Exam 1 Topics:

Limit basics
● lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 means that as x approaches a, f(x) approaches L
𝑥→𝑎
○ The limit does not care about what f(x) dpes AT x = a, just what f(x) does as x
approaches a
○ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 does not guarantee that f(x) ever equals L, just that it approaches L
𝑥→𝑎
● Be familiar with one-sided limits, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
− +
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
○ If x is approaching a from the negative side it means from the left side of the graph
○ If x is approaching a from the positive side it means from the right side of the graph
● lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 if and only if both lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
− +
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
○ This does not work if there is a discontinuity where from the left the graph approaches a
different value than if we were to approach it from the right… jump discontinuity, infinite
discontinuity, and a removable discontinuity

○
● Be able to use a graph of a function to answer questions about limits of that function.

○
Continuity
● Most of the time we can often think continuity means you candraw a function without
picking up your pencil (where the are some weird examples where this description does
 not fit, we won’t see them in this class). But, when trying to prove something is
continuous you have to refer to the definitions of continuity.
● f(x) is continuous at x=a if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
− +
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
○ There is one-sided continuity if f(a) equals onr of the one-sided limits as x
approaches a
● f(x) is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every point on the interval
● If you can build a function from polynomial, root, trig, exponential, log functions using
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, composition, and peicewise rules, the only
places that the function may not be continuous are at:
○ Divide by zero
○ Even roots of negative numbers
○ Log of non-positive numbers
○ Piecewise rule changes or undefined
● Be able to sketch a function that satisfies a description of a function’s continuity and
limits

●
Evaluatig Limits
● If there are no issues with continuity, limits can be evaluated using lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎). But
𝑥→𝑎
most of the times the limits that you are asked will involve some issue with continuity.

○
0
● If the limit is of the form 0
, try* to find an (x-a) to factor out of both the numerator and
denominator
 ○ * it is not always possible to factor out an (x-a) out of top and bottom.

0 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦
● Given a limit of the form 0
and 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦
, you need to be proficient at factoring polynomials,
which may require_____ ______.
○ The greatest common factor or a common factor: a(b+c) = ab+ac
0
● Given a limit of the 0
and it involves a square root, you may consider multiplying by the
_____ over the _______.
3𝑥+10−2 3𝑥+10+2
○ Conjugate – 𝑥+2
* to solve and then get rid of the /0 in the bottom
3𝑥+10+2
● Know how to handle limits that involve fractions in fractions
○ Lowest common denominator of the smaller fractions (the ones on the “top” fraction)
 𝑐
● Given a limit of the form 0
𝑐 ≠ 0, start by looking at the one-sided limit knowing that
they’re either _______ or _______ depending on the ______.
○ Positive (right) or negative (left) depending on the sign
● ! BE CAREFUL ABOUT NOTATION! DO NOT DROP A LIMIT OR OPERATOR UNTIL YOU DO
THE LIMIT OPERATION. HAVE EQUAL SIGNS BETWEEN EQUAL EXPRESSIONS!
Limit Definition of the Derivative
● Know how to find the slope of a secant line to a function
𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
○ 𝑏−𝑎
● Know how to find the slope of the secant line to a function can be used to find the slope of
a tangent line to the function.
𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)
○ ℎ
● Know that the slopes of a secant line and tangent line to a position function give the
average and instantaneous velocity.
○ Slope of the secant line is the average velocity between the starting and ending point
○ The tangent can be visualized as the limit of the average velocity as the time difference
becomes smaller and small; thus the slope of the tangent is instantaneous velocity. (the
derivative of the distance function)
● Know each of the limit definitions of the derivative that we have used and when each is
appropriate:
'
○ 𝑓 (𝑎) = lim _______
𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑎)
■ 𝑥−𝑎
'
○ 𝑓 (𝑎) = lim ________
ℎ→0
𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)
■ ℎ
'
○ 𝑓 (𝑥) = lim _________
ℎ→0
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
■ ℎ
● Know that f’(a) gives the slope of the tangent line to y=f(x) at x=a
0
● !NOTE THAT ALL OF THESE LIMITS ARE OF THE FORM 0
● !BE CAREFUL TO CHECK WHETHER THE QUESTION IS ASKING FOR THE SLOPE OF THE
TANGENT LINE OR THE EQUATION OF THE TANGET LINE!
Shortcut Rules of the Derivative
● While the shortcut rules of the derivative (see last page) will be covered more thoroughly
on the differentiation gateway exam, they will also be important on the midterm exam
● Be able to use the limit definition of the derivative to show some of the simpler rules of
derivatives (not product/quotient/chain).
● Know your derivative rules and how to apply them to functions both known and unknown
● Know how to fnd the equation of a tangent line to y=f(x) at x=a
'
○ 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑎)
● Know how to find when a curve y=f(x) has a horizontal tangent line.
● !KNOW THE NOTIONS! KNOW HOW Y, F(X), D/DX, DY/DX AND F’(X) ARE RELATED AND
WORK TOGETHER! IN PARTICULAR, KNOW THE DIFFERENT BETWEEN D/DX AND DY/DX
Implicit Differention
 𝑑𝑦
● Given an equation not solved for y, know how to use implicit differentiation to find 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
● 𝑑𝑥
gives the slope at all points on the curve. Know how ti find the slope at a specific point
● Know how to find the points on a curve that have horizontal or vertical tangent lines
𝑔(𝑥)
● Know how to use logarithmic differentiation to differentiate functions of the form 𝑓(𝑥)
● !KNOW THE LOG RULES AND EXPONENTIAL RULES!

Exam 2 Topics:
Related Rates
● When drawing diagrams be careful to use variables to label dimensions that are changing
and constants for dimensions that are not changing
● Be able to express the question in Leibniz Notation. This can be particularly useful for
knowing what variables should remain in your relating equation.
● Be comfortable with all the different types of relating equations that we have seen and be
comfortable eliminating extraneous variables
● Know how to implicitly differentiate with respect to t
● Never use any rates or information that follows the “when” in the question until AFTER
you’ve implicitly differentiated with respect to t
● Don’t forget units in your final answer
Increasing, Decreasing, and the First Derivative
● Critical values of f(x) are where f(x) is continuous and _____ or ______.
● Know how to use the first derivative to determine when a function is increasing or
decreasing
Concave Up, Concave Down, and the Secnd Derivative
● Know how to use the second derivative to determine when a function is concave up or
down
● Know how to find points of inflection (and that ‘points’ means (x,y)).
Local Extrema
● Know that all local maximums and minimums on a continuous functions must be at critical
values, but that critical values do not have to gove local extrema (and similarly, f(x) does
not have to have a point of inflection whenever f’’(x) = 0)
● Know how to use the first derivative test to classify whether critical values give local
maximums, local minimums, or neither. Be sure to write a full conclusion
● Know how to use the second derivative test to classify whether critical values give local
maximums or local minimums (Note that when the second derivative test is inconclusive,
you may have a local max, local min, or neither, but the second derivative test will not be
able to help)
Derivatives and the Shapes of Graphs
● Know how to take the information about the first and second derivatives of a curve to find
information about the shape of the original function.
● Know how functions and it’s derivatives are related. Know what information about one
function might tell you about the others.
Absolute Extrema
● Know the definition of an absolute maximum or absolute minimum
● Know how to recognize absolute manimims and absolute minimums graphically. Know
that it is possible that a function might have NO absolute manimim or absolute minimum.
● If a function f(x) if continuous on a closed interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 then, f(x) is guaranteed to
have an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum and they must either be at critical
values in the interval or the endpoints
Optimization Problems
● Be comfortable drawing diagrams of various optimization problems
● Be sure to define your variables. Can be done in words or by labeling a diagram
● Know how to set up an equation for the variable you want to optimize. If it is dependent on
more than one other variable, know how to use a constraint given in th problem to
eliminate extraneous variables.
● After finding the critical value(s), be sure to use an appropriate test to demonstrate that
you have the desired absolute extrema
● Always reread the problem to make sur eyou give the answer that is asked for
● Don’t forget units in your final answer
L’Hospitals Rule
0 ∞
● Be familiar with the indeterminate forms that we have seen, 0
, ∞
● Know when and how to use L’Hospital’s rule (especially when to stop)
● Everytime you use L’Hospitals rule you need to tell us that you’re using it and why you can
use it. The shorthand notation will be sufficient
● Know alternative ways of handling specific indeterminate forms that may arise
0 ∞
● Know how to recognize the other indeterminate forms (0 * ∞, ∞ − ∞, 0 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 )
0 ∞
● Know how to rearrange the other indeterminate forms so they are of the form 0
or ∞
Linearizations
● Given y = f(x) and x=a, f(x) = L(x) near x=a where L(x)=_________
● Know hoe to use linearizations to make approximations
Differentials
● Given y = f(x), a value of x, and a change in ∆𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥, know how to find:
○ ∆𝑦= _______
○ dy =_______
● Know what these values dx, ∆𝑥 , dy and ∆𝑦 mean visually on a graph of y=f(x)
● Know how to use that ∆𝑦 ≈ 𝑑𝑦 when ∆𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 is small, to approximate values
Newton’s Method
● Know how Newton’s Method works geometrically. Specifically that 𝑥𝑛+1is the root of the
tangent line to y = f(x) at x=xn
● Know how to set up and use the formula for Newton’s method to approximate the root of a
function
○ Xn+1 = ________
● How do you find a good choice for your first approximation x1?
● What can go wrong with Newton’s Method?

Exam 3: Review
Mean Value Theorem:
- Rolle’s Theorem: If a function (f) is continuous on the closed interval [a,b] and is differentiable on
the open interval (a,b), then there exists a point c in the interval (a,b) such that f’(c) is equal to the
function’s average rate of change over [a,b].
- In other words, the graph has a tangent somewhere in (a,b) that is parallel to the secant line over
[a,b].
- rise/run f(b)-f(a)/b-a
- Then create g(x) to be the line that goes through (a,f(a)) and (b,f(b))
- g(x) = f(b)-f(a)/b-a (x-a)+f(a)
- Hypothesis of the mean value theorem: f(x) is continuous on [a,b] and f(x) is differentiable on
(a,b)
- Conclusion: is the “then” part of the theorem. Is that if a function f is continuous on the interval
[a,b] then also differentiable on (a,b) then exists a point “c” in the interval (a,b) such that f’(c)
which is equal to the ratio of the difference of the function f(a) and f(b)
- Hypothesis and conclusion is only wrong if A (the hypothesis) is TRUE and B (the conclusion) is
FALSE
- A B If A, then B
- T T T
- T F F
- F T T
- F F T
- If the conclusion of a proven theorem is not satisfied, then at least one of the hypotheses is not
satisfied.
Antiderivatives:
- The antiderivative of a function f(x) is a function F(x) such that d/dx F(x) = f(x)... basically just
derivatives backwards
- If F(x) is an antiderivative of f(x), then F(x)+c gives ALL antiderivatives of f(x). But sometimes we
don’t want all antiderivatives, only one specific.
- Example: if the velocity of an object moving along a number line is given by v(t)= 1+sin(t) and the
initial position is s(0) = 5 find an equation for the position of the object at time t.
- s’(t) = v(t) = 1+sin(t)
 - Then take the antiderivative
- s(t) = t - cos(t) + c
- s(0) = 5
- s(0) = 0 - cos(0) + c =5
- Solve for c
- -1 + c = 5
- c=6
- Final Answer: s(t) = t-cos(t) +6
Area bound by a curve:
- The signed area between y=f(x) and the x-axis on the interval a ≲ x ≲ b can be denoted as ∫ab
f(x)dx. This is called the definite integral
- Basic Geometry:
- Area of a rectangle: A= b*h
- Area of a trapezoid: A= ½(b1+b2)h
- Area of a parallelogram: A=b*h
- Area of a triangle: ½(b*h) or ¼(sqrt((a+b+c)(a+b-c)(a-b+c)(-a+b+c))
- For shapes like a hexagon, how would we do this? By breaking it up into smaller slices, like
triangles.
- Let the interval [a,b] be broken into n equal subintervals
- a = left endpoint of full interval
- b = right endpoint of full interval
- n = number of subintervals
-△ x = width of subintervals = b-a/n
- xk = right endpoint of kth subinterval xo= a, xn= b, xk = a+k(b-a/n)
- x*k= x-value chosen in kth subinterval
- x- k = midpoint of kth subinterval. = a+n/2(2k-1)(b-a)
- The capital greek letter Σ (sigma) is used to indicate sums
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:
- Given f(x) is continuous on [a,b]. Let F(x) be any antiderivative of f(x) (F’(x)=f(x))
- There are limitations to the fundamental theorem of calculus
- When there is not a finite length
- f(x) is not continuous on its interval
- We cannot easily find the antiderivative of f(x)
- Given a velocity v(t) function of an object moving in a straight line, we can use integrals to
compute:
- Displacement on [a,b] = ∫ab v(t)dt
- Total Distance traveled on [a,b] = ∫ab |v(t)|dt
- An integral is just a summing machine. We can use it, to sum up areas, distances, volumes, work,
force, moments, and many other things
Indefinite Integrals:
- An indefinite integral is an integral without bounds (no a or b)
- It is not looking for a signed area. It is simply looking for the antiderivative of a function.
Chain rule in antiderivatives:
- While we can often carefully think through the chain rule in reverse, we need a more structured
way to approach these integrals to make sure nothing gets misplaced.
- Chain Rule: d/dx f(g(x)) = f’(g(x))g’(x)
- This then gives us the integral of:
- ∫f’(g(x))g’(x) = f(g(x))+c
- But this looks very complicated lets make it more simple
 - Let u = g(x) and find the differential du = g’(x)dx.
- ∫f’(g(x))g’(x) = f(u) +c
U- substitution steps:
1. Choose U. Usually choose u to be a nested part. Sometimes “nested part” means denominator
2. Find the differential (and change the bounds if definite)
3. Rearrange integral/U-sub to make substitution easier
4. Replace dx, all remaining x’s and bounds (if definite)
5. Find antiderivative of simpler expression
6. If indefinite, sub back (don’t forget +c) If definite: evaluate with new bounds if possible( no need to
sub back)
Area between Curves:
- Consider the area bound between two curves:
- A= ∫abf(x)dx - ∫abg(x)dx
- = ∫ab(f(x)-g(x))dx
Volume by Slices:
- Find the volume of a pyramid with square base with side length b and height h.
- Volume of slice: w2*thickness
- Total volume: ∫0h(b/h(h-y))2*dy
Volumes of Revolution:
- A volume of revolution is the solid that is swept out by rotating a region about a given axis.
- Find the volume generated by rotating the region bound by y=x2, x=2, and the x-axis,
about the x-axis
- V= (pi r2)*thickness = pi(r2)2dx
- Total volume= ∫02pi (x2)2 dx = ∫02pi(x4) = pi(⅕ x5) |02 = 32pi/5 or 20.106
Volume of a washer:
- Volume of a washer: (Area of big circle - area of small circle)*thickness
- pi(R2 - r2)dx
Cylindrical Shells:
- Volume= ∫Domianvolume of one cylinder
- ∫Domiancircumference*height*thickness
- ∫Domian2pir*h*dx/y (can be either dy or dx, it depends on what you are trying to evaluate in
the equation)
Given the region, set up an integral that gives the volume generated when rotating about:
- The x-axis using the disk/washer method
- V= ∫Domianpi (R2-r2)dx
- The x-axis using the method of cylindrical shells
- V= ∫Domian2piy*h*dy
- The y-axis using the disk/washer method:
- V= ∫Domianpi (R2-r2)dy
- The y-axis using the method of cylindrical shells:
- V= ∫Domian2pix*h*dx
- B & d: cylindrical shells d* is always the opposite of the axis it is rotating around
How to decide which method to use (cylindrical shells vs. washers)
- Determine the region and the axes of rotation (do dx or dy boxes fill the region more easily)
- Draw your d* box and its reflection across the axes of rotation
- Connect the matching corners of boxes with ellipses(did you draw a washer or a cylindrical
shell?)
- Use the appropriate formulas for the volume to setup the integral
- Evaluate
How do things change if you rotate about a line other than the x or y axis
- example : y=10 in a washer and shell
- (10 -(R2))2 and (10 -(r2))2
- We do this because we are finding the area behind the axis
- example : y=-10 in a washer and a cylindrical shell
- ((R2)-(-10)) and ((r2)-(-10))
- We do this because we have to add on the extra area created behind the starting point
Work:
- We know that we’ve done work when something has moved.
- It is dependent on the distance and the effort required/involved as well.
- Work = force*distance
- Work= mass*acceleration
- What are the different units of force between the Metric and English system
Metric English

Work Joules (N*m) Foot pounds (ft*lbs)

Force Newtons (N) Pounds (lbs)

Mass Kilograms (kg) Slugs (avoid this)

Distance Meters (m) Feet (ft)

Gravity 9.81 meters/sec2 (m/s2) 32 ft/s2 (feet/second2)

- When both the distance and force are fixed, no calculus is needed. But is the amount of force
change as the object moves, we will need to use calculus to measure the amount of total work.
Springs:
- The more a spring is stretched (or compressed) from its natural length the greater the force it
exerts. In fact, Hooke’s Law tells us that the force is proportional to the distance stretched beyond
its natural length.
- F(x) = kx where the value of k varies from spring to spring and where x is the distance
past natural length
- Example: a force of 10lbs is required to hold a spring stretched ⅓ ft beyond its
natural length. How much work is done in stretching it from its natural length to ½
ft beyond its natural length?
- F(x) = kx
- F(⅓) = k10
- k*⅓ = 10
- k=30
- F(x)=30x
- Always need to write a sentence or prove the domain… 0≲x≲1/2
because it starts at its natural length 0 and we want to know ½
- Work = ∫Domianforce*distance
- ∫01/230x
- (then take the antiderivative) 15x2 |01/2
- (evaluate) = 15/4 ft*lbs
Topical Overview for Exam 3:
Mean Value Theorem
● Know the full statement of the Mean Value Theorem
 ○ States that for any function f(x) whose graph passes through two given points (a,
f(a)) and (b,f(b)), there is at least one point (c,f(c)) on the curve where the
tangent is parallel to secant passing through the two given points.
○ f’(c) is the average rate of change of the function over [a,b] and it is parallel to the
secant line over [a,b]
■ The brackets [,] means a closed interval… continuous just means that
we don’t have any jumps or gaps in the function over this closed interval
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
■ 𝑏−𝑎
= 𝑓'(𝑐)
● How do you show that the hypotheses are true and also that the conclusion is true?
○ Hypothesis: The function has to be continuous on the closed interval [a,b] and
differentiable on the open interval (a,b)
○ Conclusion: The Mean Value Theorem states that if a function f is continuous on
the closed interval [a,b] and differentiable on the open interval (a,b) such that f’(c)
is equal to the function’s average rate of change over [a,b]
● What can you conclude if both of the hypotheses are true? What can you conclude if one
or both of the hypotheses are false?
○ Hypothesis and conclusion is only wrong if A (the hypothesis) is TRUE and B
(the conclusion) is FALSE
■ A B If A, then B
■ T T T
■ T F F
■ F T T
■ F F T
○ If the conclusion of a proven theorem is not satisfied, then at least one of the
hypotheses is not satisfied.
● What can you deduce if the conclusion is true? What can you deduce if the conclusion is
false?
Example: Given f(x)= (16-x2)½ for -1≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4. State both parts of the hypothesis of the MVT for this
function. Check to see if they are both true and if they are both true, state the conclusion of the MVT for
this problem and find a value that satisfies the conclusion.
Hypothesis:
2 1/2
- f(x)= (16 − 𝑥 ) is continuous on 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4 : this is true because f(x) is continuous as long
as 16-x2 ≥ 0 → x2=16 → − 4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4 and 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4 lies within that domain
2 1/2
- f(x)= (16 − 𝑥 ) is differentiable on 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4 : this is also true because f’(x) =
1 2 −1/2 −𝑥
2
(16 − 𝑥 ) (− 2𝑥) → 2 1/2 exists on − 4 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4 , (divide by 0 or the square root of a
(16−𝑥 )
negative number would make that invalid), includes 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4
Conclusion:
𝑓(4) − 𝑓(−1)
- There exists a c on 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4 such that f’(c) = 4−(−1)
: to prove this solve that
−𝑐 − 15
2 1/2 = 5
and see that the answers c = 6 and − 6 are the answers but only 6 lies
(16−𝑐 )
within the domain stated above.
● If the conclusion of a proven theorem is NOT satisfied, then at least one of the hypotheses is not
satisfied. But the opposite is true as well, if the hypothesis is NOT satisfied the conclusion still can
be satisfied.
Examples:
 ★ Let f(x) =
𝑥
𝑥+2
for 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4. State both parts of the hypotheses of the MVT for Derivatives for
this function. Are each of the parts of the hypothesis true? If so, state the conclusion of the MVT
for this function and find a value of c that satisfies the conclusion.
Hypotheses:
𝑥 𝑥
1. f(x) = 𝑥+2
is continuous on 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4 – this is true because f(x) is constant as long as 𝑥+2
≥ 0
𝑥
2. f(x) = 𝑥+2
is differentiable on 1 ≺ 𝑥 ≺ 4 – this is true because f’(x) exists everywhere except x=2

𝑓(4)−𝑓(1)
Conclusion: There for there exists a “C” on 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4 such that f’(c) = 4−1
2 1
2 3
−3 2
⇒ 2 = 4−1
⇒ 18 = (𝑐 + 2) ⇒ ± 18 = 𝑐 + 2 ⇒ 𝑐 = − 2 + 18 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2 + 18
(𝑐+2)

But − 2 + 18 is not inside of the domain so c = 2 + 18

★ Suppose that 3 ≤ 𝑓'(𝑥) ≤ 5 for allvalues of x. Use the MVT to find upper and lower bounds for
f(7)-f(2).
- Since 3 ≤ 𝑓'(𝑥) ≤ 5 for all x, f(x) is continuous and differentiable everywhere including
𝑓(7)−𝑓(2)
on 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 7. So by MVT there exists a “C” on 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 7 such that f’(c) = 7−2
.
Since 3 ≤ 𝑓'(𝑥) ≤ 5
𝑓(7)−𝑓(2)
- so… 3 ≤ 7−2
≤ 5 ⇒ 15 ≤ 𝑓(7) − 𝑓(2) ≤ 25

Position, Velocity, and Acceleration

● Given a velocity function and an initial position, know how to use an indefinite integral to
find the position function. How do you find the value of the constant C?
○ F(x) is just the antiderivative of f(x), the F(x)+c gives ALL antiderivatives of f(x).
But sometimes we don’t want ALL antiderivatives, only one specific one.
Example:
If the velocity of an object moving along a number line is given by v(t)= 1 + sin(t) and the initial position is
s(0)=5, find an equation for the position of the object at time t.
- v(t) = s’(t) = 1 + sin(t) — take the antiderivative of this function to find s(t).
- s(t) = t - cos(t) + c and we know that at s(0) = 5
- s(0) = 0 - cos(0) + 5 —- then solve for c
- c = 6 — plug into the original equation
- s(t) = t - cos(t) + 6

● Given an acceleration function and initial conditions, know how to find the position
function.
○ To find the position function you would have to take the antiderivative of the
equation twice.
 ● Given v(t), the displacement over the interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏 is: no absolute value because
they just want the positive distance moved instead of the total distance moved
𝑏
○ Displacement on [a,b] = ∫ 𝑣(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑎
● Given v(t), the total distance traveled over the interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏 is: the absolute value
of both equations to get the total distance traveled over the entire integral.
𝑏
○ Total distance traveled on [a,b] = ∫|𝑣(𝑡)|𝑑𝑡
𝑎

Integrals – Definite and Indefinite:

● Know how to interpret a definite integral geometrically. Recall the ‘signed area’.
○ Indefinite integral is an integral without bounds:

■ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
 ■ It is not looking for a signed area. It is simply looking for the
antiderivatives of a function:

● ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐹'(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑑
○ Power rule for 𝑑𝑥
( 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒): Power
decreases by one and multiply by the OLD power

○ Power rule for ∫: Power increases by one and dividing

by the NEW power

○ The signed area between y = f(x) and the x-axis on the interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 can
be denoted as:
𝑏
■ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 and this is called the Definite Integral
𝑎

● Know the properties of integrals, such as…

𝑏 𝑏
○ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =
𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑐
○ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =
𝑎 𝑏
● What other properties have we used? When have they been useful?
○ a = left endpoint
○ b = right endpoint
○ n = the number of subintervals
○ ∆𝑥 = width of subintervals
○ xk = right endpoint of kth subinterval
■ x0 = a
■ xn = b
𝑏−𝑎
■ xk = a+k 𝑛
○ x*k = x-value chosen in kth subinterval
𝑛
○ 𝑥𝑘 = midpoint of kth subinterval. 𝑥𝑘 = a + 2
(2𝑘 − 1)(b-a)
𝑏
○ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = sum of the area of the rectangles
𝑎
𝑛
■ ∑ 𝑓(𝑥𝑘) ∆𝑥
𝑘=1
 ○ To get a more accurate answer you would want to use more boxes to fill in the
area of the curve and to get the exact answer use an infinite number of boxes (
lim )
𝑛→∞

○ You can always choose xk* at the midpoint 𝑥𝑘 and the infinite Riemann Summ
would become:
𝑛
■ lim ∑ 𝑓(xk*) ∆𝑥
𝑛 → ∞ 𝑘=1
● Be comfortable calculating the definite integral of a linear or quadratic function using an
infinite Riemann Sum.
𝑏 𝑛
○ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim ∑ 𝑓(𝑥𝑘)∆𝑥
𝑎 𝑛 → ∞ 𝑘=1
○ ∆𝑥 = ___________
𝑛
○ ∑1=n
𝑘=1
● Be familiar with, but do not memorize:
𝑏−𝑎
○ 𝑥k = a + 2𝑛
(2𝑘 − 1)
𝑛
○ ∑ (2k-1) = n2
𝑘=1
𝑛
𝑛 2
○ ∑ (2k-1)2 = 3
(4𝑛 − 1)
𝑘=1
● Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (part 2): Given f(x) is continuous of [a,b]:
𝑏
○ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = F(b) - F(a) where F(x) is any antiderivative of f(x)
𝑎
○ The fundamental theorem of calculus is very powerful but it has its limits:
■ The interval is NOT of finite length
∞
1
● ∫ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
1
∞
𝑥
● ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
−∞ 𝑥 +1
■ f(x) is NOT continuous on the interval:
1
1
● ∫ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
0
■ We can’t easily find the antiderivative of f(x)
1 2
−𝑥
● ∫𝑒 𝑑𝑥
0

● Use the properties of integrals to break up a definite integral of a continuous

piecewise-defined function in order to evaluate it. We’ve used this most frequently on
integrals involving absolute values.

● The indefinite integral ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 gives the antiderivatives of f(x). Don’t forget the “+C”
 ● Know all the basic integrals that we have covered in this course. For the most part, this is
just knowing your derivatives backward, but know where it differs slightly.
● Be comfortable with u-substitution
○ Know how to choose an appropriate u-substitution. This is usually a nested
portion of the expression, but you also have to be aware of how the differential
will work.
○ Be sure to replace all dx, remaining x, and bounds (if definite)
○ Substitute and find the antiderivative. For indefinite integrals, sub back into the
original variable. For definite integrals, evaluate in terms of u with the new
bounds.
Examples:
2
- ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (5𝑥)𝑑𝑥

- Pick a u —
- u = 5x
- du = 5dx
- ⅕ du = dx
- Then substitute —
2
- ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (𝑢)1/5𝑑𝑢

- Take any constants like fractions or pi (π) out of the integral

- ⅕ ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐2(𝑢)𝑑𝑢
- Then take the antiderivative
- ⅕ tan(u) + c
- Then replace all substitutions with their actual values
- ⅕ tan(5x) + c

4 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(5𝑥)
- ∫𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛(5𝑥)𝑑𝑥

- Pick a u
- u = 4 + cos(5x)
- du = -sin(5x) * 5dx
- -⅕ du = sin(5x)dx
- Substitute
𝑢 1
- ∫𝑒 − 5
𝑑𝑢

- Bring out constants

𝑢
- − 1/5 ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑢

- Antiderivative
- -⅕ eu + c
- Replace
- -⅕ e4 + cos(5x) + c

Areas and Volumes:

 ● Be comfortable using either a dx box or a dy box to set up an integral
● Know what to do when which curve is on top is not consistent
○ You would start by taking the integral of the curve that is on the top and then
make another integral of when the top curve switches
● Know how to calculate the volume of a shape by summing volumes of general slices.
○ Draw the region of the footprint
○ Are the base of the slices dx boxes or dy boxes? Include a diagram.
○ Draw a representative slice and know where the d* box is in this slice.
○ Find the volume of the slice (𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 • 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐴(*)𝑑 *)
○ Use an integral with the appropriate domain to sum up the full volume
● Know how to calculate the volume generated by rotating a region about an axis using
either the washer method or they cylindrical shells method:

○ Washers: 𝑉 = ∫ π
𝐷

○ Cylindrical Shells: 𝑉 = ∫ 2π
𝐷
● Be comfortable with using either dx or dy boxes for both washers and shells
● Know how to find R and r or h and r when rotating about a line other than the x or y axes.
Work Problems:
● Know how to use an integral to calculate the work done in situations such as:
○ Springs
○ Bucket
○ Chains
○ Pumping Water
Examples:
A leaky bucket 1.5 kg bucket is used to draw water from a well that is 8m deep on a cable with density 2
kg/m. The bucket initially holds 40kg of water, but the water leaks at a constant rate such that when the
bucket reaches the top, only 30kg of water remain. How much work is done?

- ∫ (𝑀𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 + 𝑀𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒 + 𝑀𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)(9. 8)𝑑𝑦

𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑛
8
5
- ∫(1. 5𝑘𝑔 + (2𝑘𝑔(8 − 𝑦)) + (40 − 4
𝑦)9. 8𝑑𝑦
0
8
5
- ∫(1. 5𝑘𝑔 + (16 − 2𝑦) + (40 − 4
𝑦)9. 8𝑑𝑦
0
 8
13
- 9. 8 ∫(57. 5 − 4
𝑦)𝑑𝑦
0
13 2
- (9.8)(57.5y - 8
𝑦 )|80
- Answer: 3488.8 Joules or Nm

An 80 foot chain weighing 3lbs/ft runs over a pulley at the top of a 100ft castle wall. A 40lb bucket on the
end of the chain initially contains 150 pounds of boiling oil. As the chain rolls over the pulley, oil leaks out
of the bucket onto the heads of the attackers below at a rate of 1.75lbs/ft. FInd the work required to lift the
bucket up to the pulley.
- Have to define each letter: y = distance lifted

- 𝑊 = ∫(𝐹𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛 + 𝐹𝑏𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 + 𝐹𝑜𝑖𝑙)𝑑𝑦

𝑑
80
- = ∫(3(80 − 𝑦) + 40 + (150 − 1. 75𝑦))𝑑𝑦
0
80
- ∫(430 − 4. 75𝑦)𝑑𝑦
0
1
- 2
* 80(430 + 430 − 380)
- 40*480
- = 19200 ft*lbs
A 5ft chain weighs 20lbs. How much work is required to lift one end 4ft off the ground?
- Each foot weights 4 pounds
4
- 𝑊 = ∫ 4𝑥𝑑𝑥
0
1
- = 2
4 * 16
- = 32 ft*lbs
A 40 ft chain hangs from a castle wall. It has a density of 6lbs/ft. Find the work required to lift the entire
chain to the top of the castle wall?
40
- 𝑊 = ∫ 6(40 − 𝑦)𝑑𝑦
0
40
- = ∫(240 − 6𝑦)𝑑𝑦
0
- = 240y - 3y2|040
- = 4800 ft*lbs
3
A 10ft chain with density 2
𝑙𝑏𝑠/𝑓𝑡 hangs off a 6ft platform. How much work is required to lift the chain so
the end of the chain is 2ft off the ground?
- For the first four feet you can ignore the chain on the platform and the ground so lifting constant
weight of 6*3/2 = 9 lbs
- The next two feet will require an integral
2
3
- 9*4 + ∫ 2
(6 − 𝑦)𝑑𝑡 can also do it with an integral from 4 to 6 and (10-y)
0
1
- 36 + 2
* 2(9 + 6) = 51 𝑓𝑡 * 𝑙𝑏𝑠
Hades decides to add 2 extra lbs of force for every foot the boulder is moved up the hill. How much work
will it take Sisyphus to push the boulder up the hill now? Sisyphus exerts a force of 300lbs to move the
boulder 50ft.
50
- 𝑊 = ∫(300 + 2𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0
2
- = (300𝑥 + 𝑥 ) |050
- = 17500 ft*lbs
It requires 6N of force to hold a spring stretched 4m beyond its natural length. How much work will it
require to stretch the string from its natural length to 4m beyond its natural length?
- F=kx
- 6=k*4
3
- k= 2
4
3
- 𝑊 = ∫ 2
𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
3 2
- 𝑊 = 4
𝑥 |04
- = 12 J
A spring requires 4 lbs of force to keep it stretched to a length of 7ft and 8lbs of force to keep it stretched
to a length of 10ft. How much work is required to stretch the spring from 7ft to 10ft?
- WE ARE NOT TOLD THE NATURAL LENGTH
- Let N be the natural length
- 4 = k(10-N)
- 8=k(10-N)
4 8
- 7−𝑁
= 10−𝑁
- N=4
- 4=k(7-4)
4
- k= 3
10
4
- 𝑊 = ∫ 3
(𝑥 − 3)𝑑𝑥
7
- = 21 ft*lbs

■ Everything starts with Work=

● ∫ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 * 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛

● ∫ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 * 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 * 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛

● ∫ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 * 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 * 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒 * 𝑑 ∗

𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛

● ∫ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 * 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 * 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 * 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ * 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ

𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛
■ Draw an appropriate diagram and clearly define your variables
■ Be comfortable with different units
■ Know when to include gravity
 ● Include gravity when we are not working in lbs because when we
are using lbs the force of gravity is already applied in the math
but in others it is not
Examples:
★ Following up on groundbreaking work done here at the U of MN, someone decided to find out
whether it was more painful to do a bellyflop in water or maple syrup. But unfortunately, after
filling a pool with maple syrup, she was unable to find any volunteers. Even worse, the drain was
clogged and she needed to pump all of the syrup up and out of the pool. Given that Maple Syrup
has a density of 85 lbs/ft3, find the work done to pump the water out of the pool, which is 75ft
long, 30 ft wide, and 6ft deep.

6
𝑙𝑏𝑠
- ∫(6-y)(85 𝑓𝑡
)(30)(75)(dy)
0
6
- ∫(6-y)(191250)dy
0
6
- ∫(1147500 - 191250y)
0
- 1147500y - 95625y2 |06
- 3442500 ft*lbs

How much work is required to pump the water up and out of a trough at Fish-ee Farm if the trough is 6m
wide at the bottom, 8m wider at the top, 3m deep, and 10m long? The density of water is 1000 kg/m2.

- W = ∫ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 * 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

- =∫ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 * 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 * 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 * 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ * 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ

- The domain we choose for this problem is 0 to 3 because the trough is 3m deep and we
want to empty it.
- Distance is going to be 3-y because that is the change in the height over time because
the distance y is the change in the height/distance
- Density is 1000 kg/m2
- Gravity is needed in this problem because it is not accounted for in kg like it is for pounds
so gravity is 9.81 m/s2
- Length is 10m because the problem says the trough is 10 meters long
- The width we do not know but we can find it:
- We know that when y=0, w=6 and when y=3, w=8 from this we can plug the first
set of numbers into the quadratic equation
- w = my + b
- 6 = m(0) + b ⇒ we then solve for b = 6
- From here we can use the second set of numbers and add in b=6
 2
- 8 = m(3) + 6 ⇒ we can solve for m = 3
- Then we can plug our known numbers back into the first equation
2
- w= 3
𝑦 + 6
3
2
- ∫(3 − 𝑦)(1000)(9. 81)(10( 3 𝑦 + 6))𝑑𝑦
0
3
20
- ∫(9810)(3-y)( 3
𝑦 + 60)dy
0
3
20
- ∫(9810)(20y + 90 + 3
𝑦2 + 60y)
0
3
20
- ∫(9810)( 3
𝑦2 + 80y + 90)
0
3
- ∫(65400y2 + 784800y + 882900)
0
- 21800y3 + 392400y2 + 882900y |30
- (58860 + 3531600 + 2648700) - 0
- 6768900 Joules

Find the work done to pump the water out of a spherical tank with radius 4ft to a point 3ft above the top of
the tank. The density of water is 62.5 lbs/ft3

- 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 * 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐷

2
- = ∫ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 * 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 * 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒(π𝑟 ) * 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐷
4
2 2
- ∫ (7 − 𝑦)(62. 5)(π( 16 − 𝑦 ) 𝑑𝑦
−4
4
2
- 62. 5π ∫ (7 − 𝑦)(16 − 𝑦 )𝑑𝑦
−4
4
2 3
- 62. 5π ∫ (112 − 7𝑦 − 16𝑦 + 𝑦 )dy
−4
7 3 2 1 4
- 62. 5π(112𝑦 − 3
𝑦 − 8𝑦 + 4
𝑦 )|-44
112,000
- 3
π ft*lbs

Average Value of a Function:

● Know how to find the average value of a function on a closed interval. Average Value
would only show up on the final.
𝑏 𝑛
1
○ 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑏−𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim ∑ 𝑓(𝑥𝑘 ) ∆𝑥
𝑎 𝑛 → ∞ 𝑘=1
Example:
2
1 2 1 1 2 4
favg = 2−0
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 2
* 3
𝑥 | 02 ⇒ 3
0
 7
1
favg = 7−3
∫ 25 − 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3
- For this one use u substitution
- u = 25-3x
- du = -3dx
- -⅓ du = dx
- Find the new domain
- Then substitute
4 2
1 2 1 4 32 28
favg = ¼ ∫ 𝑢(− 1/3𝑑𝑢) ⇒ − 12
( 3 𝑢 3 )|164 ⇒ − 3
(3 − 3
)⇒ 9
16
○ Be familiar with the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals and how to find the c value
that satisfies the conclusion.
Example:
𝑏 𝑏
1
f(c) = 𝑏−𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑐)(𝑏 − 𝑎) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
3
1 3 1 1 4 1 4
- favg = 3−1
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 2
* 4
𝑥 | 13 ⇒ 8
𝑥 |13 ⇒ =10
1
- Then solve to see if it is inside the interval
3
- f(c) ⇒ c3 = 10 ⇒ c = 10 ⇒ this lies between 2 and 3 so yes it lies between the
interval.

Book Notes Review

Limits for Derivatives:
- Theorem 1:If f(x) is continuous at x=b then lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑏)
𝑥→𝑏
- Division by zero is the only arithmetical function that is not defined in our number system. The
0
expression 0
is usually called na indeterminate form. It can not be determined. Just because it is
not continuous at x=b because it is not defined at x=b does not mean aht the limit does not exist.
We care about what happens as we approach x=b not what happens at x=b
- To fix this we can try to factor out whatever is making/causing the divide by 0
 - We can use long division to find other factors of a function
3
2𝑥 −5
- 𝑥 + 3 3 2
2𝑥 +6𝑥 −5𝑥−15
3 2
2𝑥 +6𝑥
−5𝑥−15
−5𝑥−15

- Equation of a line through the point with coordinates (x1,y1) and slope m is:
- y-y1=m(x-x1)
- In general if a line passes through two fixed points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) then the slope of the line is:
𝑦2−𝑦1
- Slope = m = 𝑥2−𝑥1

The Tangent Problems

- The general equation of a line through the point with coordinates (x1,y1) and with slope m is:
- y-y1=m(x-x1)
- Theorem: the slope of the tangent line to the curve whose equation is y=f(x) at the point where
x=b is given by:
𝑓(𝑡)−𝑓(𝑏) 𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑏)
- m = lim 𝑡−𝑏
= lim 𝑥−𝑏
𝑡→𝑏 𝑥→𝑏
- Since it is important that we be able to find the slope of a tangent lines it is important that we
study the limit
𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑏)
- lim 𝑥−𝑏
𝑥→𝑏
- Let us look at this limit using a different notation. Suppose we let x = b+h, then to say “ lim ” is
𝑥→𝑏
the same as saying “ lim ”. Using x = b+h we can write this same limit as
ℎ→0
𝑓(𝑏+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑏)
- lim = ℎ
ℎ→0
The velocity problem
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
- 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒𝑑
- Definition: We define the instantaneous velocity (velocity) at time t=b to be the limit as u
approaches b of the average velocity over the time interval from t=b to t=u.
- instantaneous velocity= lim (𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)
𝑢→𝑏
𝑓(𝑢)−𝑓(𝑏)
- 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑢−𝑏
𝑓(𝑢)−𝑓(𝑏)
- 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑢−𝑏
Definition of Derivative
- Slope of the tangent line to a curve with equation y=f(x) at the point where x=b is given by
𝑓(𝑡)−𝑓(𝑏) 𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑏)
- 𝑚 = lim = lim
𝑡−𝑏 𝑥−𝑏
𝑡→𝑏 𝑥→𝑏
- Definition of derivative: the derivative of the function f(x) at the fixed number x=b, denoted by f’(b)
is:
𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑏)
- 𝑓'(𝑏) = lim 𝑥−𝑏
ℎ→0
- Whenever this limit exists. If we define h by x=b+h, then this same limit can be written as:
𝑓(𝑏+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑏)
- 𝑓'(𝑏) = lim ℎ
ℎ→0
- Definition when working with derivatives the fraction
𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑏)
- 𝑥−𝑏
- Is called the difference quotient.
The Power Formula
- Suppose n is a positive integer, find the derivative of f(x)=xn
- f’(x)=nxn-1
𝑑
- In general we sometimes use th notation 𝑑𝑥
[𝑓(𝑥)] instead of f’(x). Using this notation we would
write this derivative formula as
𝑑 𝑛 𝑛−1
- 𝑑𝑥
[𝑥 ] = 𝑛𝑥
- Basic ideas of fractional powers
- f(x)=x1/2 which is the same as f(x)= 𝑥
- If we want to talk about the negative number which is the square root of x, we write
1/2
(− 𝑥 ) =− 𝑥
- Definition: xm/n=(x1/n)m — this says that in order to find xm/n we first find the number x1/n and then
raise this number to the mth power
- We will assume that xa obeys all the usual rules for powers. This includes the power formula for
derivatives
𝑑 𝑎 𝑎−1
- 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑥
- Theorem 1: The Power Rule: suppose n is either a positive or negative whole number or fraction,
or even irrational number, and f(x)=xn then the derivative is
𝑑 𝑛 𝑛−1
- f’(x)=nxn-1 or 𝑑𝑥
[𝑥 ] = 𝑛𝑥
- Theorem 2: if f(x) is a function of x and c is a constant then
𝑑 𝑑
- 𝑑𝑥
[𝑐(𝑓(𝑥))] = 𝑐 𝑑𝑥
[𝑓(𝑥)]
- Theorem 3: if f(x) and g(x) are two functions of x, then
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
- 𝑑𝑥
[𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑑𝑥
[𝑓(𝑥)] + 𝑑𝑥
[𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓'(𝑥) + 𝑔'(𝑥)
x
- We wish to discuss the function f(x)=e
𝑑 𝑥 𝑥
- Theorem 4: 𝑑𝑥
(𝑒 ) = 𝑒
- f(x)=ekx = f’(x)=k*ekx
- Therorem 5: the product rule: if f(x) and g(x) are both differentiable, then:
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
- 𝑑𝑥
[𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
[𝑔(𝑥)] + 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
[𝑓(𝑥)]: – This theorem says that the derivative
of the product of two functions is given by the first function times the derivative of the
second function plus the second function times the derivative of the first
 - Example: (5x3+8x)(x-2+3x2) —> (5x3+8x)(-2x-3+6x)(x-2+3x2)(15x2+8)
The Quotient Rule
- Theorem: The Quotient Rule for Differentiation: given two functions f(x) and g(x) for which f’(x)
and g’(x) exist, then
𝑙𝑜𝐷ℎ𝑖−ℎ𝑖𝐷𝑙𝑜
- 2 —-> the derivative of the quotient of two functions is given by the denominator
𝑙𝑜
times the derivative of the numerator minus the numerator times the derivative of the
denominator all over the denominator squared.
Derivative of Trigonomic Functions
- There are six standard trigonometry functions: sin, cos, tan, cot, sec, and csc lets find the
derivative of them
- Theorem 1: if f(x)=sinx then f’(x) = cosx
- Theorem 2: if f(x)=cosx then f’(x)=-sinx
Complete Functions:
- It is easier to understand some functions if you break them into separate functions:
- Example: f(x)=(cosx)4 this is the combined function of g(x)=x4 and h(x)=cosx because we
then get the first function by placing h(x) in g(x)
Chain Rule
- Theorem: chain rule: suppose we have the composite function f(x)=g(h(x)), then the derivative of
this function is given by:
- f’(x)=g’(h(x))h’(x)
- Example: f(x)=esinx —-> f’(x)=esinxcosx
Implicit Functions:
- Theorem 1: ln(ab)= ln(a)+ln(b)
- Theorem 2: ln(ax)= x(lna)
- Theorem 3: ln(a/b)=ln(a)-ln(b)
- Theorem 4: ax=e(lna)x
Differentiation Implicit Functions:
- An equation where we have both x and y on one side of the equation and it is hard or impossible
to solve for one and plug it in for another
𝑑 2 2 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
- Example: x2+y2=9 —> 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 𝑦 ) = 𝑑𝑥
(9)—-> 2x+2y 𝑑𝑥 =0—-> (move all parts with 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
attached to them to one side and everything else to the other)----> 2y 𝑑𝑥 =− 2𝑥—-->
𝑑𝑦 2𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
=− 2𝑦
—-> 𝑓'(𝑥) =− 𝑦
(this is the derivativ eof the original function with respect to x)
Derivatives of Inverse Functions
- Definition 1: the function y=arcsinx defined for |𝑥| ≤ 1 is the solution of the equation x = sin y
π π
such that − 2
≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2
. The function y = arcsin x is not defined for |𝑥| ≥ 1
- Definition 2: the function y=arctan x is defined as follows. Given x suppose that the corresponding
π π
value of y is the solution of the equation x=tan y such that − 2
≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2
, then y=arctan.
Velocity and other Rates of Change
- The rate of change of volume with respect to radius is:
𝑑𝑉 2
- 𝑑𝑟
= 4π𝑟
∆𝑦
- ∆𝑡

Higher Derivatives
2
𝑑𝑦
- 2 —> basically the second derivative or taking the derivative of something twice
𝑑𝑥
The Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
- Definition: for a given value of x the value of y=arcsinh(x) is the unique solution of the equation x
= arcsinh(x)
2
- Definition: arccosh(x)=ln(x+ 𝑥 − 1) for x≥1
Differentials
- Definition 1: given the function f(x), let y=f(x). The differential dx of the independent variable x is
also an independent variable. This means dx can be any real number. The differential of dy of the
dependent variable y is defined as
- dy=f’(x)dx
- Definition 2: give the function f(x), let y = f(x). The increment ∆𝑥 of the independent variable x is
also an independent variable. This means that ∆𝑥 can be any real number. The increment ∆𝑦 of
the dependent variable y is defined as:
- ∆𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)
- Theorem: first let ∆𝑥=dx. If ∆𝑥=dx is a small number, then dy is approximately equal to ∆𝑦
Related rates
- Example: the radius and volume of a sphere are related by the equation:
3
- V=(4/3)π𝑟
Increasing and Decreasing for Functions
- Definition of increasing at a point: given f(x) and a number line c if there exists a number d>0
such that f(x) is defined for all x such that |𝑥 − 𝑐|<d and if f(x) has the following properties
- For any number x1 such that c-d<x1<c, we have f(x1)<f(c)
- For any number x2 such that c<x2<c+d, we have f(c)<f(x2)
- Then we say that the function of f(x) is increasing at the point where x=c
- Definition of decreasing at a point: given f(x) and a number line c, if there exists a number d>0
such that f(x) is defined for all x such that |𝑥 − 𝑐|<d and if f(x) has the following properties
- For any number x1 such that c-d<x1 <c we have f(x1 )>f(c)
- For any number x2 such that c<x2<c+d we have f(c)>f(x2)
- Then we say that the function f(x) is decreasing at the point where x=c
- Theorem 1: if f’(c) > 0 then f(x) is increasing at the point x = c
- Theorem 2: if f’(c)<0 then f(x) is decreasing at the point x=c
First Derivative Test
- Definition of local max: given a function f(x) if there exists some number d>0 such that f(x)<f(c) for
all x such that 0<|𝑥 − 𝑐| < 𝑑 and x≠c then we say that f(x) has a local max value at x=c. Note
that d>0 is required but we do need to choose d sufficiently small. This definition says that f(x)
has a local maximum at x=c if given any value of x close to c the number f(x) is less than the
number f(c)
- Local Max and min of a graph:To find local maximum or minimum, first, the first derivative of the
function needs to be found. Values of x which makes the first derivative equal to zero are critical
points. If the second derivative at x=c is positive, then f(c) is a minimum. When the second
derivative is negative at x=c, then f(c) is a maximum.
- Local max and min of a function: first the first derivative of the function needs to be found. Values
of x which makes the first derivative equal to 0 are critical points. If the second derivative at x=c is
positive, then f(c) is a minimum. When the second derivative is negative at x=c, then f(c) is
maximum. If the second derivative test is 0 at x=c then the second derivative test is inconclusive
 -Theorem 2: if f’(c) exists and f(x) has a local minimum value of x = c, then f’(c)=0
- Theorem 3: the first derivative test: if f’(x) > 0 for x<c and f’(x)<0 for xx>c whenever |𝑥 − 𝑐| is a
sufficiently small number, then f(x) has a local maximum value at x = c
- Theorem 4: the first derivative test: if f’(x)<0 for x<c and f’(x)>0 for x>c for x sufficiently close to
c, then f(x) has a local minimum value at x = c
- Definition : the number c is called a critical point (value) for the function f(x) if either f’(x) does
not exist or f’(c)=0
- Theorem 5: if x=c is a local maximum or a local minimum value of f(x), then c is a critical point of
f(x)
Solution steps:
1. Find all the critical points for f(x)
2. Which of these critical points give a maximum value for f(x) and which give a minimum
value for f(x)? We answer this question by applying the First Derivative Test. This test
requires that we know the values of x for which f’(x) is positive and the values of x for
which f’(x) is negative.
Concavity
- Definition of concave up: if for all values of x near x=c the graph of y = f(x) is above the graph of
the tangent line to the curve at x = c, then we say that the graph of the function f(x) is concave up
at x=c
- Theorem 1: if f’’(c)>0 then the function f(x) is concave up at x=c
- Definition of concave down: if for values of x near x = c the graph of y = f(x) if below the graph of
the tangent line to the curve at x=c but x≠c, then we say that the function f(x) is concave down at
x=c
- Theorem 2: if f’’(x)<0, then the function f(x) is concave down at x=c
Inflection Points
- definition : suppose f(x) is a function which is continuous at x=c. The point with x coordinate x=c,
and y coordinate y=f(c) is called an inflection point of the graph of y=f(x) if the graph changes
concavity at x =c
- Theorem 3: The Inflection Point Theorem: The point x = c is an inflection point for f(x) if either of
the following is true
- f’’(x)>0 for x<c and f’’(x)<0 for x>0
- f’’(x)<0 for x<c and f’’(x)>0 for x>c
- Theorem 4: if f’’(c) exists and the graph of f(x) has an inflection point at x=c, then f’’(c)=0
 - Theorem 5: if x=c is an inflection point of the graph y=f(x), then either f’’(c)=0 or f’’(c)=DNE
Second Derivative Test
- Theorem 1: the second derivative test: if f’(c) = 0 and f’’(c)>0 then f(x) has a local minimum value
at x=c
- Theorem 2: the second derivative test: if f’(c)=0 and f’’(c)<0, then f(x) has a local max at x=c
Maximum and Minimum at Boundary Points
- Definition 1: if f(x) is only defined for x≥a then,
𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑎)
- f’(a)= lim 𝑥−𝑎
+
𝑥→𝑎
- Theorem 1: suppose f(x) is defined for x≥ 𝑎 and the derivative f’(x) is given by an explicit formula
involving elementary functions and that the formula (algebraic expression) for f’(x) defines a
continuous function for x≥ 𝑎, then the one sided derivative of f(x) at x=a is given by f’(a). This
says that we can use the same formula (algebraic expression) to find f’(a) that we used to find
f’(x) for x>a. Also if substituting x=a into the formula for f’(x) is not defined, then f’(a)=DNE.
- Theorem 2: suppose f(x) is defined for x≤b and the derivative of f’(x) is given by an explicit
function (algebraic expression) that defines a continuous function for x≤b, then the one-sided
derivative of f(x) at x=b if given by f’(b). This says that we can use the same formula to find f’(b)
that we used to find f’(x) for x≺b. Also if substituting x=b into the formula (algebraic expression)
for f’(x) is not defined, then f’(b)=DNE.
- Definition 3: suppose f(x) is only defined for x≥a, then a is called an “end point” or “boundary
point” for the domain of definition of f(x)
- Definition 4: suppose f(x) is only defined for x≥a. We say that f(x) has a local maximum at x=a if
f(x)≺f(a) for all x such that a≺ 𝑥 ≺ 𝑎 + 𝑑 for a sufficiently small d.
- Definition 5: Suppose f(x) is only defined for x≥ 𝑎. We say that f(x) has a local minimum at x=a if
f(x)≻ 𝑓(𝑎) for all x such that a≺ 𝑥 ≺ 𝑎 + 𝑑 for a sufficiently small d.
- Theorem 3 (Left Endpoint Theorem): suppose f(x) is only defined for x ≥ 𝑎. The function f(x) has
a local maximum value at x=a if either f’(a)≺ 0 or f’(a)=-∞. The function f(x) has a local minimum
value at x=a if either f’(a)≻ 0 or f’(a)=+∞
- Definition 6: suppose f(x) is only defined for x≤b. We say that f(x) has a local maximum value at
x=b if f(x) ≺ f(b) for all x such that b-d≺x≺b for sufficiently small value of d with d≻0
- Definition 7: suppose f(x) is only defined for x≤b. We say that f(x) has a local minimum value at
x=b if f(x) > f(b) for all x such that b-d<x<b for a sufficiently small value of d
- Theorem 4: (right endpoint theorem): suppose f(x) is only defined for x≤b. The function f(x) has a
local maximum value at x=b if either f’(b)>0 for f’(b)=+∞. The function f(x) has a local minimum
value at x=b if either f’(b)<0 or f’(b)=-∞
Finding local maxima and local minimum
- ..
Optimization:
- …
Review of Graphing
- …
L’Hospitals Rule:
- L’Hospitals Rule: suppose f(x) and g(x) are differentiable and therefore continuous near x=c and
also at a=c. Suppose g’(x)≠0 for x near c and x≠c. suppose that…
- lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
𝑎→𝑐
- lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0
𝑥→𝑐
 𝑓'(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥)
- lim 𝑔'(𝑥)
= 𝐿, then lim 𝑔(𝑥)
= 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
𝑓'(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥)
- Case II: if lim 𝑓(𝑥) =+ ∞, lim 𝑔(𝑥) =+ ∞, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔'(𝑥) = 𝐿, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim 𝑔(𝑥)
= 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
The Mean Value Theorem for Derivatives
- Rolle’s Theorem: suppose f(x) is a function such that
- f(x) is continuous for a≤x≤b
- f’(x) exists for a<x<b
- f(a) = f(b) = 0
- The Mean Value Theorem for Derivatives: if f(x) is a function such that:
- - f(x) is continuous for a≤x≤b
- f’(x) exists for a<x<b
- Then there is a number c with a<x<b such that
𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
- f’(c)= 𝑏−𝑎
- Theorem 3: suppose f(x) is a function such that
- f(x) is continuous for a≤x≤b
- f’(x) exists for a<x<b
- lim 𝑓'(𝑥) exists
𝑥 → 𝑎+
𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑎)
- Then lim 𝑥−𝑎
= lim 𝑓'(𝑥)
𝑥 → 𝑎+ 𝑥 → 𝑎+
Linearization
- Definition: lineariztaion: given a function f(x) the linear approximation, L(x), of f(x) at x=c is
- L(x)=f(c)+f’(c)(x-c)
- First find a set of points (x,y) using f(x)
- Then find the slope of f’(x)
- Then put the two together and create the line L(x)=slope(x-x0)-yo
- Then solve f(x) for x and then plug x into the new L(x) equation
Introduction to Antiderivatives
- Definition 1: a function F(x) is called an antiderivative of f(x) if F’(x)=f(x) for all x for which f(x) is
defined
- Definition 2: The collection of all antiderivatives of f(x) is called the general antiderivative of f(x)
- Basic table of antiderivatives
𝑘−1 𝑘
- ∫ 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐶 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘 ≠ 0

−1
- ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐

𝑥 𝑥
- ∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 + 𝐶

- ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐

- ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥 =− 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐

2
- ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐
 1
- ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐
1+𝑥

1
- ∫ 2
= 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐
1−𝑥

- ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐

Reversing the Chain Rule

- …
The Substitution Rule
- The substitution rule:

- ∫ 𝑓(𝑢(𝑥))𝑢'(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑢(𝑥)) + 𝑐

- Finding the antiderivative is also known as finding the indefinite integral.

More Substitution Rule
- …
Area Problem
𝑏−𝑎
- ∆𝑥 = 𝑛
- 𝑥𝑘 = 𝑎 + 𝑘(𝑏 − 𝑎)/𝑛
𝑛
𝑏−𝑎 2𝑘−1
- 𝑏
∑ 𝑓(𝑎 + 2𝑛
(𝑏 − 𝑎))
𝑘=1
The Distance Problem
- …
Definition of the Definite Integral:
𝑛
𝑏−𝑎 2𝑘−1
- Area = lim 𝑛
∑ 𝑓(𝑎 + 2𝑛
(𝑏 − 𝑎))
𝑛→∞ 𝑘=1
𝑛
𝑏−𝑎 2𝑘−1
- Distance = lim 𝑛
∑ 𝑣(𝑎 + 2𝑛
(𝑏 − 𝑎))
𝑛→∞ 𝑘=1
𝑛
𝑏−𝑎 2𝑘−1
- Work = lim 𝑛
∑ 𝑓(𝑎 + 2𝑛 (𝑏 − 𝑎))
𝑛→∞ 𝑘=1
- If f(x) is a function that is continuous on the interval a≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, then we define the definite integral
of f(x) over the interval a≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 to be the limit
𝑛
𝑏−𝑎 2𝑘−1
-lim 𝑛
∑ 𝑓(𝑎 + 2𝑛 (𝑏 − 𝑎))
𝑛→∞ 𝑘=1
- The notation for the definite integral of f(x) over the interval
𝑏
- ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎
- This says that
𝑏 𝑛
𝑏−𝑎 2𝑘−1
-∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim 𝑛
∑ 𝑓(𝑎 + 2𝑛 (𝑏 − 𝑎))
𝑎 𝑛→∞ 𝑘=1
The fundamental theorem of calculus:
- If f(x) is continuous for 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 and F’(x)=f(x) on the interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏 , then
𝑏
- ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =F(b)-F(a)
𝑎
 𝑏
- Theorem 1: if f(x) > 0 for a ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, then ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 > 0
𝑎
𝑏 𝑏
- Theorem 2: ∫[𝑐𝑓(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
- Theorem 3: ∫[𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑐 𝑏 𝑏
- Theorem 4: if a<x<b, then ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎
Area and Velocity
- Theorem 1: suppose f(x) is a cont. Function and f(x) > 0 for a≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏. Given the region R which
is bounded by the curve which is the graph of y=f(x), the vertical lines x=a and x=b, and the x
axis, then the area of the region R is given by the definite integral
𝑏
- ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎
Area
- Theorem 1: suppose f(x) >g(x)>0 for a≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏. Let R denote the region which is bounded above
the curve which is the graph of y=f(x), below by the curve which is the graph of y=g(x), and is
between the vertical lines x=a and x=b, a<b, then the area of R is given by the definite integral
𝑏
- ∫[f(x)-g(x)]dx
𝑎
- Theorem 2: Suppose a region R is bounded by the curve y=f(x) with f(x)<0 for a≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, the
vertical lines x=a and x=b, and the x axis then the area of R is given by the definite integral
𝑏
- (-1)∫f(x)dx
𝑎
- Theorem 3: Suppose f(x)>g(x), but f(x)<0 and g(x)<0 for 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏. Let R denote the region
which is bounded above by the curve which is the graph of y=f(x), below by the curve which is the
graph of y=g(x), and is between the vertical lines x=a and x=b, a<b, then the area of R is given by
𝑏
- ∫[f(x)-g(x)]
𝑎
- Theorem 4: Let R denote the region which is bounded above by the curve which is the graph of
y=f(x) and below by the curve which is the graph of y=g(x) and which is between the vertical lines
x=a and x=b, a<b, then the area of the region R is given by the definite integral
𝑏
- ∫[f(x)-g(x)]dx
𝑎
Velocity
- Definition of displacement: (Net change of position) suppose an object is in the position x=x1
when t=a and in the position x=x2 when t=b, then the displacement of the object during the time
interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏 is x2-x1. Note that displacement can be positive or negative
- Definition of distance traveled: the distance moved by an object moving on a straight line is the
total distance. This means that a movement in the negative direction also results in a positive
distance traveled.
Volume by disks
- …
Volume by cylindrical shells
- …
Hard volumes of revolution;
- …
Work:

- Work = ∫ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 * 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑑
- Hooke’s Law: suppose one end of a spring is fixed and the other end is displaced by a distance x
from its equilibrium position, then the force required to keep the spring displaced is:
- 𝐹𝑠 = 𝑘𝑥
- The constant k is called the spring constant. We are assuming that the spring is not
stretched beyond its elastic limit. In problems we can be given the spring constant or we
can be required to find the spring constant using the previous equation. Hooke’s Law is
force equals spring constant times displacement
Bucket and Chain Problems:
- …
Pumping Water:
- …
Mean Value Theorem for Integrals:
- If f(x) is continuous for 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, then there is at least one number c with 𝑎 ≤ 𝑐 ≤ 𝑏 such that
𝑏
- ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑐)(𝑏 − 𝑎)
𝑎
𝑏
1
- 𝑏−𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎
- Basic Theorem: if f(x) is continuous for all real numbers x, then the function
𝑏
- 𝐹(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑎
- Is an antiderivative of f(x) and F’(x)=f(x). We can express this as
𝑏
𝑑
- 𝑑𝑥
[∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡] = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑎