DEFINITION OF ALTITUDE

Intuitively, we all know the meaning of altitude. We think of it as the distance above the
ground. But to be used in engineering, it has to be precisely defined. There are 3 different
altitudes. Geometrical Altitude hg, absolute altitude ha and geo-potential altitude h.

Fig : Definition of Altitude

Geometrical Altitude (hG) - It is the geometric height measured above the ground from the
sea level.
Absolute altitude (ha) - It is the height measured from the centre of the earth to any point
above the ground. If r is the radius of the earth, the ha= r+hG. Absolute height is important for
space flights, because the local acceleration due to gravity changes with height ha.
Geopotential Altitude (h) - It is a fictitious altitude corrected for acceleration due to gravity
go.

Variation of “g” with Altitude

Newton's Law of Gravitation

• Every particle attracts every other particle in the universe with a force F directly
proportional to the product of their masses (m1 and m2) and inversely proportional to
the square of distance between their centre (r2)

• Mathematically,
 Gm 1 m2
F= 2
r
G=Gravitational Constant 6.67*E m /kgs
11 3 2

m1 and m2=Masses of the particles (Kg)

r=Distance between the two particles

We shall apply the same equation for a case where a rocket is about the take-off from the
surface of the earth.

Gm 1 m2
F= 2
r
m1=mass of the earth
m2=Mass of the rocket
r= radius of the earth r=6378km

At sea level, hg=0,

F Gm1
= 2
m r
F
=a=g0 =9. 81 m/s 2
m at Sea Level

Gm1
go =
r2 --------------------------------(1)

Now let us consider the rocket has lifted-off and travelling upwards at some altitude defined
by ha
 Gm 1 m2
F= 2
r
F Gm 1 Gm1
= =
m2 r 2 ha 2

Gm 1
g=
( h g +r )2 --------------------------------(2)
g= Local Acceleration due to gravity at that absolute altitude ha

Divide Eqn.2 by Eqn. 1

Gm 1
2
g ( hg+r )
=
g0 Gm 1
r2
2
g r
=
g 0 (hg+ r )2

g=g 0
(
r2
( hg +r )2 )
( )
2
r
g=g 0
(hg +r)
For example at 100km altitude, lets find what is the actual value of the local acceleration due
to gravity g
 ( )
2
6 .378∗106
g=9. 81
(100000+6 . 378∗106 )
2
g=9. 50m/s
From this we see that the local acceleration due to gravity g is different from the acceleration
due to gravity g0 at sea level. Now this altitude is known as the Geo-Potential Altitude (h).
For spacecraft we should always consider this small change in g. Due to this reduction in g,
the performance of the spacecraft (Rockets) will be affected and hence the geopotential
altitude plays an important role in assessing the performance of the rockets.

Now having discussed about different altitudes, we have to now proceed towards the method
to find the properties of the atmosphere (P, ρ, T etc) at any given altitude of choice. To do
this we need to derive some simple equations, which can determine the value of the
atmospheric properties at any altitude where we wish to find. To derive the expression, we
now invoke the hydrostatic equation. Hydrostatic equation is nothing but the force balance
equation on a fluid element at rest.

Consider a small stationery fluid element of air at rest. For convenience, we consider the fluid
element to be rectangular in shape, wherein the top and bottom faces have side of unit length
and the side faces have an infinitesimally small height dhg. The pressures on the bottom and
top faces are P and P+dp. Along with the pressure force, the self-weight W of the fluid
element also tends to act vertically downwards at the centre of the element.

Pressure on the bottom face is

F
P=
A

F B=P∗A

F B=P∗(1∗1 )

Similarly, pressure on the top face is

 FT =( P+dP )∗(1∗1 )

Weight acting on the element is

W=m∗g
W=( ρ∗Vol )∗g

W=( ρ∗1∗1∗dhg )∗g

W=( ρ∗dhg )∗g

W= ρ∗g∗dh g

Equate pressure and weight forces, we get

Balancing the upward and the downward forces,

P=(P+dP)+ρ gdh g

P−P−dP= ρ gdh g

−dP=ρ gdh g

dP=−ρ gdh g --------------------------------(3)

This is a differential equation that gives a small change in pressure for any small change in
the altitude. This differential equation relates pressure with altitude. Since g varies with
altitude, the integration becomes complex and hence to simplify, we consider the variation in
local acceleration due to gravity as constant. So g=go, in this case both ρ and go are constant
and the pressure P now varies only with the altitude hg.

dP=−ρg0 dh --------------------------------(4)
In most of the cases, for simplification g=go, especially up to altitudes of 50000ft or 15km,
this equation will not create much problems. However, beyond 15km, it changes
considerably. Let’s determine the value of change in pressure dP at 100km altitude for
constant and varying g values.

Case 1: g≠g 0

From the previous section we know that at 100km, g=9.50m/s2. Substituting it, we get

dP=−1. 23∗9 .50∗100

2
dP=−1168. 5 N /m

Case 2: g=g 0
 dP=−1. 23∗9 .81∗100
2
dP=−1206 .63 N /m
From the calculation, we see that at the same altitude in space, we get two different values of
pressure which is hypothetical in nature.

1168. 5=−1. 23∗9 .81∗dh

dh=96 . 83 km

Now due to the consideration of g as constant go at all altitudes, the resulting altitude will
slightly be reduced than the standard altitude and this altitude is called as the Geo-Potential
altitude h.

Relation between the Geometric (hG) and the Geopotential Altitude (h)

From Hydrostatic equation, we obtained

dP=−ρ gdh g

For Convenience, we assumed

g≠g 0

dP=−ρg0 dh

Divide Eqn 4 by 3

dP=−ρg0 dh
dP=− ρ gdhG

g0 dh
1=
gdhG

g dh
=
g 0 dhG --------------------------------(5)

But We also know that

2
g r
=
g 0 (r +h G )2
--------------------------------(6)
Equate 5 and 6
2
dh r
=
dhG (r +hG )2
 2
r
dh= dhG
(r +hG )2 --------------------------------(7)

At Sea Level, h=hG=0

Now consider any arbitrary point in space, G h≠h =0

. The point will be at a certain
some geometric altitude hG and at the same time it will also have an associated geo-
potential altitude h.

To find the relation, we shall integrate eqn (7) from seal level to that point in space.

h hG
2
r
∫ dh=∫ ( r +hG )2
dhG
0 0

h=r 2
( r2
( r + hG )2 )
0
hG

h=r 2
( −1 1
+
r +h G r )
( )
−r + r+ hG
h=r 2
( r +hG )r

h=
( ) r
h
r +hG G
--------------------------------(8)
Eqn 8 gives the relation between the geometric altitude h G and the geo-potential altitude
h.

From P=P(h ) , we can obtain Pressure at any geo-potential altitude first and then we
can subsequently find what is the pressure at a given geometric altitude hG using eqn 8.

We can see the difference between h and hG by making some quick calculations.

At low altitudes, for example at hG=7km, r=6.36E6m, we get

h= ( 6 . 36∗106
6 .36∗10 6 +7000
hG )
h=6 .9992 hG
In this case, the difference is less than 1%. And the difference remains very small up to

altitudes of 65km. But above 65km, the difference exceeds 1% and that is the altitude where

the aerodynamic heating occurs.

Definition of Standard Atmosphere

We know that the atmospheric properties defined by P, T, ρ, etc vary with the altitude. Among these properties,
Pressure and Density exhibit a simple decreasing profile with the altitude. But, temperature on the other hand
exhibits a complicated profile with altitude. At some altitudes, the temperature remains constant and at some
altitudes, the temperature either increases or decreases. Based on the temperature distribution, the altitude of the
atmosphere is identified as isothermal layer and gradient layer. Across the isothermal region, the temperature
remains constant with altitude and across the gradient region, the temperature might either increase or decrease
depending on the altitude. Across the gradient region, the change in temperature is always linear and is defined
as the temperature lapse rate a. The isothermal and the gradient regions of the atmosphere are depicted in the
figure.

Now let us find the equations to determine the temperature, pressure and density in the isothermal and the
gradient regions of the atmosphere.

Let us consider the equation

dP=−ρg0 dh

Equation of state is given as

P=ρ RT

Divide

dP − ρg0 dh
=
P ρ RT
 dP −g 0 dh
=
P RT

Using the above equation, let us derive the equations for Pressure and density across the
isothermal region first.

Along the isothermal region, the properties T, P and ρ are represented as T1, P1 and ρ1. The
base is located at the geo-potential altitude h1. Let us consider any point P along the
isothermal region at an altitude h from the base.

Now the pressure at the point h can be obtained by integrating the equation between the limits
h1 and h. Then
P h
dP −g dh
∫ P =∫ RT0
P1 h1

R=T=go=Constant
h
P −g0
ln = ∫ dh
P 1 RT h1

P
=e
− ( )
g0
RT
(h−h1 )

P1

From equation of state,

P ρ RT
=
P 1 ρ1 RT 1

Along Isothermal Layer, T=T1

P ρ
=
P 1 ρ1
 ρ −
=e
( )
g0
RT
( h−h1 )

ρ1

Consider Gradient Region

Since, the temperature is linearly varying, the slope is given by

dT T −T 1
a= =
dh h−h1

1
dh= dT
a

Substitute dh in dP/P

dP −g 0
= dh
P RT

dP −g 0 1
=
P RT a
dT ( )
dP −g 0 dT
P
=
aR T ( )
Integrating between 2 points along the gradient layer,
P T
−g
∫ dPP = aR0 ∫ dTT
P1 T1

P −g0 T
ln = ln
P 1 aR T 1
−g 0
P
=
T
P1 T 1( ) aR

Equation for Pressure

From equation of state

 P ρT
=
P 1 ρ1 T 1
−g 0
P ρT
= =
T
P 1 ρ1 T 1 T 1 ( ) aR

−g 0
ρ T
=
ρ1 T 1 ( ) aR
−1

[ ]g0
aR
+1

( )
−
ρ T
=
ρ1 T 1

Numericals on ISA

1) At what value of geometric altitude hG is the difference h-hG equal to 2% of h?

|h−hG|=2%h
|h−hG|
=0 . 02
h

|h−hG|
=0 . 02
h

hG
|1− |=0.02
h
But

hG r + hG
=
h r

|1− ( )
r +hG
r
|=0 . 02

hG
|1−1− |=0 . 02
r

hG =0 .02 r
6
hG =0 .02∗6 .36∗10

hG =127 km
2) An F-15 supersonic fighter aircraft is in a rapid climb. At that instance it passes through a
standard altitude of 8000m its time rate of change of altitude is 150m/s, which by definition is
the rate of climb. Corresponding to this rate of climb is the rate of change of ambient
pressure. Calculate this rate of change of pressure dp/dt.

SOLUTION

Since 8000m altitude falls within the first gradient region, the pressure and temperature
equations are given as
−g 0
P
=
T
( )
P1 T 1
aR

Differentiate pressure with respect to time

−g 0
P
=
T
( )
P1 T 1
aR

− g0 −g

( )
1 dp 1 −g0 aR0 −1 dT
= aR [T ]
P 1 dt T 1 aR dt

T =T 1 +a(h−h1 )

T =T 1 +ah−ah1

Differentiate temperature with respect to time

dT dh
=a
dt dt
Substitute it in pressure eqn
−g 0 −g

( )
dp 1 −g 0 aR0 −1 dh
= p1 aR [T ] a
dt T1 aR dt

dh
=150 km/s
dt = Rate of climb=150m/s

a=-6.5*10-3 0K/m

T8000=236.23K
5 2
p1 =1. 01325∗10 N /m

T 1 =288 . 15 K
R=287 J /kgK
dp
=________ N /m 2
dt