Class 12 chemistry practical

A. Surface Chemistry (A)

i)

AIM:-To prepare lyophilic sol of starch .

Theory:
When water is used as a dispersion medium, starch has the ability to form sol. This formation is
enhanced with the help of heating. To prepare sol the mixture of water and starch is heated to about
100° C.

Materials Required:Tripod stand,Beaker of about 50 to 250 mL,Funnel,Distilled

water,Wire gauze,Glass rod,Mortar and pestle,Burner,Filter paper,500mg starch.

Procedure:

1. Take a mortar and add 500 mg of starch to it.

2. Pour a few drops of distilled water and pestle the starch into a thin
paste.
3. Transfer the grounded paste to a 50 ml beaker.
4. Take a 250 mL beaker and pour 100 mL of distilled water to it and
heat the water to boiling.
5. Slowly pour the paste into the boiling water and constantly keep
stirring with the help of a glass rod.
6. Let it boil for 10 minutes after you have transferred all the paste into
the beaker.
7. Allow it to cool.
8. With the help of a filter paper attached to a funnel, you can filter out
the contents.
9. Label the filtrate as starch sol.

Precautions:


 The apparatus used for the experiment should be washed with
distilled water and dried before conducting the experiment.
  Use distilled water to prepare starch sol.

a.1

Aim:
To prepare Aluminium hydroxide sol.

Theory:
Aluminium hydroxide can form a lyophobic sol. It is hydrophobic in nature and is obtained
by hydrolysis of Aluminium chloride. The chemical equation for the same is shown as:
AlCl3 + 3H2O → Al(OH)3 + 3HCl
The hydrochloric acid formed as a result of hydrolysis of AlCl3 is removed by the method of dialysis
as Al(OH)3 sol gets affected in case of ionic impurities.

Materials required:
The apparatus and materials required for this experiment are as follows:
1. Glass rod
2. Round bottom flask
3. Boiling tube
4. Conical flask of 250 mL volume
5. Tripod stand
6. Funnel
7. Beaker of 250 mL volume
8. Burette
9. Wire gauze
10. Dropper
11. Burner
12. Wire gauze
13. Iron stand with clamp
14. Boiling tube
15. Distilled water
16. Solution of Aluminium chloride

Procedure
1. Prepare a 2% solution of Aluminium chloride by taking 2 g of pure Aluminium chloride in
100mL of distilled water.
2. Take the conical flask cleaned by a steaming out process with 100mL of distilled water.
 3. With the help of wire gauze, boil the water.
4. Pour 10 mL of Aluminium chloride solution with the help of a burette or dropper.
5. Constantly keep stirring the boiling water mixture while adding Aluminium chloride solution.
6. Heat the conical flask containing a mixture until you see a white-coloured Aluminium
hydroxide solution.
7. Allow the mixture to cool at room temperature.
8. Label the flask containing the mixture as Aluminium hydroxide sol.

Precautions to be taken during the experiment:

 Al(OH)3 sol is affected due to the presence of impurities. Therefore to avoid this the conical
flask is cleaned by steaming out process.
 The AlCl3 solution is added dropwise.

B. Chemical Kinetics

Aim:The aim of this experiment – Understanding the effect of temperature variation on the
rate of reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium thiosulphate.

Theory:
The rate of a chemical reaction is directly proportional to the temperature. As the temperature
increases, the reaction rate also increases. With the increase in temperature the kinetic energy of
the molecules also increases. Usually, it is observed that for every 10-degree increase in
temperature the rate of reaction is doubled. Therefore, the rate of reaction of hydrochloric acid and
sodium thiosulphate also increases with rise in temperature.

Materials required:
The apparatus and materials required for this experiment are as follows:
1. Conical flask of volume 250 mL
2. Stop-watch
3. Tripod stand
4. Measuring cylinder
5. Stopwatch
6. Burner
7. Thermometer
8. Wire gauze
 9. 0.1M sodium thiosulphate solution
10. Concentrated nitric acid
11. Distilled water
12. 1M hydrochloric acid
.

Observation and result

Trials Temperature (T) Time (t) 1/t

1 T

2 (T+ 10) °C

3 (T+ 120) °C

4 (T+ 30) °C

5 (T+ 40) °C

Precautions to be taken during the experiment:

 Thoroughly wash the apparatus with concentrated nitric acid and distilled water.
 Take the exact quantity of solutions needed for this experiment.

C. Thermochemistry

Aim:
To determine the enthalpy of dissolution of given Copper Sulphate or Potassium Nitrate at room
temperature using water as a reaction medium.

Theory:
During thermochemical measurements, aqueous solutions are mixed in water as the medium.
Change in temperature during the reaction or dissolution is measured using which molar enthalpy
can be calculated.
The sum of enthalpy changes occurring in the calorimeter due to either loss or energy gain, must be
zero, according to the law of conservation of energy. We can, therefore, write the following equation,
ΔH1 + ΔH2 + ΔH3 + ΔH4 = 0
Solution formation often goes hand in hand with heat changes. Solution enthalpy is the amount of
heat released or absorbed when one mole of a solute(solid/liquid) is dissolved in such a large
amount of solvent (usually water) that further dilution does not change heat.

Materials Required:
1. Beakers
2. Thermometer
3. Glass rod
4. Weight box
5. Physical balance
6. Stirrer
7. Measuring cylinder
8. Hydrated copper sulfate
9. Potassium nitrate
10. Distilled water
11. Small wooden block
12. Cotton wool
13. Small piece of cardboard
14. Filler

Observation and Inference:

Enthalpy of Dissolution of Copper Sulphate Enthalpy of Dissolution of Potassium Nitrate

Weight of hydrated copper wg Weight of hydrated wg

sulfate dissolved. potassium nitrate dissolved.

Volume of water taken into the 200 ml Volume of water taken into 200 ml
bottle. the bottle.
200 gms 200 gms
(assuming sp (assuming sp
density =1) density =1)
Temperature of water. t1oC Temperature of water. t1oC

Temperature of water after t2oC Temperature of water after t2oC

dissolving hydrated copper dissolving potassium nitrate.
sulfate.

Water equivalent of the W g (given) Water equivalent of the W g (given)

polythene bottle. polythene bottle.

Assuming density and specific heat of the solution to be the same as that of water heat evolved or
absorbed for dissolution of w g of the solute.
Q=(W+200)(t1−t2)cals

Calculations:
Q=(W+200)×Δt×4.2 joules

For w/M moles of the solute dissolved heat change =

Q=(W+200)×(t1−t2)×4.2 Joules

For 1 mole of the solute dissolved heat change =

(W+200)(t1−t2)×4.2×MW Joules

Enthalpy of dissolution =
(W+200)(t1−t2)×4.2×MW Joules

Where
M = formula mass of the solute
w = mass of the solute
W = water equivalent of the calorimeter
Δt = change in temperature
Enthalpy of dissolution ΔH is positive if heat is absorbed and negative if heat is evolved.
Similarly we can find the enthalpy of dissolution of potassium nitrate. For that dissolve 5.5g of
KNO3 in 200ml of water. Here the mole ratio of solute and solvent is 1:200

Results and Discussions:

1. The heat of the solution of potassium nitrate KNO3 is __________J/mole.
2. The heat of solution of copper sulfate solution CuSO 4.5H2O is ________J/mole.
 3. % Error for KNO3 =
Heat of solution determinedExperimental value×100
4. % Error for CuSO4.5H2O =
Heat of solution determinedExperimental value×100

Precautions:
1. Record the temperature of hot water just before mixing when the calorimeter constant is
determined.
2. To dissolve the solid and record the temperature, stir the solution well. Avoid too much
stirring, because friction can produce heat.

D. Electrochemistry

Aim:
To study the variation of cell potential in Zn/Zn2+ || Cu2+/Cu with change in concentration of
electrolytes (CuSO4 or ZnSO4) at room temperature.

Theory on variation of cell potential in Zn-Cu Cell:

Electrochemistry deals with the interconversion of other forms of energy into electrical energy or vice
versa. Potential difference is called cell potential or emf of the cell between the two electrodes. It is
always measured in volts.
The reaction between copper sulfate solution and zinc metal forms the basis of Daniel cell. When
this reaction is carried out in a test tube then no electricity is produced. If the same reaction is
carried out in Daniel cell electricity is produced.

 Electrochemical reaction – The chemical reaction which takes place in a cell like Daniel cell.

 Electrochemical cell – Electrochemical reaction carried out in a specially designed set up.

 Electrolytic cells – Electrical energy is consumed to bring about a chemical reaction or a

chemical change.
 Galvanic cells – Also called voltaic cells where chemical energy is converted into electrical
energy.
In daniel cell current flows from copper electrode to the zinc electrode. Under Standard condition, it
generates an emf of 1.1V.
The reaction taking place in Daniel cell are

Zinc electrode: Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e–

Copper electrode: Cu2+(aq) + 2e– → Cu(s)

———————————————————————————————

Net reaction: Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

———————————————————————————————
→ When Emf < 1.1V
Electrons flow from Zn rod to Cu rod and hence current flows from Cu to Zn electrode. Zinc
dissolves at anode and copper deposits at cathode.
→ When Emf = 1.1V
The reaction stops altogether and there is no flow of electrons or current in the circuit. There is no
chemical reactions at the electrode.
→ When Emf > 1.1V
When the current flows in opposite direction and the reaction proceeds in the opposite direction.
Electrons flow from Cu to Zn and current flows from Zn to Cu.

Materials Required:
1. 1M zinc sulfate solution
2. Copper sulfate solution
3. Zinc electrode
4. copper electrode
5. Beakers
6. Voltmeter (or) Potentiometer
7. Salt bridge
8. Connecting wires

Observation and Inference:

S.No [Cu2+(aq)]/mol L-1 log[Cu2+(aq)]/mol L-1 Ecell/V E(Cu2+/Cu)

Experimental value

1 0.2

2 0.1
3 0.05

4 0.025

5 0.0125

Calculations:
ECell = EoCell – log [(Zn2+)/(Cu2+)]
EoCell = Eo(cathode) – Eo(anode)
R = 8.314
T = 298K
F = 96500C
n = 2 (number of electrons lost or gained)
By substituting all the values
ECell = EoCell – log [(Zn2+)/(Cu2+)]
We can measure ECell at different concentration of electrolyte

Results and Discussions:

1. The Ecell decreases with increase in molar concentration of [Zn2+]. (Zinc sulfate solution)
2. The Ecell increases with increase in molar concentration of [Cu2+]. (Copper sulfate solution)

Precautions:
1. Immediately after use, place the salt bridge in distilled water.
2. Very carefully dilute the solution to another concentration.

E. Chromatography

Aim:
To separate the pigments present in leaves and flowers by paper chromatography and determine
their Rf values.
 Theory:
Paper chromatography is essentially a partition chromatography. In paper chromatography, the
stationary phase is paper. Paper contains 22% of water molecules absorbed on about 78% of
cellulose.
The separation of the components of the mixture takes place by partitioning the components
between the stationary phase and mobile phase. The mobile phase travels through the paper by
capillary action. Based on the ways the solvent travels on the paper there are three types of
chromatography
1. Ascending Paper Chromatography
2. Descending Paper Chromatography
3. Circular Paper Chromatography
The distribution occurs in a definite ratio which represents the characteristic distribution coefficient of
the solution.
The Rf coefficient ratio is given by
Rf=distancetravelledbysolutedistancetravelledbysolvent

Different substances possess different Rf values. Rf depends upon a number of factors.

 Nature of the substance
 Nature of the solvent
 Temperature
 Presence of impurities
 Quality of the filter paper
If the compound is coloured, it can be easily located on the chromatographic paper. If the substance
is colourless, however, a reagent may be used to treat it, which gives it a characteristic colour. The
name developer is given to this reagent. Iodine is the most frequently used paper chromatography
developer.

Materials Required:
1. Whatman’s filter paper
2. Extract of leaves and extract of flowers
3. Chloroform/acetone
4. Methanol/Acetone
5. Rubber cork fixed with hook in the centre
6. Glass jar
7. Rubber cork fixed with hook in the centre
8. Test tubes
9. Distilled water
10. Petroleum ether
 Observations and Inference:

S.No Name of the Colour of Distance travelled by the Distance travelled by the Rf Values
extract the spot spot from the original line. solvent from the original
line

Results and Discussions:

1. The Rf value of the components of leaves is ________.
2. The Rf value of the components of flowers is ________.

Precautions:
1. Always make use of a fine capillary tube.
2. Do not allow spots to spread while spotting the test solution on the paper.

F. Preparation of Inorganic Compounds

Aim
To prepare Mohr’s salt: ferrous ammonium sulphate from ferrous sulfate and ammonium sulfate in
the presence of acid.

Theory
The formula for ferrous ammonium sulfate is FeSO4.(NH4)2SO4.6H2O. It is prepared by dissolving
equimolar mixture of hydrated ferrous sulfate and ammonium sulfate in water containing a little
sulfuric acid. The solution is subjected to crystallization, ferrous ammonium sulfate separates out
from the solution.
The chemical reaction is given below.
FeSO4 + (NH4)2SO4 + 6H2O → FeSO4.(NH4)2SO4.6H2O (Mohr’s salt)
The addition of sulfuric acid in this experiment prevents the hydrolysis of this salt. Ferrous
ammonium sulfate is a pale green crystalline compound which does not effloresce like ferrous
sulfate. It is less readily oxidised than FeSO4 and therefore, a better volumetric reagent in preference
to ferrous sulfate.
Mohr’s salt is also called as double salt which contain more than one simple salt. It undergoes
complete dissociation in aqueous solutions. Mohr’s salt dissociates into Fe2+, NH4+, SO42- ions and
give their individual chemical test.
Mohr’s salt is light green transparent octahedral crystals. It is soluble in water giving acidic solution
which turns blue litmus paper red and gives effervescence with sodium bicarbonate evolving carbon
dioxide.
Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate also called mohr’s salt is prepared by dissolving equimolar mixture of
hydrated ferrous sulphate and ammonium sulphate in water containing a little sulphuric acid. The
solution is subjected to crystallization.

Materials Required
1. Conical flask
2. Tripod stand
3. Burner
4. Funnel
5. Watch glass
6. Glass rod
7. Filter paper
8. Wire gauze
9. China dish
10. Ferrous sulfate
11. Ammonium sulfate
12. Dilute sulphuric acid

Observations

Colour of the crystal Light green

Shape of the crystal Octahedral

Solubility in water Soluble

Action of blue litmus paper Blue litmus turns red

Results and Discussion

The yield of ferrous ammonium sulfate or Mohr’s salt is _______ gm.

Precautions
 Allow slow cooling and do not disturb the solution during cooling in order to get good quality
crystals.
 During the process heating of the solution should be done in a short time only. Because
prolonged heating forms ferric ions along with ferrous ammonium sulfate.

G. Preparation of Organic Compounds

Aim:
To prepare Aniline yellow (para amino azobenzene) from benzene diazonium chloride and aniline.

Theory:
Aniline yellow, also called para amino azobenzene,and is prepared by the coupling reaction between
benzenediazonium chloride and aniline in an acidic medium. It is the simplest and the first azo dye
obtained by a coupling reaction. This dye has no industrial significance because it is an acid
sensitive dye. The first step involved in the preparation of benzene diazonium chloride from aniline.
When aniline is treated with sodium nitrite in the presence of acid.
The chemical reaction involved is given below.

Step-1: Ar-NH2 + NaNO2 + HCl → Ar-N2+-Cl–(benzene diazonium chloride)

Step-2: Ar-N2+-Cl– + Ar-NH2 → Ar-N=N-NH-Ar

Step-3: Ar-N=N-NH-Ar → Ar-N=N-Ar-NH2 (Aniline yellow)

The structure of dye in acidic medium is given below.

 Chemical Reaction between Diazonium Chloride and Aniline for the Preparation of Aniline Yellow
Aniline yellow is an unstable compound used as an intermediate in the preparation of other dyes. It
is prepared by a coupling reaction between benzene diazonium chloride and phenylamine which is
also called aniline. The first step involved in the preparation of benzene diazonium chloride from
aniline is the treatment of aniline with sodium nitrite in the presence of acid.

Materials Required:
1. Aniline
2. Hydrochloric acid
3. Sodium nitrite
4. Glacial acetic acid
5. Distilled water
6. Round bottom flask
7. Beaker
8. Stirrer
9. Bunsen burner
10. Funnel
11. Water bath
12. Conical flask

Observations:

Colour of the crystals Yellow

Expected yield 4 gm
Melting point 123 to 126 °C

Results and Discussion:

The yield of aniline yellow is _____ gm.

Precautions:
1. Do not touch the dye otherwise it will stick on to the hands.
2. Maintain the temperature of the experiment between 40 oc to 50 oc.

H. Determination of Concentration/Molarity of KMnO4 Solution

by Titrating it against a Standard Solution of –

Aim:
To determine the strength of potassium permanganate by titrating it against the standard solution of
0.1M oxalic acid.

Theory:
Potassium permanganate is a strong oxidising agent and in the presence of sulfuric acid it acts as a
powerful oxidising agent. In acidic medium the oxidising ability of KMnO4 is represented by the
following equation.
In acidic solution,
MnO4– + 8H+ + 5e– → Mn2+ + 4H2O
Solution containing MnO4– ions are purple in colour and the solution containing Mn2+ ions are
colourless and hence permanganate solution is decolourised when added to a solution of a reducing
agent. The moment there is an excess of potassium permanganate present the solution becomes
purple. Thus, KMnO4 serves as self indicator in acidic solution.

Potassium permanganate is standardized against pure oxalic acid. It involves a redox

reaction. Oxalic acid is oxidised to carbon dioxide by KMnO4, which itself gets reduced to MnSO4.
Oxalic acid reacts with potassium permanganate in the following way.
The chemical reaction at room temperature is given below.
Reduction Half reaction:- 2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 → K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 3H2O + 5[O]
Oxidation Half reaction:- 5(COOH)2 + 5[O] → 5H2O + 10CO2↑

The overall reaction takes place in the process is

Overall reaction:- 2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 + 5(COOH)2 → K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 8H2O + 10CO2↑

The ionic equation involved in the process is given below.

Reduction Half reaction:- [MnO4– + 8H+ + 5e– → Mn2+ + 4H2O] x 2

Oxidation Half reaction:- [C2O42- → 2CO2 + 2e–] x 5
Overall Ionic reaction:- 2MnO4– + 16H+ + 5C2O42- → 2Mn2+ + 10CO2 + 8H2O
This titration cannot be carried out in the presence of acids like nitric acid or hydrochloric acid
because itself is an oxidising agent. So hydrochloric acid chemically reacts with KMnO4 solution
forming chlorine which is also an oxidising agent.

Materials Required:
1. Oxalic acid
2. Potassium permanganate solution
3. 1.0M sulphuric acid
4. Chemical balance
5. Burette
6. Burette stand
7. Pipette
8. Conical flask
9. Funnel
10. Measuring flask
11. Weighing bottle
12. White tile
13. Burner
14. Wire gauze

Apparatus Setup:
1. In burette – KMnO4 solution
2. In Conical flask – 10ml of oxalic acid + sulphuric acid
3. Indicator – Self indicator (KMnO4)
4. End Point – Appearance of permanent pale pink colour.

Observation:

S.No Volume of oxalic acid in ml Burette Reading Volume(V) of KMnO4 used

V = (y-x)ml
 Initial(x) Final(y)

Calculations:
To calculate the strength of given KMnO4 in terms of molarity the following formula is used
a1M1V1 = a2M2V2
Where a1 and a2 are stoichiometric coefficient of oxalic acid and KMnO4 in a balanced chemical
equation.
a1 = 2
a2 = 5
Where
M2 and M1 are molarities of potassium permanganate and oxalic acid solutions used in the titration.
V2 and V1 are the volume of potassium permanganate and oxalic acid solutions used in the titration.
Therefore,
KMnO4 = Oxalic acid
5M2V2 = 2M1V1
M2 = (2M1V1/5M2V2)
The strength of KMnO4 is calculated by using the molarity.

Strength = Molarity x Molar mass

Results and Discussion:

 1. Molarity of KMnO4 is ______
2. The Strength of KMnO4 is _____M.

Precautions:
1. Clean all the apparatus with distilled water before starting the experiment and then rinse with
the solution to be taken in them.
2. Rinse the pipette and burette before use.
(ii)

Aim:
To determine the strength of a given potassium permanganate solution against a standard ferrous
ammonium sulfate (Mohr’s salt) solution.

Theory:
Potassium permanganate is a strong oxidant in the presence of sulfuric acid. Mohr salt is a double
salt forming a single crystalline structure having the formula (NH4)2. FeSO4. 6H2O. The chemical
name for Mohr’s salt is ferrous ammonium sulfate.
In this titration Mohr salt acts as a reducing agent and potassium permanganate acts as an oxidising
agent. So, the reaction between Mohr’s salt and potassium permanganate is a redox reaction. In this
redox reaction, ferrous ion from Mohr’s salt gets oxidised and pink coloured of manganese present
in potassium permanganate, which is in the +7 oxidation state gets reduced to colourless Mn 2+ state.
The chemical reaction and the molecular chemical equation is given below.
Reduction half reaction –
2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 → K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 3H2O + 5[O]
Oxidation half reaction –
[2FeSO4(NH4)2SO4.6H2O + H2SO4 + [O] → Fe2(SO4)3 + 2(NH4)2SO4 + 13H2O] x 5
Overall reaction –
2KMnO4 + 10FeSO4(NH4)2SO4.6H2O+ 8H2SO4 → K2SO4+ 2MnSO4+ 5Fe2(SO4)3+ 10(NH4)2SO4+ 68H2O
The ionic equation involved in the process is given below.
Oxidation half reaction – [Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e–] x 5
Reduction half reaction – MnO4– + 8H+ + 5e– → Mn2+ + 4H2O
Overall ionic equation – MnO4– + 8H+ + 5Fe2+ → Mn2+ + 5Fe3+ + 4H2O
This titration is based upon oxidation-reduction titrations. When ferrous ammonium sulfate solution is
titrated against potassium permanganate in the presence of acidic medium by sulfuric acid. Acidic
medium is necessary in order to prevent precipitation of manganese oxide. Here KMnO4 acts as a
self indicator and this titration is called permanganate titration.
 Materials Required:
1. Mohr’s salt (ferrous ammonium sulfate)
2. Potassium permanganate solution
3. Dilute sulfuric acid
4. Chemical balance
5. Burette
6. Burette stand
7. Pipette
8. Conical flask
9. Funnel
10. Measuring flask
11. Weighing bottle
12. White tile
13. Burnet
14. Wire gauze

Apparatus Setup:
1. In burette – KMnO4 solution
2. In Conical flask – 10ml of Ferrous Ammonium Sulfate (Mohr’s salt) + Sulfuric acid
3. Indicator – Self indicator (KMnO4)
4. End Point – Colourless to permanent pale pink colour.

Observations:

S.No Volume of ferrous ammonium sulfate (Mohr’s Burette Reading Volume(V) of

salt) used KMnO4 used

V = (y-x)ml

Initial(x) Final(y)
 Calculations:
(a) Normality of KMnO4 solution:
Consider y ml of given KMnO4 solution is equivalent to 20ml of N/10 Mohr’s salt solution.
According to law of equivalents,
N1V1 = N2V2
 N1, N2 are normality of Mohr’s salt and KMnO4 solution respectively.
 V1, V2 are volumes of Mohr’s salt and KMnO4 respectively.
1/10 x 20 = N2 x y
N2 = 2/y
N = Normality of given KMnO4 solution = 2/y
(b) Strength of KMnO4 solution:
Strength = Normality x Equivalent mass
Equivalent mass of KMnO4 =
= 158/5
= 31.6
= 2/y x 31.6 g/liter
Molarity of KMnO4 solution
N = M x Number of electron gained
N=Mx5
M = N/5 moles/ litre
The strength of and molarity of given KMnO4 solution is found out as 2/y x 31.6 g/l and N/5
moles/liter, respectively.

Results and Discussion:

 1. Molarity of given KMnO4 solution is _________ moles/liter
2. The strength of given potassium permanganate solution is _______ g/L

Precautions:
1. Potassium permanganate is dark, so always read the upper meniscus.
2. Rinse the pipette and burette before use.

I. Test for the Functional Groups Present in Organic Compounds

Aim:
To identify the presence of functional group like test for saturation and unsaturation in a given
organic compound.

Theory:
Organic compounds containing carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons. Most of the organic
compounds are derived from hydrocarbons by the displacement of one or more hydrogen atoms by
single atom or a group of atoms such as acid, aldehyde, Hydroxide and halogen functional groups
etc. Hydrocarbons are classified as saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons