UCSP REVIEWER

John Locke – a British Enlightenment philosopher, said that the human mind at birth is nothing but a
blank slate, or tabula rasa.
Socialization – refers to the lifelong process of social interaction through which people acquire their
identities
Political Socialization – a process which enables the development of citizens to function effectively
withing particular political system.
Internalization – refers to the process of accepting the social norms, attitudes, roles and values
transmitted

Talcott Parsons – who explains that the people failed to play their expected roles or behaved
“strangely”
William Wentworth – The sociologist, has proposed a synthesized view of socialization. Wenworth
believes that socialization is a two-way process between the individual and the larger groups in society
such as organizations and institutions.
Social Context – refers to the particular circumstances of a society and consists of its culture, language
Content – refers to ideas, beliefs, behaviors, and other information that are passed on by members of
society to the individual.
Process – refers to the methods of interaction
Results – refers to outcomes of socialization
Self Identity – refers to the establishment of unique sense of identity and an awareness of how it relates
to their society and the world.
Enculturation – process of being socialized into a specific culture.

AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION AND ENCULTURATION

3 GROUPS
 Participants
 Agents of Socialization
 Enculturation

The Family – is the primary agent of socialization of an individual upon birth, throughout infancy, and up
to childhood.
Schools – a critical and active role in socialization, as their various academic and social activities mold
students’ beliefs, values, and attitudes.
 Also venues for political socialization.
Peer Groups – reinforce acceptable behaviors introduced by the family and school
 The most part are formed by informal, spontaneous, and voluntary means.
Mass Media – forms of communication such as books, magazines, newspapers, other print materials,
radio, television, and movies.
 Source of information regarding events in society.
Pluralist Model – portrays ,media as an ideological marketplace that enhances debate and electoral
choice.
Market Model – suggests that media reflects the views of the general public, and that media represents
what they think the people want.
Dominant-Ideology and Elite-Values Model – put emphasis on the influence of bias in the activities of
media institutions.
Dominant-Ideology Model – bias to links between media and the political and social elite.
Elite-Values Model – personal views of media professionals such as journalists, broadcasters, and
editors.
Religion and State – considered as the ultimate sources of authority, making the church
Religion – exerts a great influence on the views of a person, legitimizes accepted social practices
State – response to religion is fairly complex.
Major Social and Political Events – socializing forces for an entire generation.
Historical Events – tend to affect individuals and societies differently.
Conformity – groups exerts great influence on an individual’s thoughts, values, attitudes, and behavior.
Conformity – process of altering one’s thoughts and actions to adapt to the accepted behavior within his
or her group or society.
Herbert Kelman identifies 3 types of conformity
 Compliance – outward conformity
 Identification – adopting a certain behavior
 Internalization or acceptance – involves both public compliance and internal acceptance of
the norms
Deviance – defined as a behavior that elicits a strong negative reaction from group members
Emile Durkheim uses the term anomie to refer to a condition where social control becomes ineffective
due to the loss of shared values and sense of purpose in society.
Structural Strain Theory – argues that the tensions and strains between socially-approved goals and an
individual’s ability to meet them will lead to deviance.
Subcultural View – points to the emergence of deviant behavior within certain groups in society or
subcultures.
Labeling Theory – believes there are no deviance in society
Conflict Perspective – analyzes deviance in the framework of competing interests between social groups
Broken Windows Theory – suggests a direct relationship between social disorder and deviance
Social Control – any systematic means and practices used to maintain norms, rules, and laws
Sanctions – most common means of social controlm and are often employed to address conflicts and
violations of social norms. Sanctions can be formal or informal.
Formal Sanctions – provided for by laws and other regulations in society.
Informal Sanctions – most commonly imposed by smaller societies, communities, or groups.

HUMAN DIGNITY AND HUMAN RIGHTS

Human Dignity – the idea that a person has the innate right to be valued, respected, and treated well.
Human Rights – are legal, social, and ethical principles that consider the human person as deserving of
liberties
4 Human Rights are considered
 Universal – they belong to all human beings regardless of race, religion, gender and other
characteristics
 Fundamental – they cannot be taken away from any human being
 Indivisible – various rights are interrelated and given equal importance
 Absolute – they cannot be qualified and are considered basic necessities for living a genuine life
A major legal instrument that upholds the recognition of human rights is the UNIVERSAL DECLARATION
OF HUMAN RIGHT (UDHR), which was drafted by the United Nations Commissions on Human Rights in
1948.

GROUP WITHIN SOCIETY

Social Group – collections of individuals who have a relations with one another that make them
interdependent to some significant degree.
Interdependence – a necessary condition that exists within social groups
 To pursue shared goals or promote common values and principles.
Aggregate or a mere collection of people within a particular place and time.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GROUPS

Primary groups – a small, intimate, and less specialized group whose members engage in face-to-face
and emotion-based interactions over an extended period of time.
 Primary groups are the first group where an individual experiences his or her initial encounter
with social affinity and belonging.
Secondary groups – in contrast, are larger, less intimate, and more specialized groups where members
engage in an impersonal and objective-oriented relationship for a limited time.
Self-categorization theory – understanding the characteristics of social groups.
In-group – which one belongs and with which one feels a sense of identity.
Out-group – a group to which one does not belong and to which he or she may feel sense of
competitiveness or hostility.
Self-categorization - they consider themselves more as members of an exclusive group.
Reference group – a group to which an individual compares himself or herself.
Networks – refers to the structure of relationships between social actors or groups.

GENERAL BIOLOGY REVIEWER

Animal Tissues – there are trillions of cells that comprise your body. These cells from aggregates or
group together as tissues, each of which performs specific functions.
Epithelial Tissues – consist of sheets of cells that cover organisms and their organs.
 Epithelial cells are compactly and are vascular.
 They also form membranes and glands and are associated with a basement membrane.
Epithelial tissues can be classified according to:
1. The number of cell layers, whether simple or stratified;
2. The shape of cells on free surface, whether squamous, cuboidal, or columnar; and
3. The surface specialization, whether cilia, keratin, goblet cell, or brush border.
Tight junctions – between epithelial cells seal off a tissue from adjacent opens spaces and prevent the
entrance of disease-causing microorganisms.
Types of Epithelial Tissues in terms of their structure
1. Simple Epithelium – made up of only one layer of cells
2. Stratified Epithelium – made of more than one layer of cells.
Connective Tissues – the ligaments and tendons that you often encounter while eating chicken legs.
1. They connect and bind parts together
Tendons – bind a muscle to a bone
Ligaments – connect bone to a another bone.
Blood – a supportive tissue since its primary function
Types of Connective Tissues
1. Collagenous Connective Tissue – type of I collagen
2. Loose connective tissues in the fasciae, dense regular connective tissues in the tendons and
dense irregular connective tissues in periosteum
 2. Reticular Connective Tissue – type III collagen, a protein found in bones and cartilage.
 Examples include adipose tissue, basal lamina, and stroma of glandular organs.
3. Elastic Connective Tissue – type II collagen, a component of joint cartilage, contains retractile
fibers with elastin.
Muscular Tissues – bones in the body movement
Two group of Muscles
 Voluntary muscles – controlled by the nervous system
 Involuntary muscles – beyond the control of the nervous system
Types of Muscular Tissues
1. Skeletal Muscles – made up of very long, cylindrical, multi-nucleated cellls
2. Cardiac Muscles – composed of elongated branched individual cells that are configured parallel
to each other.
3. Smooth Muscles – collections of cells that do not show cross-striations.
Nervous Tissues – specialized for the reception and conduction impulses.
 These tissues are usually found in the brain and in the spinal cord
Types of Neurons
1. Sensory Neurons – carry information obtained from the interior of the body and the
environment to the CNS
2. Motor Neurons – carry impulses from the CNS to the effector organs commanded by these
centers
Plant Tissues –
Meristematic or Embryonic Tissues –
Kinds of Meristematic tissues based on location
1. Apical Meristems – tips of shoots and roots
 Length as the apical meristems
2. Intercalary Meristems – vicinity of nodes
 Lengths of stems
3. Lateral Meristems – increase the girth or diameter of plants
 Sides of some roots and stems
Non-meristematic or permanent tissues –
Kinds of non-meristematic tissues are surface tissues, fundamental tissues, and vascual tissues.
 Surface Tissues – outermost covering in plants
1. Epidermis – outermost layer of cells of all young plant organs
2. Periderm – added protection and usually found in mature plants
 Fundamental Tissues – give support and strength to the plant
1. Parenchyma – most abundant of all the cells types and found inn almost all major oarts of
higher plants
2. Collenchyma – composed of uneven thick-walled cells
3. Sclerenchyma – thick and tough cell walls
 Vascular Tissues – transport of subtances in the body of the plant
1. Xylem – conducting water and minerals in the plant upward
2. Phloem – translocating food materials to all the growing parts of the plants and roots

THE CELL CYCLE

Cell cycle – cells reproduce by a cycle of growing and dividing

Interphase – longest phase in the cell cycle
Mitosis – division of nucleus, which is initiated after the completion of interphase
Internal Regulators – proteins are found inside the cell
External Regulators – proteins that respond to events outside the cell
NORMAL CELLS
 Large cytoplasm
 Single nucleus
 Single nucleolus
 Fine chromatin
CANCER CELLS
 Small cytoplasm
 Multiple nucleus
 Multiple and large nucleoli
 Coarse chromatin
Metastasis – which cancer cells spread from where they originated
Cardiovascular disease – another group of diseases associated with the cell cycle mechanism.
Apoptosis – the programmed death of the cells in the body

STAGES OF THE CELL CYCLE

Interphase – the longest phase in the cell cycle

The stages of interphase:
1. Gap 1(G1)stage – first stage of interphase/ cell increases in mass and/or size
2. Synthesis (S) stage – very crucial part of interphase
3. Gap 2 (G2) stage – comes after DNA synthesis
Cell Division – consists of two phases, nuclear division and cytokinesis
2 kinds of nuclear division
 Mitosis
 Meiosis
Mitosis – initiated after the completion of interphase
 Also means asexual reproduction in some organisms
Prophase – the chromatin condenses into more discrete chromosomes
Centrosome – area where microtubules are produced
Metaphase – the spindle fibers are fully developed and the chromosomes align at the equatorial plate
Anaphase – stages characterized by the separation of the chromosomes
Telophase – complete sets of chromosomes during telophase
 Fomation of two daughter cells
Cytokinesis – follows right after the process of mitosis
Cleavage Furrow – pulled inward by a tiny filament
Cell plate – forms between the two nuclei
Meiosis – takes place in sexually mature organisms
Meiosis I has a following phases
 Prophase I – the nuclear membrane and the nucleolus start to disappear
 Metaphase I – the paired homologous chromosomes (tetrads) are moved by the spindle fibers
to the equator of the cell.
 Anaphase I – separate and migrate toward their respective poles
 Telophase I – two daughter of cells
Dyad – composed of two sister chromatids
Chiasma – crossing over takes place between two non-sister chromatids
Interkinesis I – a short pause between meiosis I and meiosis II

Meiosis II composed the following phases:

 Prophase II – the nuclear envelope and nucleoli disappear, and the chromatids start to shorten
and thicken
 Metaphase II – movement of the chromosomes to the cell equator
 Anaphase II – joining the chromatids divide, allowing microtubules attached to the kinetochores
to pull the sister chromatids apart
 Telophase II – spindle fibers dissolve, a nuclear membrane forms around the chromosomes of
each daughter cell
Meiosis I – the first division, the homologous chromosomes are separated into two separate cells
Meiosis II – the second division, the chromatids of each chromosome are segregated into separate cells.
Gametogenesis – where diploid cells undergo cell division and differentiation through meiosis to form
mature haploid gametes or sex cells
Spermatogenesis - sperm formation
Oogenesis – egg formation
Oogonia – inside the ovaries are primordial cells
CELL CHYCLE CHECKPOINTS
G1 checkpoint - checks for the size of the cell as well as the integrity of their DNA
G2 checkpoint – prior to mitosis; it checks for the integrity of DNA
M checkpoint – occurs during mitosis found during the metaphase stage
 Checks for the alignment of the chromosomes

COMPOSITION OF MATTER
Atoms - smallest particle of matter
Nucleus - dense core of an atom
Proton – positively charged
Neutron – uncharged subatomic particle
Atomic number - numbers of protons in an atom
Atomic mass - equal to the sum of the masses of the protons and neutrons of an atom
Electron – negatively-charged subatomic particle
Pure substance – a form of matter with properties that are distinct and definite
 May either be an element or a compound
Element – composed of only one type of atom
Compound – formed when two or more elements are chemically bonded together
Chemical bonds – describes the attraction between atoms, which results in the formation of compounds
The strongest type of chemical bond:
 Covalent bonds
 Ionic bonds
 Another type of chemical attraction called, weak bond, are indispensable bonds that
temporarily adhere biological molecules in the cell
Covalent bond – involves a pair of pairs of electrons that are shared by two or more atoms
Single Covalent Bond – only one electron pair is shared between two atoms, for example, a carbon
atom and a hydrogen atom
Double Covalent Bonds – when two electron pairs are shared between two atoms, such as alkenes
Ionic bonds – formed when there is a complete transfer of electrons from one atom to another
Cation – positively-charged ion
Anion - negatively-charged ion
Electronegativity – ability of an atom to attract electrons from other atoms in a molecule
Hydrogen bond – constitutes a bond between the negative pole of a polar molecule
Van der Waals forces – are electrostatic forces described as the asymmetrical distribution of the charge
in the water molecule
Mixture – a combination of two or more substances
Homogeneous mixtures – have a single phase and a uniform composition
Heterogeneous mixtures – consist of two or more phases
Suspension – spread through a liquid or a gas/ a good example of suspension is blood.
Colloids – called a colloidal suspension