the pavement is laid.
• Forensic Geotechnical Investigations
–Inspectors can collect samples during construction and
keep them in case a roadway performs poorly in the
future.
–Samples can be obtained during failure investigations –
less accurate than banking samples during construction.
 Quality Control
•X-Ray Flourecense (XRF).

•Benchtop unit: •Portable unit:

Bruker S2 Ranger Olympus X-5000

 Basic Working Principle of XRF
•XRF identifies individual elements in samples
only.
•The results of each element are given in parts per
million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb).
•XRF does not measure compounds.
•It is standard industry convention to assume that
all elements bond with oxygen (𝑂𝑂2 ) to become an
oxide.
 Quality Control
•X-Ray Flourecense (XRF).

•Handheld units:

Olympus Delta Professional Bruker Tracer III

 Quality Control
• Check compaction (density) and moisture content.
 Quality Control
•Check stiffness and strength.

Light Weight
Deflectometer
California (LWD).
Bearing Ratio
(CBR) Dynamic Cone
Penetrometer
(DCP)
 Field Testing (Strength and Durability)
•Field testing to determine long-term strengths
and durability of chemically stabilized subgrades.
 Field Testing (Strength and Durability)
•Field testing to determine long-term strengths
and durability of chemically stabilized subgrades.
 Field Testing (Strength and Durability)
•Field testing to determine long-term strengths
and durability of chemically stabilized subgrades.
 Field Testing (Strength and Durability)
•Field testing to determine long-term strengths
and durability of chemically stabilized subgrades.
 Summary of Quality Assurance
• The agency should verify the mix design and conduct
a quality assurance program.
• Quality assurance procedures are applied
corresponding to different chemical stabilization
methods at various stages of construction.
• Critical parameters to be measured include:
–Thickness of stabilized layer.
–Moisture content.
–Stabilizer content.
–Compaction effort and delay.
–Curing procedures and time for the mixture.
–Gradation of mixture.
–Shear strength and modulus.
 Summary of Quality Assurance
• One of the more important quality assurance
measures is the uniformity of the blend.
• The method to evaluate that a uniform blend is being
achieved is by digging holes across the roadway and
observing the mixed materials, which should have a
uniform consistency, color, and moisture content.
• Samples should be taken for moisture content and, if
possible, stabilized additive content tests.
• For cement and lime stabilization, a quick
assessment of uniformity can be made by spraying
the sides of the hole with a phenolphthalein
solution.
• The color of the modified soil should change to a
uniform deep red indicating sufficient stabilizer in the
material.
Fly Ash
 Fly Ash
• Fly ash is the finely divided residue that results from the
combustion of pulverized coal and is transported from the
combustion chamber by exhaust gases.
• Fly ash is produced by coal-fired electric and steam generating
plants.
• Typically, coal is pulverized and blown with air into the boiler’s
combustion chamber where it immediately ignites, generating
heat and producing a molten mineral residue.
 Fly Ash
• Boiler tubes extract heat from the boiler, cooling the flue gas
and causing the molten mineral residue to harden and form
ash.
• Coarse ash particles, referred to as bottom ash or slag, fall to
the bottom of the combustion chamber, while the lighter
fine ash particles, termed fly ash, remain suspended in the
flue gas.
• Prior to exhausting the flue gas, fly ash is removed by
particle emission control devices, such as electrostatic
precipitators or filter fabric baghouses.
 Fly Ash
•Fly ash is most commonly used as a pozzolan in
pavement engineering applications.
•Pozzolans are siliceous or silicious/aluminous
minerals, which in a finely divided form and in the
presence of water, react with calcium hydroxide
at ordinary temperatures to produce
cementitious compounds.
•The consistency and abundance of fly ash in
many areas present unique opportunities for use
in structural fills and other pavement
applications.
 Fly Ash in Soil Stabilization
• Class C fly ash and Class F fly ash – Lime or Cement product
blends can be used in numerous geotechnical applications
(most commonly in highway construction).
–To enhance strength properties.
–To stabilize embankments.
–To control shrink-swell properties of expansive soils.
–As a drying agent to reduce soil moisture content to permit
compaction.
• The plasticity of soils treated with Class C or other high
calcium fly ash is influenced by the types of clay minerals
present in the soil and their adsorbed water.
• For cohesionless soils with low plasticity, fly ash treatment
with cement will be more effective than lime.
• For plastic soils, fly ash treatment either with cement or
lime is more effective.
 Fly Ash in Soil Stabilization

•Fly ash content:

–Typical fly ash contents are 8% to 16% based on dry
weight of soil.
• The addition rate depends on the nature of the soil,
characteristics of the fly ash and the desired strength.
• Fly ash content must be determined by laboratory mix
design testing.
• Fly ashes for the state department of transportation
projects are usually specified to meet AASHTO M295 (ASTM
C618).
 Applications
•Fly ash is used in:
–Pavement engineering applications.
–Portland cement concrete.
–Soil and road base modification / stabilization.
–Flowable fill.
–Grouts.
–Structural fill.
–Asphalt filler.
 Particle Shape and Size
• The unique spherical shape and particle size distribution of fly
ash make it a good mineral filler in hot mix asphalt applications
and improves the fluidity of flowable fill and grout.
• The consistency and abundance of fly ash in many areas present
unique opportunities for use in structural fills and other
pavement applications.
• The physical and chemical characteristics of fly ash vary among
combustion methods, coal source, and particle shape.
• Size and shape:
–Fly ash is typically finer than Portland
cement and lime.
–Fly ash consists of silt-sized particles
which are generally spherical, typically
ranging in size between 10 and 100
micro-meters.
–These small glass spheres improves the
fluidity and workability of fresh concrete.
–Fineness is one of the important
properties contributing to the pozzolanic
reactivity of fly ash.
 Fly Ash in Soil Stabilization
• Important considerations for soil improvement using fly
ash are:
–The rate of hydration upon exposure to water.
–Soil moisture content at the time of compaction.
–Fly ash with high sulfate content.
–In many cases, leaching tests may be required by local and
state agencies.
• Class C fly ash can be used as a stand-alone material
because of its self-cementing properties.
• Class F fly ash can be used in soil stabilization applications
with the addition of a cementitious agent.
–Lime.
–Lime kiln dust (LKD).
–Cement.
–Cement kiln dust (CKD).
 Benefits
• Environmental benefits in reducing the energy use and
greenhouse gas and other adverse air emissions when fly
ash is used to replace cement.
–Less cement is used.
• However, the use of fly ash in soil stabilization and soil
modification may be subject to local environmental
requirements regarding the leaching and potential
interaction with ground water and nearby water sources.
• Fly ash provides the following benefits when used to
improve soil conditions.
–Eliminates need for expensive borrow materials.
–Expedites construction by improving excessively wet subgrades.
–Improves subgrade conditions, promotes cost savings through
reduction in the required pavement thickness.
–Reduces the need for expensive natural aggregates in the
pavement construction.
 Quality of Fly Ash
•Quality requirements for fly ash vary depending
on the intended use.
–Fly ash quality is affected by
• Fuel characteristics (coal).
• Co-firing of fuels.
• Various aspects of the combustion and flue gas cleaning /
collection processes.
•The four most relevant characteristics of fly ash
for use in concrete and soil stabilization:
–Loss on ignition (LOI).
–Fineness.
–Chemical composition.
–Uniformity.
 Fly Ash Chemistry
•Fly ash consists primarily of oxides of silicon,
aluminum, iron, and calcium.
• Magnesium, potassium, sodium, titanium, and sulfur are also
present to a lesser degree.
•When used as a mineral admixture in soil or
concrete, fly ash is classified as either Class C or
Class F ash based on its chemical composition.
•AASHTO M295 and ASTM C618 define the
chemical composition of Class C and Class F fly
ash.
•Class C fly ash is also referred to as high calcium fly
ash because it typically contains more than 20%
CaO.
 Chemistry
•Chemical make up
Compounds Class F (%) Class C (%) Cement (%)
SiO2 55 40 23
Al2O3 26 17 4
Fe2O3 7 6 2
CaO 9 24 64
MgO 2 5 2
SO3 1 3 2
 Fly Ash Properties
• LOI is a measurement of unburned carbon (coal) remaining
in the ash and is a critical characteristic of fly ash.
–AASHTO and ASTM specify limits for LOI.
• Fineness of fly ash is most closely related to the operating
condition of the coal crushers and the grindability of the
coal itself.
–A coarser gradation can result in a less reactive ash and could
contain higher carbon content.
• Chemical composition of fly ash relates directly to the
mineral chemistry of the parent coal and any additional
fuels or additives used in the combustion or post-
combustion processes.
• Uniformity of fly ash characteristics from shipment to
shipment is important in order to supply a consistent
product.
–Fly ash chemistry and characteristics are typically known in
advance so mixes are designed and tested for performance.
 Color
•Fly ash can be tan to dark gray, depending on its
chemical and mineral constituents.
–Tan to light colors are typically associated with high
lime content.
–A brownish color is typically associated with the iron
content.
–A dark gray to black color is typically attributed to an
unburned carbon content.
•Fly ash color is usually very consistent for each
power plant and coal source.
 Available Standards
•ASTM C311 – Sampling and testing fly ash or
natural pozzolans for use as a mineral admixture
in Portland cement.
•AASHTO M295 and ASTM C618 – Fly ash and raw
or calcined natural pozzolan for use as a mineral
admixture.
•ASTM C593 – Fly ash and pozzolans for use with
lime.
•ASTM D5239 – Standard practice for
characterizing fly ash for use in soil stabilization.
 Strength Characteristics
• The self-cementitious behavior of fly ash is
determined by ASTM D5239.
–This test provides a standard method for determining the
compressive strength of cubes made with fly ash and
water (water / fly ash weight ration is 0.35), tested at 7
days with standard moisture curing.
–The self-cementitious characteristics are ranked as.
• Very self-cementing > 500 psi (3,400 kPa).
• Moderately self-cementing 100-500 psi (700 – 3,400 kPa).
• Non self-cementing < 100 psi (700 kPa).
–It should be noted that the results obtained from ASTM
D5239 only characterizes the cementitious characteristics
of the fly ash – water mixtures and does not alone provide
a basis to evaluate the potential interactions between the
fly ash and soil or aggregate.
 Strength Characteristics
• The compressive strength of fly ash treated soils is
dependent on:
–In-place soil properties.
–Delay time.
–Moisture content at time of compaction.
–Fly ash addition ratio.
• Delay Time – is the elapsed time measured between when
the fly ash first comes in contact with water and final
composition of the soil, fly ash and water mixture:
–Compressive strength is highly dependent upon delay time.
–Both densities and strength are reduced with increasing delay to
final compaction.
–Delay time is critical due to the rapid nature of the tricalcium
aluminate (C3A) reaction that occurs when Class C fly ash is mixed
with water.
–Generally, maximum strength in soil-fly ash mixtures is obtained
at no delay. Typically, a one-hour compaction delay is specified for
construction purposes.
 Fly Ash in Stabilized Base Course
• Fly ash stabilized base courses are mixtures of fly
ash, aggregate, and an activator (cement or lime).
• When this mixture is properly placed and
compacted, it produces a strong and durable
pavement base course.
• Fly ash stabilized base courses are cost-effective
substitutes for properly designed full-depth asphalt,
cement-treated, and crushed stone base courses.
• Fly ash stabilized base course is suitable for both
flexible and rigid pavements.
• Class C fly ash can be used as a stand-alone material.
• Class F fly ash can be used when blended with lime,
Portland cement, or cement kiln dust (CKD).
 Construction Considerations
• Typical equipment:
– Graders and Scarifyers
– Spreaders
– Mixers and Pulverizers
– Sheepfoot and
Pneumatic Rollers
– Sprinklers
– Trucks.
Quality Control
 Fly Ash
•Quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC):
–QA/QC criteria vary from each use of fly ash from
state to state and source to source.
–Some states require certified samples from the silo on
a specified basis for testing and approval before use.
–Others maintain lists of approved sources and accept
project supplier’s certifications of fly ash quality.
 Quality Control
•Check depth of chemical stabilization and content.

•After completing the final grade, use a color-

sensitive indicator solution, such as
phenolphthalein or thymol blue, to measure
the thickness and uniformity of the compacted
soil and chemical mixture in accordance with
Subsection 301.04.A(2), “Width and Thickness.”
Apply the indicator solution along the side of a
small hole excavated to the required depth of
chemical treatment and note the depth and
uniformity of the color change.
 Field Verification
• Ideally, we need a versatile and reliable method for
measuring stabilizer content in the field for any
additive type and at any time after mixing.
• Construction Quality Control
–Can inspect stabilized subgrade and make a determination
if enough stabilizer has been used and have any issues
fixed before the pavement is laid.
• Forensic Geotechnical Investigations
–Inspectors can collect samples during construction and
keep them in case a roadway performs poorly in the
future.
–Samples can be obtained during failure investigations –
less accurate than banking samples during construction.
 Quality Control
•X-Ray Fluoresence (XRF).

•Benchtop unit: •Portable unit:

Bruker S2 Ranger Olympus X-5000

 Basic Working Principle of XRF
•XRF identifies individual elements in samples
only.
•The results of each element are given in parts per
million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb).
•XRF does not measure compounds.
•It is standard industry convention to assume that
all elements bond with oxygen (𝑂𝑂2 ) to become an
oxide.
 Quality Control
•X-Ray Fluoresence (XRF).

•Handheld units:

Olympus Delta Professional Bruker Tracer III

 Quality Control
• Check compaction (density) and moisture content.
 Quality Control
•Check stiffness and strength.

Light Weight
Deflectometer
California (LWD).
Bearing Ratio
(CBR) Dynamic Cone
Penetrometer
(DCP)
 Field Testing (Strength and Durability)
•Field testing to determine long-term strengths
and durability of chemically stabilized subgrades.
 Field Testing (Strength and Durability)
•Field testing to determine long-term strengths
and durability of chemically stabilized subgrades.
 Field Testing (Strength and Durability)
•Field testing to determine long-term strengths
and durability of chemically stabilized subgrades.
 Field Testing (Strength and Durability)
•Field testing to determine long-term strengths
and durability of chemically stabilized subgrades.
 Summary of Quality Assurance
• The agency should verify the mix design and conduct
a quality assurance program.
• Quality assurance procedures are applied
corresponding to different chemical stabilization
methods at various stages of construction.
• Critical parameters to be measured include:
–Thickness of stabilized layer.
–Moisture content.
–Stabilizer content.
–Compaction effort and delay.
–Curing procedures and time for the mixture.
–Gradation of mixture.
–Shear strength and modulus.
 Summary of Quality Assurance
• One of the important quality assurance measures is
the uniformity of the blend.
• The method to evaluate that a uniform blend is being
achieved is by digging holes across the roadway and
observing the mixed materials, which should have a
uniform consistency, color, and moisture content.
• Samples should be taken for moisture content and, if
possible, stabilized additive content tests.
• For fly ash stabilizations with cement and lime, a
quick assessment of uniformity can be made by
spraying the sides of the hole with a phenolphthalein
solution.
• The color of the modified soil should change to a
uniform deep red indicating sufficient stabilizer in the
material.
Other Stabilization Agents
 Some Other Agents
•Cement Kiln Dust (CKD).
•Lime Kiln Dust (LKD).
•Ground Granulated Blastfurnace Slag (GGBS).
•Ionic Stabilizers.
•Etc.
 Cement Kiln Dust and Lime Kiln Dust
• CKD and LKD are by-products of Portland cement and
lime production, respectively.
• Their properties depend on the properties of the
source materials and the production processes
followed.
• CKD and LKD are divided into three categories,
namely precalciner, dry kiln, and wet kiln.
• Precalciner kiln dust is most suited to stabilization
due to its higher lime content, while dry- and wet-
process dust are more suited to drying of materials
or for improving workability. Marginal improvements
in plasticity reduction and strength may also be
achieved.
 Slag Cement
•Ground Granulated Blastfurnace Slag (GGBS)
–May be used as a stand-alone stabilizer.
–Can be activated with lime and cement.
–Slower initial set time – more working time
–May be used to mitigate effects of sulfate.

Al-Dakheeli et al. (2021)

 Ionic Stabilizers
•Several brands of ionic stabilizers exist in
engineering practice.
•While their full chemical contents are proprietary,
some of them contain sulfuric acid.
–The sulfuric acid based agents are used at high
dilution concentrations (1 part chemical : 300 parts
water).
 Construction Considerations
• Typical equipment:
– Graders and Scarifyers
– Spreaders
– Mixers and Pulverizers
– Sheepfoot and
Pneumatic Rollers
– Sprinklers
– Trucks.
 Quality Check
•Quality control and long-term strength gain and
durability tests are similar to the tests conducted
for lime, cement, and fly ash.