ST - Lecture 3

Designing for Special Considerations
.3.
Designing for Access & Movement
Pedestrian Movement
Lecture Designing for Special Considerations
3 Pedestrian Movement
 The built environment must accommodate the modes of

transport that people will use to get around.
 Modes of travel vary but the dominant methods that need to be
accommodated for include walking, cycling, using public transport
and driving.
 A designer should consider the different environmental
requirements for each mode of travel, as good routes for walking
and cycling are not necessarily the same as good routes for driving,
although some can obviously share space within a street.
 Designs of urban environment can support people’s
preferences, prescribe a range of travel choices or, more
commonly, create the conditions in which a particular travel
mode can be supported.
Pedestrian Movement
Understanding pedestrian movement is vital to guiding
sustainable travel and sustaining the life of a city. Through the
delivery of high quality advice, we help a diverse range of people
achieve remarkable improvements to their streets and public
spaces, transport interchanges, buildings and events, and thus
achieve better movement system.
Walkways …
 Designing for better pedestrian movement requires a careful
consideration of the median through which pedestrian get to use
to move, that is; ‘Walkways’
 Walkways design is characterized by the elements that affect
usability and accessibility:
- Grade
- Cross-slope
- Width
- Vertical Clearance
- Changes in level
- Obstacles and protruding objects
- Surface
1. Grade:
 Grade is defined as the slope parallel to the direction of travel. It
is calculated by dividing the vertical change in elevation by the
horizontal distance covered.
 Running grade is the average grade along adjacent grade.
 It is recommended that the running grade of sidewalks be
consistent with the running grade of adjacent roadways.
 Maximum grade is the limited section of path that exceeds the
typical running grade. In the pedestrian environment, maximum
grade should be measured over 24 inch (61.0 cm), intervals, which
represent the approximate length of a wheelchair wheelbase or a
single walking space.
 When measuring sidewalk grade, both running grade and

maximum grade should be determined so that small steep sections
may be detected.
 The rate of change of grade is the change in grade over a given
distance. It is determined by measuring the grade and the distance
over which it occurs for each segment of the overall distance. This
is measured over 61.0 cm intervals.
2. Cross-Slope:
 Cross-slope is the slope measured perpendicular to the direction
of travel.
 Unlike grade, cross-slope can be measured only at specific points.
Cross slope is determined by taking measurements at intervals
throughout a section of sidewalk and then averaging values.
 Running cross slope is the average cross-slope of a contiguous
section of sidewalks. Often within a typical running cross-slope
there are inaccessible maximum cross-slopes that exceed the
running cross-slop.
 The distance over which a maximum cross-slope occurs
significantly influences how difficult a section of sidewalk is to
negotiate.
 Most sidewalks are built with some degree of cross-slope to

prevent water from collecting on the path by allowing water to
drain into the street.
3. Width:
 Sidewalk widths affect pedestrian usability and determine the
types of access and other pedestrian elements that can be installed.
 For example a 1.5m wide sidewalk is probably wide enough to
accommodate pedestrian traffic in a residential area, but much
wider sidewalk would be necessary to include amenities, such as
street furniture.
 The specifications for a sidewalk’s width is called its design width.
 Design width extends from the curb or planting strip to any
buildings or planting that form the opposite borders of the
sidewalk. The minimum clearance width is the narrowest point on a
sidewalk.
 If the clearance width is reduced by obstacles, such as utility

poles, protruding into the sidewalk, the design width is reduced.
 Most design guidelines require sidewalk design widths to be at
least 1.5 meters.
 The width of the sidewalk is affected by pedestrian travel
tendencies.
 Pedestrians tend to travel in the centre of the sidewalk to
separate themselves from the rush of traffic, avoid street furniture,
and other obstacles.
 Pedestrians avoid the edges of the sidewalks close to street.
They also avoid travelling in 60cm of the sidewalk closest to
buildings because of obstacles such as retaining walls and fences.
 The side walk are pedestrian tend to avoid is referred to as “shy

distance”.
 The space used by pedestrians is called “effective width”.
4. Passing Space:
 Passing space is a section of path wide enough to allow two
wheelchair users to pass one another or travel side by side.
 The passing space provided should also be designed to allow one
wheelchair user to turn in a complete circle.
 The passing space interval is the distance between passing
spaces. Passing spaces should be provided when the side walk
width is narrow for a prolonged extent because of narrow design
width or continuous obstacles.
 Accessible routes with fewer than 1.5m of clear width must
provide passing spaces at least 1.5m wide at reasonable intervals
not exceeding 61.0m. If turning maneuvering is necessary, a turning
space must be provided.
5. Vertical Clearance:
 Vertical clearance is the minimum unobstructed vertical passage
space required along a sidewalk.
 Obstacles such as building overhangs, tree branches and signs
often limit vertical clearance.
 Circulation spaces such as corridors should have at least 203 cm of
headroom.
 If the vertical clearance of an area next to a circulation route is
less than 203 cm, a barrier must be constructed to visually disabled
or blind people about the elements projecting into the circulation
space.
6. Changes in Level:
 Changes in level are defined as vertical height transitions
between adjacent surfaces or along the surface of a path.
 In the sidewalk environment, curbs without ramps, cracks and
dislocations in surface material are common examples in changes in
level. Changes in level can also occur at expansion joints between
elements, such as curb ramp and gutters.
 The following conditions cause changes in level:
- Buckled bricks - Railroad tracks
- Cracks - Roots
- Curbs without ramps - Small steps
- Drainage grates - Tree grates
- Grooves in concrete - Heaving and settlement
 Changes in level can cause ambulatory pedestrians to trip or can

catch the casters of a manual wheelchair, causing the chair to come
to an abrupt stop.
 People who are blind or who have poor vision might not
anticipate changes in level.
7. Grates and Gaps:

 A grate is a framework of latticed or parallel bars that prevents
large objects from falling through a drainage inlet but still allows
water and some debris to fall through the slots.
 A gap is a single channel embedded in the travel surface of a path.
Gaps are often founded at intersections.
 Grates located in walking surfaces should have spaces no greater
than 1.27 cm wide in one direction.
 Grates with elongated openings should be oriented so that the
long dimension is perpendicular to the dominant direction of travel.
8. Obstacles and Protruding Objects:

 Obstacles in the pedestrian environment are objects that limit
the vertical passage space, protrude into the circulation route, or
reduce the clearance width of the sidewalk.
 The full width of the circulation path should be free of protruding
objects. Obstacles that reduce the minimum clearance width can
create significant barriers for wheelchairs or walker users.
 The following objects can make a sidewalk difficult for some users
to travel if they protrude into the pathway or reduce the vertical
horizontal clear space:
-Awnings and canopies;

- Bollards;
-Fire hydrants;
-Drinking fountains;
-Planters;
-Mailboxes;
-Street furniture;
-Trash receptacles;
-Parking meters;
-Tree, bush, and shrub branches;
-Signage and poles;
-Signal control and utility boxes;
-Transit shelters.
9. Surface:
 The surface is the material on which a person walks or wheels in
the pedestrian environment.
 The type of surface often determines how difficult an area is to
negotiate or be used.
 For example, most people can traverse wood floors without much
difficulty, while a gravel surface can be impossible for some people.
 Firm and stable surfaces, such as concrete resist deformation,
especially by movement of objects.
 A slip resistant surface provides enough frictional counterforce to
the forces exerted in ambulation to permit effective travel.
Pedestrian Friendly Streets

Pedestrian friendly streets are designed to be more
accommodating to pedestrian traffic than are conventionally
designed streets.
Pedestrian traffic here includes bicyclists, the physically
handicapped, transit users, and those of all ages on foot.
 Pedestrian friendly streets are becoming a popular design strategy

for creating walkable neighborhoods. This trend is associated with
smart growth, context-sensitive design, new urbanism, and other
current land development approaches.
 Pedestrian friendly streets include yield or queuing streets along
with narrower vehicular traffic lanes.
 Yield streets require that one vehicle yield to another as they
pass. Parking density works in part to control the type of
movement.
 A Yield Street is a street where a traveler in one direction slows
or stops to allow a traveler in the opposite direction to pass. Often
the yielding traveler may utilize space adjacent to the travel way
(parking, sidewalks, or grass) to make room for oncoming traffic.
 A yield street could be as wide as 30 feet (9.1m) if it is a shared

roadway. However, an exclusive (mainly auto) yield street will
probably be narrower than 22 feet (6.7m), and not wider than 24
feet (7.3) (the width of two wide auto lanes).
 A street narrower than 22 feet will naturally begin to function as a
yield street when trucks and other large vehicles are present,
whether it is designed this way or not.
 When the travel-way of a two ways street is narrower than 18
feet, the street automatically becomes a yield street. That’s because
18 feet (6.0m) is the minimum width at which two cars can
comfortably pass one another. In streets narrower than 18 feet,
adjacent parking (or else, yielding) spaces will have to be available
to allow one vehicle to make room for another.
 2-way yield streets are

appropriate in residential
environments where
drivers are expected to
travel at low speeds.
 Many yield streets have
significant off-street
parking provisions and on-
street parking utilization
of 40–60% or less.
 Create a “checkered”
parking scheme to
improve the functionality
of a yield street.
3
1
4
1. All residential streets should provide safe and inviting places to

walk and good access to local stores and schools. Design should
mitigate the effects of driveway conflicts, reduce cut-through traffic,
and maintain slow speeds conducive to traffic safety.
2. Driveways should be constructed to minimize intrusion upon the
sidewalk. Maintain sidewalk materials and grade across driveways.
3. The planted furniture zone of the sidewalk creates opportunities
for street trees, pervious strips, and rain gardens.
4. While most yield streets should have a minimum of signage and
striping, signage should be used to indicate bidirectional traffic at
transition points or where 2-way operation has recently been
introduced
 Efforts to calm traffic in walkable environments through street

design have demonstrated a reduction in accident severity,
accident frequency, and environmental impact.
 Both pedestrian and vehicular accident severity is reduced when
vehicles are travelling at lower speeds.
 When designed properly, narrower streets have designed speeds
either equal or less than 20 miles per hour. Note than when
vehicles travel above 20 miles an hour, the potential of serious
injury increases greatly.
Scale and Context:

 Context is the single most important variable in determining the
suitable width for a pedestrian-friendly street.
 The dimensions of the street will vary depending on several
factors, including but not limited to:
- Parking configuration;
- Building use;
- Degree / type of non-motorist activity;
- Truck traffic percentage;
- Transit use;
- Location within the urban fabric; and
- Design requirements for disabilities.
WOONERF
 This is the narrowest of the urban street types. Residential
building types and live-work units should front a woonerf.
 It is a pedestrian dominated street that meanders through a
portion of the neighborhood the ratio of building separation to
building height should be at 1.5 or less.
 Planters, benches and other
non-vehicle oriented elements
should be introduced in the
street environment .
 Most of the area is paved with
a different materials. Bollards
are used to define vehicle path.
WOONERF
LOW AVERAGE DAILY TRIP (ADT) YIELD STREET

 This street type is appropriate at the urban edge in a more rural
condition. It may also have open space on one side that defines the
edge of the neighborhood. Open drainage, ornamental tree species,
and low density residential landuse are typical.
 The recommended building separation to height ratio is 4:1,
although 5:1 may be used depending on urban context.
EDGE YIELD STREET

 This street type belongs on short blocks and between the edge
and centre of a neighborhood. Average daily trips should not be
more than 250 vehicles per day. Single family detached building
types should predominate.
 The recommended building separation to height ratio is 3:1,
although 4:1 may be used depending on urban context.
EDGE YIELD STREET

AASHTO RECOMMENDED RESIDENTIAL STREET

 This is a typical residential street. Parking density must be
evaluated to accommodate emergency vehicle access and
operation. It is framed by one species of tree, closed drainage,
offset sidewalks (1.5m wide).
 The recommended building separation to height ratio is 3:1.
MODIFIED AASHTO RESIDENTIAL STREET

 This modification recommended residential street places the
street trees within the parking lane. This application is used within
areas of relatively low parking density, to slow vehicular speeds.
 The recommended building separation to height ratio is 3:1.
YIELD STREET
 Detached and attached residential and mixed-use buildings front
this street type, though the character of the street is still
predominantly residential. Sidewalks generally are detached (1.5m
min.), but is areas of higher density that side walks must be wider.
 The building separation to height ratio of 3:1 should be
maintained.
YIELD STREET
NON YIELD STREET

This street type is not a yield condition, but the travel lanes should
be narrower than the conventional types in a walkable
environment. It would therefore be classified as a narrow street.
 It contains both attached and detached residential in addition to
commercial, retail, and mixed use buildings.
 The curb face width parallel parking may be as much as 10.5m in
an area that includes truck traffic, multi-storey buildings, and mix of
landuse. If diagonal parking is used, the width will increase.
 It is important to use narrower lanes that range from 9 to 11 feet
(2.7 to 3.4 m) in walkable urban conditions.
 The building separation to height ratio of 3:1 maximum.
 The street should have parking allowed on both sides as a

minimum in all circumstances. This helps reduce speeds, keeps the
drivers alert, and accommodates activity between the public and
private realm.
Design Elements:
Narrow, pedestrian friendly streets are best suited to mixed use,
walkable neighborhoods. Therefore, it is important to understand
the elements that inform street design.
Building Enclosure:
 Building enclosure -the relationship of street and buildings-
defines urban space. Analysis of enclosures and urban space is
important for achieving a certain aesthetic fro the scale, comfort,
character, and use of the street as a public realm.
 The aesthetic of pedestrian friendly street relies partly on how the
public spaces is defined by buildings. Buildings enclosure is defined
by the ration of building separation to building height.
 For example, a building 15.2m height that is 45.7m from the
building across the street has a ratio of 3:1. Building ratios of 1:1 to
4:1 generally require narrower streets. Ratios approaching 6:1 may
lose a perceptible sense of enclosure and should be avoided.
Amenities
 The walkability of a street relies on comfort and safety. Street
trees, arcades, and conditions where at least one side of the street
is in shade in the summer all help protect pedestrians from the sun.
 Because narrower streets have slower vehicular traffic, noise,
accident frequency, and accident severity are reduced.
 Streets that are accommodating to pedestrians enhance overall
street liveliness. Shoppers are attracted to stores when vehicles
travel slower and their occupants can look into the windows; thus,
economic vitality is enhanced as well. When choosing to include
pedestrian friendly streets in a design, establish a connection
network of streets. This helps disperse traffic and still gives
emergency vehicles a number of ways to respond to accidents.
Pedestrian Friendly Code Directory

Abundant Seating:
Public benches and seating where pedestrians can take a rest, meet
a friend, or wait for transit are important for pedestrian-oriented
areas. Older adults, pedestrians with disabilities, and families may
need to stop and rest frequently.
Adequate Access to Transit:
Public transportation and walking complement each other, since
transit users generally walk to and from transit, and transit
increases the distance pedestrians can travel. Communities can
arrange transit stops around popular destinations. Transit stops
should be within 1/4 to 1/2 mile of destinations. These distances
are especially important for residences or destinations of older
adults and those who are less likely to own cars.
Buffering From Traffic:

Providing a physical barrier between traffic and the sidewalk
increases pedestrians' safety and comfort. Buffers make pedestrians
feel less exposed and provide protection. Buffers come in different
forms such as Planting strips and furniture.
Eyes on the Street:
By encouraging development that leads people to naturally monitor
the streetscape and one another, communities can enhance safety.
Buildings with porches, balconies, and windows that face streets,
parks, and plazas help put more "eyes on the street." Communities
can also increase this type of visibility by purposely providing
seating on the street, and by encouraging the presence of street
vendors and outdoor dining in areas that need the most
surveillance.
Functional and Attractive Transit Facilities:

More people use public transportation when transit facilities are
attractive, safe, and functional. To optimize use, transit stops should
be highly visible to pedestrians, and oncoming transit vehicles
should be easy to see from the stop. Facilities should have some
architectural verve to enhance the streetscape, provide benches
and shelter from the elements, and address the challenges posed
by local weather.
Functional Street Furniture:
Street furniture (such as benches, drinking fountains, and trash
cans) is often regarded as an optional amenity, but can contribute
markedly to the comfort and character of an area for pedestrians.
Human-Scale Building Façade:

Over the past several decades, buildings have become wider, and
front entrances have been minimized or relocated from the street
to the parking lot. Vast, monolithic buildings present too much dead
space to the sidewalk, making pedestrians feel small and out of
place.
Landmarks:
Landmarks serve as points of reference for pedestrians and others
as they find their way. Landmarks help people recognize and
remember routes, they contribute to the identity and character of
an area, and they can act as gateways that orient travelers who are
approaching or leaving a district.
Medium to High Densities

Medium to high residential and commercial densities promote
walkability. A neighborhood with services and destinations within
walking distance (usually defined as 1/4- to 1/2-mile, though many
people are willing to walk further) and enough people present to
support nearby businesses is a walkable neighborhood.
Medium to Narrow Road Widths
Wide streets with many lanes of traffic are common, but are
difficult and dangerous for pedestrians to cross. Multiple lanes of
fast-moving cars can be dangerous and threatening to pedestrians.
Encouraging narrower roads is one of the best ways to increase
safety and comfort for pedestrians. Communities can make large,
wide roads safer and more attractive by expanding sidewalks and
adding landscaped to buffer sidewalk from street.
Mix of Land Uses:

In many communities today, different types of neighborhood uses
are strictly separated from one another - one area exclusively
residential, another filled with office buildings, a third containing
shops and small businesses, making walking from home to the store
virtually impossible. A neighborhood has a mixture of uses, people
can leave their home on foot and run errands, access different
types of services, and commute to work, within walkable distance.
Parks and Public Spaces:
Parks and public spaces like playgrounds, plazas, and gardens make
neighborhoods more beautiful and appealing for physical activity.
They also increase safety by attracting people at all times of the
day. Parks can help break up long blocks and encourage physical
activity.
Pedestrian Supportive Commercial Uses:

Some types of commercial and civic spaces are more pedestrian-
friendly than others. Having stores, parks, libraries, and restaurants
at street level allows people to run errands on foot and helps create
more walkable and inviting areas. In contrast, in pedestrian oriented
areas, a community may want to discourage drive-through
restaurants, big box stores, and auto repair shops.
Pedestrian-Oriented Building Entries:
Buildings often have entrances and exits that can only be reached
from their parking lots. These types of entrances are difficult and
dangerous for pedestrians to find and access. By requiring that
buildings have their main entrance facing the street or public
spaces, pedestrians aren’t made to feel like second class citizens.
Pedestrian-Oriented Lighting:
Lighting that is designed for pedestrians is important in areas in
which people will walk after dark. Such lighting is important to
address actual safety concerns, both personal safety and traffic
safety, as well as to increase the perception of safety and encourage
use of the area after dark.
Pedestrian-Oriented Signage:
People on foot experience signs differently than those in cars. At 25
or 45 miles per hour, signs need to be big, bold, avoid details, and
be posted a block before the location the sign refers to. By contrast,
pedestrians need signs to be at their level. They have more time to
see signs, and so signage can be scaled down and made more
interesting, dense, and informative.
Reducing Dead Space:

It is unappealing to walk by the blank, unfriendly expanses created
by windowless structures or by parking lots or garages. "Dead
spaces" like these lack visual interest, often feel oppressive to
pedestrians, and can encourage crime.
Safe Street Crossings:
Pedestrians must be able to cross streets safely. More than 40% of
pedestrian fatalities take place where no crosswalk is available.
Often, marked crosswalks alone are insufficient to protect
pedestrians, and additional infrastructure is necessary to make the
crossing safe. In areas with long blocks, or where pedestrians use
both sides of the street heavily, crosswalks located both in the
middle and at the end of blocks are helpful.
Shade Trees:
Good street shade trees have a large canopy that hangs relatively
low but is high enough not to endanger pedestrians walking
underneath. Placed between the street and the sidewalk, shade
provide a physical and psychological barrier between vehicles and
pedestrians.
Short Street Blocks:
Long street blocks are inconvenient and unsafe for pedestrians.
Long blocks commonly have crosswalks only at intersections,
imprisoning cautious pedestrians on one side of the street and
indirectly encouraging unsafe mid-street crossings as the only
practical means to access places directly across the street. Shorter
blocks and more crossings provide flexibility and options for
pedestrians.
Special Paving:
Special paving and colored cement can demarcate special areas and
give them flair. These elements can also slow traffic and make
pedestrian crossings more visible (see "Safe Street Crossings" for
additional crosswalk treatments). But bumpy, textured, or raised
pavement can pose hazards or challenges to people with
disabilities, so adding these features requires careful consideration.
Street Connectivity:
An interconnected street network is crucial for pedestrians. Shorter
blocks with frequent crossings provide quick connections so
pedestrians can get directly to their destinations. Variations on the
grid network can increase pedestrian activity in an area by providing
visual interest.
Traffic Calming:
For decades, streets have been designed with the primary goal of
moving cars as quickly as possible. But high-speed driving
environments increase the number of collisions and the severity of
injuries, both for motorists and for pedestrians. Reducing how
rapidly cars drive on a street is crucial for pedestrian safety, and also
for the livability and social and recreational functions of a street.
Wide and Continuous Sidewalks:
In many communities, sidewalks start and stop without warning or
are lacking altogether, endangering pedestrians. In addition, narrow
sidewalks can force pedestrians to walk into the street to get
around obstacles and other people. Sidewalks should be wide
enough to accommodate a landscaped which serves as a barrier
from traffic and a place to plant trees for shade and beauty.

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Designing for Special Considerations

 The built environment must accommodate the modes of

 When measuring sidewalk grade, both running grade and

 Most sidewalks are built with some degree of cross-slope to

 If the clearance width is reduced by obstacles, such as utility

 The side walk are pedestrian tend to avoid is referred to as “shy

 Changes in level can cause ambulatory pedestrians to trip or can

7. Grates and Gaps:

8. Obstacles and Protruding Objects:

-Awnings and canopies;

Pedestrian Friendly Streets

 Pedestrian friendly streets are becoming a popular design strategy

 A yield street could be as wide as 30 feet (9.1m) if it is a shared

 2-way yield streets are

1. All residential streets should provide safe and inviting places to

 Efforts to calm traffic in walkable environments through street

Scale and Context:

LOW AVERAGE DAILY TRIP (ADT) YIELD STREET

EDGE YIELD STREET

EDGE YIELD STREET

AASHTO RECOMMENDED RESIDENTIAL STREET

MODIFIED AASHTO RESIDENTIAL STREET

NON YIELD STREET

 The street should have parking allowed on both sides as a

Pedestrian Friendly Code Directory

Buffering From Traffic:

Functional and Attractive Transit Facilities:

Human-Scale Building Façade:

Medium to High Densities

Mix of Land Uses:

Pedestrian Supportive Commercial Uses:

Reducing Dead Space:

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