ES & EPS 162, Hydrology and Environmental Geomechanics, J. R.

Rice, 2017

Homework Problems, set 1

These correspond to topics (1), (2) and (3) on the course syllabus. You will be expected to
acquire mastery of nearly all the problems (the particular ones will be identified during the
lecture classes). The exams will be based exclusively on issues raised in those Homework
Problems and on the background directly relating to them in the lectures and reading
assignments.

Additionally, a few problems will be required to be turned in for grading. These will be
announced in class and typically will be at the level of 1 to 2 per week. Written presentations
must be reasoned and presented clearly, and written legibly. Mark each homework solution
with the problem number as given here. And again, remember that you're responsible for
knowing how to solve all the assigned problems, not just the ones to be turned in!

Discussions of the Homework Problems, together with clarifications of questions on the lectures
and readings, will be the subject of most of the weekly supplemental sections.

1. Discuss processes by which water, wind and ice participate in the formation, transport and
deposition of sediments. Discuss examples of braided and meandering streams, of alluvial fans,
of deltas, of lacustrine deposits. (Although optional reading is of course encouraged, the
required background for this question does not go beyond what was presented in the lectures; see
Handouts Visuals01 and Visuals02 at the web site.)

2. The standard parameters of composition of a soil or other porous rock are

bulk density*: γb = W /V ; dry density*: γ d = Ws / V ;

water density: γ w = Ww / Vw ; solids density: γ s = Ws / Vs ;
specific gravity of solids: Gs = γ s / γ w ; porosity: n = (Vw + Va )/ V ;
void ratio: e = (Vw + Va ) / Vs ; (vol.) water content: θ = Vw / V (≤ n) ;
degree of saturation: S = Vw /(Vw + Va ) ; water content (by wt.): w = Ww / Ws .

Here V ≡ VT is the total volume occupied by the porous medium, which can be written as
V = Vw + Va + Vs where the subscripts refer to volume of water (w), air (a) and solids (s). The
total weight W, and total mass M, is similarly partitioned. Also, "density" here refers to weight
densities γ ; divide by g to get mass densities ρ . E.g., γ w = ρw g and ρw = M w / Vw .

* Fitts (2002) uses the term "wet or total bulk density" for what is called "bulk density" here, and
"dry bulk density" for what is called "dry density" here. Some other authors (e.g., Charbeneau,
2000) use the term "bulk density" for what is called the "dry density" here, and just "density" for
what is called the "bulk density".

Show that the following relations are valid:

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 1 + w = γ b / γ d , Se = Gs w , 1 + e = (1+ w)Gs / (γ b / γ w ) , n = e / (1+ e)

3. The connected porosity of an initially dry porous medium can be measured by the gas
expansion method. The apparatus consists of two chambers connected by a tube with a valve.
The volumes of the chambers are V1 and V2. Chamber 2 is evacuated with a vacuum pump and
the valve is closed. A sample of measured volume Vt is placed in chamber 1 and the absolute air
pressure there is increased to pinit. The valve is then opened and the air pressure in both
chambers is equilibrated at some value pfin, to be measured by a pressure gauge, with the
temperature remaining constant. For an apparatus with V2 = 0.5 V1, and Vt = 0.2 V1, pfin is
measured to be 0.627 pinit. Estimate the (connected) porosity for the rock sample. (This is
essentially problem 1.3.2 of Charbeneau, 2000.) [Ans.: n = 0.20 ]

4. A soil sample which fills a vessel of known volume V is found, by weighing, to have a
bulk density of γ b = 2.00γ w . It is clear that the soil is at least somewhat fluid-infiltrated, but not
if it is fully saturated, and neither is it clear precisely what is the mineral type of the particles.

We wish to determine the standard parameters γ d / γ w , w, e, n, S and Gs . As discussed in

class, this requires further measurements, so we'll guess some of the parameters in a first attempt
(part (a) below), then add some further data (part (b)) to reduce the amount of input that has to be
guessed, and then (part (c)) proceed entirely on the basis of measurements.

(a) As a first try, let us guess that there is full saturation, S = 1, and a specific gravity
Gs = 2.65 . Estimate the other parameters in line (a) of the table. [The coding is that boldface
numbers denote measurement data, whereas underlined numbers denote guesses. A second
listing of the table has been filled in, to give you a check of your work.]

case γ b / γ w γ d / γ w w e n S Gs Wslur / W

(a) 2.00 1.00 2.65 N. A.

(b) 2.00 1.65 2.65 N. A.
(c) 2.00 1.65 1.531
(boldface numbers are measurements; underlined are guesses)

(b) To improve the estimate of properties, we drop the assumption that S = 1 and, instead,
oven-dry the sample and weigh it. In that way we find that the dry weight is 82.5% of the initial
weight, i.e., that γ d / γ b = 0.825 so that γ d / γ w = 0.825 × γ b / γ w = 0.825 × 2.00 = 1.65 . We
continue to guess that Gs = 2.65 . Determine the remaining parameters in line (b) of the Table.

(c) Finally, to base all properties of the soil on real measurements, we do the following final
experiment: We pulverize the soil into its particles, distribute them into two identical vessels,
each of the same volume V as the original vessel, and we slowly add water to each, while
stirring, to assure full saturation. The slurry, of volume 2V, is measured to weigh 1.531 times the
weight of the initial sample, i.e., Wslur = 1.531W. Use this information to determine a precise
value of Gs , and hence of all other parameters in line (c) of the Table.
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Answers:
case γ b / γ w γ d / γ w w e n S Gs Wslur / W

(a) 2.00 1.61 0.25 0.65 0.39 1.00 2.65 N. A.

(b) 2.00 1.65 0.21 0.61 0.38 0.93 2.65 N. A.
(c) 2.00 1.65 0.21 0.70 0.41 0.85 2.81 1.531

5 Solve by dimensional analysis for the form of the expression for the drag force FD on a
solid sphere which is forced (e.g., by towing with a thin cable) to move through a viscous fluid at
speed U. Begin with the assumption that FD depends on U, d (sphere diameter), µ (fluid
viscosity) and ρ (fluid density). Thus show that FD can be expressed in the form
1
FD = ρ U 2 A cD
2
2
where A = πd / 4 and where c D is a dimensionless quantity which is a function only of the
dimensionless number R (Reynolds number) = ρUd / µ . I.e., c D = c D (R) .

6. The velocity with which a solid particle settles in water is of interest in a number of
contexts: (1) As a key in understanding the deposition of sediments from stream waters and
flooding (and also from flows in some waste water treatment processes); (2) As an experimental
means of characterizing the distribution of particle sizes in a soil sample; and (3) As an element
used in understanding how a turbulent stream flow, or coastal surf zone, maintains sediments in
suspension.

When a sufficiently small solid spherical particle falls in a viscous fluid, far from
neighboring particles and from walls of the fluid domain, under conditions that the fluid may be
assumed to undergo a quasistatic viscous flow (very low Reynolds number), the drag on the fluid
is given by
drag force = 3πµdw
This is Stokes’ law, where µ is the fluid viscosity, d the particle diameter, and w the settling
velocity. This drag must balance the buoyant weight force on the particle, which is
buoyant weight force = (γ s − γ ) π d 3 / 6 = ( ρs − ρ ) gπ d 3 / 6 = ρ g ( Gs − 1) π d 3 / 6
where γ (= ρ g) is weight density and ρ is mass density of the fluid, and γ s and ρs are the
same for the solid. Also Gs = ρs / ρ is the specific gravity of the solid (at least if the fluid is
water, which we assume), and Gs may be taken here as 2.7.

(a) Show that the Stokes’ expression for the fall velocity may be put in the non-dimensional
form
5 ( Gs − 1) 2
W= D ≈ D2
9
where W = w / (gν / 10) and D = d / (10ν / g)1/3 , where ν = µ / ρ is the “kinematic
1/3 2

viscosity” of the fluid [for water, ν ≈ 1.0 (mm)2 /s near 20˚C].

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 (b) Evaluate the characteristic velocity (gν / 10)1/3 , and the characteristic diameter
(10ν 2 / g)1/3 , for water at temperatures near 20˚C. [Ans.: 10 mm/s, 0.1 mm.]

(c) The Reynolds number R for a sphere moving in a fluid is given by R = wd / ν . If we

assume that Stokes’ law above gives roughly acceptable accuracy only for R ≤ 1.0 , what is the
largest diameter d of a particle for which Stokes’ law should be used? [Ans.: d ≈ 0.1 mm .]

(d) Show that cD = 24 / R in the regime for which Stokes' law applies.

7. The solution for steady laminar flow of a viscous liquid in a slit, between parallel walls, is
derived in a Handout ESandEPS162_Notes01_Flow_in_Slit. The object here is to develop the
corresponding solution for laminar flow in a circular tube of radius a. Now, if r is the radial
coordinate from the tube axis, we seek a solution in which velocity u in the axial direction
satisfies u = u(r) . That means (why) that the shear stress τ = µdu(r) / dr = τ (r) .

(a) For simplicity, first assume that the tube axis is horizontal and neglect gravity. Noting
that there is no radial acceleration, and that the τ (r) distribution is (as the notation indicates) the
same at each cross section, explain why it must be the case that p can vary only with the
coordinate x along the axis of the tube, i.e., p = p(x) and why it must be the case that
∂p / ∂x = dp / dx = constant. Continue and derive the expression for u(r) as well as for the
average velocity U.

[Ans.: A simple approach to this is to require force equilibrium for a cylinder of fluid of
arbitrary radius r (< a), you should show that 2π rτ (r) = π r 2 dp / dx , the validity of which shows
that dp / dx is independent of x and thus constant. Next, using τ = µdu / dr , and integrating
subject to u(r) = 0 when r = a, one finally gets the famous solution first obtained by J. L. M.
Poiseuille, which is
1 dp 2 2 a 2 dp
u(r) = − (a − r ) , leading to U = −
4 µ dx 8 µ dx
for the average flow velocity U.]

(b) By doing the same analysis for flow of a liquid in an inclined circular tube, in presence of
gravity, confirm the expectation, from our analysis of flow in a slit, that it is the gradient in head
h = zel + p / γ (with γ = ρ g ) which drives the flow -- and not, specifically, just the gradient in
pressure. Along the way, show that h = h(x) where dh / dx must be constant, and that
γ dh 2 γ a 2 dh
u(r) = − (a − r 2 ) , leading to U = − .
4 µ dx 8 µ dx
Suggestion: For the tube case, try to rewrite all stress equilibrium equations in terms of h and τ ,
analogously to what is done on pp. 6 and 7 of the handout.

8. In deriving the laminar flow solution for 2D flow in a slit, tilting downward at angle α
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(Handout ESandEPS162_Notes01_Flow_in_Slit), stresses were represented as shown on an
infinitesimal element below, at left. To derive the equations of equilibrium, we insisted that the
actual variations of stresses across such an element (of side lengths dx, dy) must be constrained
so that the resulting forces satisfy conditions of equilibrium; the x-directed forces, per unit
thickness into the diagram, are shown at the right below. (Here the labeling is with use of
dτ / dy , rather than with ∂τ / ∂ y which would be more generally correct, since we had noted for
laminar flow in a slit with velocity u = u(y) , that τ = µdu / dy = τ (y) .)
y
p
τ γ dτ
α (τ + dy )dx
τ dy
p pdy
∂p
p (p + dx )dy
τ (γ sin α )dxdy ∂x
τ τdx
p
x

Thus, from the equilibrium of all those x-directed forces, and from a similar deduction of
equilibrium for y-directed forces, we showed that (again, with γ = ρ g )
∂ p dτ ∂p
− + + γ sin α = 0 and − − γ cos α = 0 .
∂ x dy ∂y

Now consider a general 2D stress state as in the sketch below (like in Middleton and
Wilcock, figure 4.11 on page 119), in a medium which may be either solid or fluid and has bulk
density γ b .

σy
y
τxy
σx τxy
σx γb
τxy α
τxy
σy
x

Derive the equilibrium equations

∂σ x ∂τ xy ∂τ xy ∂σ y
+ + γ b sin α = 0 and + − γ b cos α = 0 .
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
(A similar derivation, in a more general context that includes mass times acceleration terms --
and with a slightly different notation for stress components -- appears in Section 8.11 of
Middleton and Wilcock, 1994.)

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 9. Consider a wide stream of uniform depth h (much less than its width) flowing down a long
slope of constant angle α . The mean velocity U of the flow could depend on h, "slope" S (= sin
α ), gravitational acceleration g, density ρ , viscosity µ , and roughness of the stream bed as
measured by a representative height k of the base roughness perturbations. Assume that g and S
enter the expression for U only insofar as they appear in the combination ρ gS which gives the
downslope component of the gravitational force per unit volume that drives the flow. (Such will
be a generally valid assumption when the Froude number F ≡ U / gh is not close to, or greater
than, unity; that condition is typically met in stream or river flows, if not always in mountainous
terrain. For example, when h = 1 m, F < 1 if U < 3 m/s, meaning R < 3.0 × 10 6 , and when h = 5
m, F < 1 if U < 7 m/s, meaning R < 3.5 × 10 7 .) Show by dimensional analysis that U must then
satisfy an expression which can be written in many different forms, two of which are
h 2/3 (gS)1/2
U = Ĉ ghS and U=
n̂k1/6
where Ĉ and n̂ , which are evidently related by Ĉ = (h / k)1/6 / n̂ , are dimensionless functions of
the variables R ≡ ρUh / µ (the Reynolds number) and k / h .

In fact, Ĉ and n̂ are the properly non-dimensional ways of expressing the (dimensional)
Chezy (1775) and Manning (1890) coefficients, C and n, respectively, for open channel flows.
Those appear in equations of the same form, but with the g1/2 and k1/6 terms deleted and
absorbed into the definitions of C and n. For streams that are not wide and uniform in depth, h is
replaced in the above expressions by the hydraulic radius, defined as the radio of cross section
area of the stream to wetted length of its perimeter.

Chezy's work was done in 1775. Observations reported by Manning in 1890, anticipated by
Gauckler in 1867, and studied more comprehensively by Strickler in 1923, can be interpreted as
showing that to a rough approximation, in the range R > 10 5 , what is called nˆ here becomes
approximately independent of R and k / h , and may be treated as a constant. The same
conclusion is reached based on power-law fits to Nikuradse's (1933) data for strongly turbulent
flow in pipes of roughened walls, or to an approximate modeling of that data based on the von
Karman (1930) and Prandtl (1932) law of the wall concepts; see, e.g., Rouse, Elementary
Mechanics of Fluids, Wiley, 1946, reprinted by Dover, 1978, and also Gioia and Chakraborty,
Phys. Rev. Lett., 2006.

10. Darcy's law for isotropic media is q = −K∇ h where K is the hydraulic conductivity
[units L/T] and
p dp ′
∫
p
h= + zel (or h = + zel if the fluid is compressible; p = 0 means atmospheric)
ρg 0 ρ( p ′)g
Alternatively, Darcy's law may be written as q = −(k / µ )(∇ p + ρ g∇ zel ) where k is the (intrinsic)
permeability [units L2] and µ is the viscosity of the pore fluid, and the expression is correct for
compressible or incompressible pore fluid, so long as in the compressible case we can sensibly

6
assume that ρ = ρ( p) ; of course, in general ρ will vary also with changes in temperature and
chemical content of the pore fluid.

(a) What are the physical units of K and k? Which one will be at least approximately the
same for, say, water versus air as the pore fluid? What is the relation between K and k? Evaluate
that for water as the pore fluid at 20ºC. [Partial ans.: K = ρgk / µ = gk / ν .]

(b) Fitts (2002) shows in Table 3.1, p. 41, ranges of values of K (in cm/s) for various
materials. Assuming those are based on water as the pore fluid at 20ºC, give the corresponding
ranges of k (in units of m2) for each of clean sand, silt, clay, sandstone and shale.

[Note: Some authors use different notations and terminologies. E.g., Terzaghi, Peck and
Mesri (1996) use k for what is denoted as K here and, rather than referring to it as the hydraulic
conductivity, instead refer to it as the coefficient of permeability. Brutsaert (2005) likewise uses
k for what is denoted as K here, but does call it hydraulic conductivity; he uses k' for what is
denoted as k here, namely, the permeability.]

11. A varved clay deposit consists of alternating horizontal layers of a silty clay and of a
sandy silt (see, for example, Terzaghi, Peck and Mesri, 1996, figure 12.2, p. 58). Assume that
the clay layers are 6 mm thick on average and that the silt layers are 4 mm thick on average.
Treating each layer as homogeneous and isotropic, assume that K = 10–9 m/s for the clay and K =
10–7 m/s for the silt. Now regard the layered deposit as an anisotropic porous medium, and solve
for the hydraulic conductivity for (i) flow parallel to the layering, and (ii) flow perpendicular to
the layering.

12. The center of a waste water plume has moved approximately 2 km through a shallow,
unconfined aquifer in the last 10 years. The aquifer has a porosity n = 0.1, and the gradient of
the water table depth in the region is approximately 0.01. Estimate the hydraulic conductivity K.

13 A piezometer is screened at a depth of 20 m below land surface and records a pressure of

120 kPa on a pressure transducer. An immediately adjacent piezometer is screened at a depth of
10 m below land surface, and the depth to water in this piezometer is 7 m below land surface. Is
the vertical component of flow upward or downward at this location, and what is the depth of the
water table below land surface? Assume the specific weight of water is 9810 N/m3. (This is
problem 2.2.6 of Charbeneau, 2000). [Ans.: Flow is downward; Water table is 6.75 m below
land surface ]

14. The apparatus for the falling head permeability test is shown Water flow occurs
vertically upward through a cylindrical column sample of porous material of height L and cross
section area A. The sample is confined in a vertical cylindrical jacket of the same cross section,
and is held in place within the jacket at top and bottom by highly permeable porous disks. An
overflow spout maintains a layer of water of fixed height on top the specimen. A taller standtube,
connected to the bottom of the sample, of cross section a is filled with water to a level which, at
time t, is at a height H(t) higher than the top of the water layer in the overflow tank. Of course

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H(t) diminishes with increasing time t (hence "falling head"). Derive the result that the hydraulic
conductivity K can be inferred from measurements of H at any two successive times t 0 ,t1 by
aL ⎛ H (t 0 ) ⎞
K= ln ⎜
A(t1 − t 0 ) ⎝ H (t1 ) ⎟⎠

Figure, falling-head permeability test, for problem 14 (from Fitts, 2002).

15. Two examples, (a) and (b), are shown of field measurements of head in a confined
aquifer. Find the magnitude of the head gradient and the flow direction. [Ans.: (a) magnitude =
0.14, direction = S45˚W; (b) magnitude = 0.11, direction = S63˚W.]

h = 400 m h = 400 m 1.5 km

(a) 1 km (b)
1 km
h = 300 m h = 500 m h = 300 m h = 500 m
2 km 2 km

16. The diagram shows results of calculations of hydraulic head contours beneath a lake.
The lake was assumed to be very long in the direction coming out of the plane, so that it was a
2D calculation. Also, frequent rainfall was assumed so that the nearby sediments are saturated to
ground surface. The head contours are labeled in feet.

(a) How far below the surface of the lake has the datum level been chosen, i.e., the level
from which elevations and heads are measured?

(b) A 232 ft contour line is shown to the left of the lake in the upper part of the figure. What
are the elevation z (estimate as precisely as you can using a well graded ruler) and pore pressure
at the lowest point along that contour line?
[Ans.: z ≈ 155 ft , p ≈ (232 ft -155 ft) × γ w = 77 ft × 62.4 pcf = 4, 805 psf = 33 psi .]

(c) Confirm in a couple of cases that the contour lines have been drawn such that, at points
along ground surface outside the lake, h is equal to the elevation head z. Why must they be
drawn that way?

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 Figure for Problem 16 (Domenico and Schwartz, 1998, Fig 5.33a; referenced to Winter, 1976)

Figure for Problem 17 (Domenico and Schwartz, 1998, Fig 3.13)

17. Transmissivity T is defined by

T = T (x, y) = ∫aquifer depth range K(x, y,z )dz
(and is often written as T = Kb , where K is an average hydraulic conductivity at the location
considered, and b is aquifer thickness there). It is a useful concept for large scale groundwater
flows in aquifers, under circumstances for which the head at a given position x,y in the horizontal
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plane is approximately independent of depth coordinate z. In that case, plan-view potentiometric
contour maps are appropriate.

Such a map is shown for the Dakota Sandstone, where the potentiometric contours (lines of
constant h) are spaced at 100 ft intervals. Focus on the portion of that map for southern South
Dakota, just north of the Nebraska line, and assume that the aquifer is reasonably insulated from
mass flow to it by direct water inflow from above due to surface rainfall. Let T1800 be the
average transmissivity in the region where the potentiometric surface has elevation between 1700
and 1900 ft, and T2200 where the elevation is between 2100 and 2300 ft. Estimate the ratio
T1800/T2200.

18. A flow net for a concrete dam with a sheet-pile wall is shown. There are equal head
drops between the successive equipotential lines shown, and the material is isotropic.

(a) Why must the flow lines be perpendicular to the equipotential lines?

(b) Consider cells 7 and 11 along the numbered flow channel shown. Both have the same
hydraulic conductivity K. For cell 7, let a be the cell length along the flow direction and let b be
the channel thickness (in the plane of the diagram). Let a' and b' be the same for cell 11. Derive
the result explaining why the flow net should be drawn so that a/b = a'/b'.

(c) Assuming hydraulic conductivity K is constant throughout the domain, the previous
result argues for geometric similarity of cells along each individual flow channel. What choice
for drawing successive flow lines will require geometric similarity of all cells throughout the
flow net, and why?

(d) Note that an equipotential line is shown which passes along the border between cells 7
and 8, and intersects the downstream side of the sheet pile. Let "A" denote that point of
intersection. Use careful ruler measurements to find its elevation, relative to a datum level
coincident with the bottom of the dam. [Ans.: zA ≈ −52 m .] Relative to that same datum, what
is the head hA and what is the pore pressure p A at point "A"?

(e) Let "B" be the point on the upstream side of the sheet pile which is at the same elevation
as "A" . Determine hB and pB.

(f) Given that the hydraulic conductivity of the sediments under the dam is
K = 5 × 10 −6 m / s ; estimate the volumetric flow rate per unit thickness into the diagram.

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Figure for Problem 18 (Watson and Burnett, 1993, Fig 5-1)

Figure for Problem 19 (Rahn, 1996, Fig 7.20)

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 19. The figure shows potentiometric contours (in m) in the recharge area of a confined
aquifer and in the area of a "pumping well" where fluid is being withdrawn. The hydraulic
conductivity K = 1.5 m/d and aquifer thickness b = 50 m in the vicinity of the well.

(a) At approximately what pumping rate Q (in m3/d) must fluid be withdrawn to create the
"capture zone" shown within the recharge area (e.g., to capture contaminants entering the
groundwater system at locations within the pair of flow channels running to the well from the
recharge area)?

(b) What factors (other than heterogeneity of K and b and inaccuracy of the flow net) could
make the estimate of the capture zone, based on flow lines, imprecise and allow contaminants
which enter the zone marked to escape capture at the pumping well?

20. (a) Water flows upwards through the surface of a sandy soil under a constant head
gradient i, where i = − dh/ dz . The soil bulk density is 2.25 γ w , and it is overlain by a 2 m pond
of water. Find the pore pressure p and vertical effective stress σ at 3 m depth into the soil.

(b) At what value of i does σ = 0 , and what is the significance of that condition?

i×3m

water reservoir 2m saturated soil, γ b = 2.25γ w

3m

[Ans.:
p = (5 + 3i) m × γ w = (1 + 0.6i) × 49,000 N / m 2 ,
σ = 2 m × γ w + 3 m × γ b = 8.75 m × γ w = 85, 750 N / m 2 ,
σ = σ − p = [(γ b − γ w ) − iγ w ] × 3 m = (1.25 - i) × 29, 400 N / m 2 . ]

21. Domenico and Schwartz (1998), Chp. 4, p. 73, problem 4. [Effective stress, pore
pressure and piping for trench in a clay layer overlying an artesian aquifer.]

22. Terzaghi, Peck, and Mesri (3rd ed., 1996), Chp. 4, p. 221, problems 1 and 2; see p. 219
for the Fig. 23.5 mentioned. [Various flow nets shown for seepage beneath an impermeable
dam; determine total fluid seepage rate, and determine hydraulic head at a point mid-way along
the base of the dam.]

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 23. Watson and Burnett (1993), p. 134, prob. 6-1 (figure is on p. 121, as Fig. 6.3). [The flow
net around downstream exit under a dam is given; find alteration of water level required to
achieve a desired factor of safety against piping.]

24. Sketch carefully by hand a flow net with phreatic line for seepage through an earth fill
embankment as shown (figure below), with a toe drain, on an impermeable base. Use a pencil
and eraser and keep iterating until your drawing seems to meet all conditions -- orthogonal flow
lines, geometrically similar cells, h = z along the phreatic surface and along the drain (why?).

Figure for Problem 24 (Watson and Burnett, 1993, Fig 5.14c)

25. Consider a steady 2D flow of groundwater parallel to a vertical plane in a region with
uniform hydraulic conductivity K, and let x and y be coordinates in that plane. Darcy's law
requires that the components of the discharge velocity be expressible as
∂Φ ∂Φ
qx = , qy =
∂x ∂y
where Φ = − Kh and h = zelev + p / γ w . On the other hand, any steady fluid flow field which
satisfies the equation of mass conservation (equivalent here to volume conservation) must satisfy
∂q x ∂q y
+ = 0,
∂x ∂y
and hence must allow the discharge velocity to also be expressible as

13
 ∂Ψ ∂Ψ
qx = , qy = − .
∂y ∂x
Here Ψ is called a stream function, and flow lines are lines of constant Ψ .

2 2
(a) Show that Φ and Ψ are harmonic, i.e., that ∇ Φ = 0 and ∇ Ψ = 0 where
∂2 ∂2
∇2 = 2 + 2 .
∂x ∂y

(b) The pair of expressions for the discharge velocity components above imply that
∂Φ ∂Ψ ∂Φ ∂Ψ
= , =− ,
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
which pair of equations is called the Cauchy-Riemann conditions and imply that Φ and Ψ are
the, respective, real and imaginary parts of an analytic function of x + iy . That is, Φ + iΨ =
F(w) , an analytic function of w = x + iy . Discuss some flows described by the following simple
choices for F(w) :

(i) F(w) = iA ln w , and (ii) F(w) = B ln w (here A and B are real constants).

∂Φ 1 ∂Ψ 1 ∂Φ ∂Ψ
[Note: Polar coordinates will be convenient; in them, qr = = , qθ = =− ,
∂r r ∂θ r ∂θ ∂r
w = reiθ , and ln w = ln r + iθ .]

26. Discuss the relation between the flow in part (b), item (ii), of the previous problem and
the Thiem solution for steady flow to a well in a confined aquifer. Note that the solution as
presented above is for a 2D flow parallel to a vertical plane, whereas the Thiem solution is done
in the framework of plan-view flow nets with h considered to be independent of the vertical
coordinate. However, both solutions involve the same logarithmic dependence of h on r. That
should suggest to you that the solution in part (b), item (ii), of the previous problem could
describe (to the neglect of details of the far-field) the flow into a long horizontal circular drain
zone, lying perpendicular to the vertical plane considered.

27. We consider a basic problem of 2D flow, parallel to a vertical plane, involving the exact
determination of a phreatic surface. For this, the x axis is taken horizontal, the y axis vertical.
The porous medium occupies the (unbounded) domain y > 0, whereas the domain y < 0 is
impermeable. Between these domains, along the negative x axis, there is a thin drain (idealized
here as a line of zero thickness) which is assumed to be permeable enough to cause p = 0
everywhere along the line y = 0, x < 0. (See the second diagram below, in which the positive x
direction points to the left.) A flow transporting net volume Q per unit time, per unit thickness
perpendicular to the x-y plane, emerges from the region of positive x and flows into the drain.
Contributions from rainfall infiltration or evaporation are neglected.

(a) Take datum as y = 0, and choose Ψ = 0 along the flow line y = 0, x > 0 where there is
direct contact with the impermeable base (Ψ will only determined by the governing equations to

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within an additive constant, so we are free to fix this value). Explain why the solution to this
problem must meet the further conditions

Ψ = −Q along the yet to be determined phreatic line,

Φ = 0 along the line y = 0, x < 0 of contact with the drain, and
Φ = − Ky along the yet to be determined phreatic line.

(b) Normally we would want to solve for Φ = Φ (x, y) and Ψ = Ψ (x, y) , like in problems 25
and 26. However, it turns out that a better route to finding the solution here is to try to solve first
for x = x(Φ ,Ψ ) , y = y(Φ ,Ψ ) , as a step towards getting the solution in the normally sought form.
Explain why it is reasonable to assume that the domain of flow, between the impermeable base
and the phreatic line, maps into the semi-infinite strip shown in the Φ -Ψ plane, with conditions
on y as indicated
Ψ
Φ
y=0
y = – Φ /K y=0

–Q

(c) Since Φ + iΨ must be an analytic function of x + iy , it follows that x + iy must be an

analytic function of Φ + iΨ . That is, x + iy = G(Ω ) where G(Ω ) is an analytic function of
Ω = Φ + iΨ .

The real and imaginary parts of an analytic function of x + iy are harmonic functions of x and
y; you proved as much in part (a) of problem 25. Analogously, it is necessary that both
x = x(Φ ,Ψ ) and y = y(Φ ,Ψ ) be harmonic functions of Φ and Ψ , which means that they must
satisfy equations of the type (e.g., the one for y)
∂2y ∂ 2y
+ =0.
∂Φ 2 ∂Ψ 2
Explain why y = ΦΨ / KQ is a harmonic function which meets all the conditions on our
problem.

(d) Now that we have y, there are a few ways of determining x. One way is to note that x
and y must satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations in terms of Φ and Ψ , so that
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
= , =− .
∂Φ ∂Ψ ∂Ψ ∂Φ
2 2
Thus, integrate (fixing any constants of integration appropriately) to get x = (Φ −Ψ ) / 2KQ .

(e) Solve for the equation of the phreatic line in the form
y 2 = (2Q / K)(x + Q / 2K) ,
which is a parabola that enters the drain at position y = 0, x = −Q / 2K . This is plotted below.

15
 8
2Ky/Q
66

44
Solution for flow with a phreatic line.
drain
Q is the net flow rate entering the
22 drain along the negative x axis;
2Kx/Q no flow across the positive x axis.
0
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 -2

28. Now reconsider the problem just solved from the viewpoint usually adopted when we
consider plan-view flow nets. That is, we treat the flow as one for which the equipotentials h =
constant are vertical lines, neglecting any vertical components of the discharge velocity. This
will not be an accurate approximation near the drain, but it ought to work far away, at large
positive x, and the idea here is to demonstrate that. Since the flow is 2D, this means that
h = h(x) and, assuming that we measure h from the impermeable base as datum, this means that
h(x) should correspond to the y coordinate of the phreatic surface at position x.

Since the net flow rate is Q, per unit thickness, and is taken positive when corresponding to
flow in the negative x direction, we must have
dh
Q =T
dx
where transmissivity T = Kh for such an unconfined aquifer. Thus show that the solution is
h 2 = (2Q / K)(x + constant) ,
which does indeed agree at large x with that derived in part (e) of the previous problem.

There is no really suitable way to describe the interaction with the drain in this simple model,
and hence to choose the constant, but it is encouraging that the expression is so similar to what
was derived rigorously in problem 27.

29.
sea surface
Ocean D Impermeable cap-rock
seafloor (exists near coast)
x

Q Zone of fresh
groundwater
y (flowing towards sea)
Zone of saline
groundwater
(approx. stationary)

16
 Near a particular straight coastline, and a considerable distance inland from it, permeable
sediments are capped by an impermeable rock, as shown. Rainwater which fell yet further
inland, where the cap-rock lid does not still exist, seeps under the cap and flows towards the sea
at volumetric rate Q, per unit distance perpendicular to the plane of the diagram (Q has units
[L2/T]). All sediments, beneath the cap-rock and beneath the seafloor, may be assumed to have
the same hydraulic conductivity K. The saline groundwater and ocean water both have the same
density ρoc , which is 1.025 times the fresh groundwater density ρ fr . The seafloor is assumed
flat, as shown, in the region where freshwater emanates from it.

(a) Study problem 27. Then introduce functions Φ (≡ − Kh) and Ψ to describe flow in the
fresh water zone. State clearly what you are choosing as the datum for h (you might consider
different options to make the problem description simplest in the Φ ,Ψ plane). Recall that
coordinates x and y can be expressed as functions of Φ and Ψ and, modifying the analysis in
problem 27 as necessary, develop and solve the mathematical problem so that you express x and
y in terms of Φ and Ψ .

(b) By what horizontal distance seaward, beyond the end of the cap-rock, does fresh water
emanate from the ocean floor?

(c) Determine the mathematical form of the freshwater/saline water interface, giving it in the
form y = f (x) , where the function f (x) which you are to derive may depend on Q, K, and
possibly other parameters of the problem.

(d) Now study problem 28 of ES 162 Homework Set 1, and adopting an analogous
methodology in this case, develop a partial check on your result for f (x) in part (c).

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