Energy Storage Systems: A Review of the
Technology and Its Application in Power Systems
Jamie C Beardsall Christopher A Gould
Staffordshire University Staffordshire University
b012422b@student.staffs.ac.uk c.a.gould@staffs.ac.uk
Abstract- Increasing implementation of renewable energy
sources within power systems means that the use of energy
storage technologies will be ever more important for system
stability and power quality purposes. A range of energy storage
technologies currently exist, ranging from low-power, short term
technologies such as capacitors to long-term high power systems
such as Pumped Hydro. Future developments such as the use of
Carbon Nanotube technology within super-capacitors look set to
bring improvements in power density, efficiency and lifetime.
Index Terms—Battery, Compressed Air Energy Storage
(CAES), Energy Storage, Flow Battery, Flywheel, Power
System, Pumped Hydro, Renewables, Supercapacitor,
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES).
I. INTRODUCTION
The drive to constantly increase the amount of electricity
produced using natural & renewable sources (Wind etc.)
which cannot be controlled in a way akin to traditional fossil
generation methods means that generation and grid control is
becoming ever more difficult and unpredictable to manage.
Energy Storage enables some of the control lost through the
use of renewables to be recovered, allowing generation and
demand requirements, along with grid performance to be
aligned and controlled more closely.
Within this paper, a review of a range of currently existing
energy storage technologies will be presented. An insight into
to the importance of energy storage will be provided, before
an overview of a number of existing energy storage
technologies are detailed. A technical comparison between
different energy storage technologies will then be made, after
which, a discussion on the applications of energy storage
technologies within power systems will be given.
II. THE IMPORTANCE OF ENERGY STORAGE
Efficient and effective implementation of energy storage
systems can provide numerous environmental, economic and
technical benefits to energy supply systems. These include;
A. Enabling of Renewable Power Generation
Renewable power generation technologies such as wind
turbines provide a source of clean power. Their power supply
is, however, highly erratic and very intermittent. An ever
increasing call by governments and world leaders to increase
renewable energy generation means this problem is likely to
become ever more prevalent in the future [1]. Energy storage
technologies enable smoothing of the intermittent power
input associated with renewable energy sources, allowing
energy which is surplus at the time of supply from renewable
978-1-4673-9682-0/15/$31.00 ©2015 IEEE
Moofik Al-Tai
Staffordshire University
m.al-tai@staffs.ac.uk
sources to be stored for use during periods of peak system
demand [2].
B. Reducing the Risk of Power Blackouts
Energy Storage Technologies are also employed for the
purpose of power fluctuation smoothing caused by sudden
interruptions to supply or a sudden load change. In addition,
employment of energy storage technologies for provision of
long term back up power in the event of a large power outage
or failure, such as the loss of a large conventional power
generating unit or transmission line allows system security to
be improved [3].
C. Supply & Demand Matching
During periods when the power supply is greater than the
system demand, energy storage technologies can be used to
store surplus electricity (ideally purchased at a low cost)
which can then be released when power consumption exceeds
the available supply (provided there is cost benefit) [3]. This
enables conventional base-load generating plants (coal, gas &
oil etc.) which may not be designed to run at part-load or vary
their output in response to system demand fluctuations, to be
set to run more-or-less continually at a level which provides
the greatest efficiency and cost benefit [4].
III. COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY
STORAGE SYSTEMS
Energy Storage Systems allow power to be taken from a
source (such as the power grid), stored and then released back
into the system as and when required [5]. The method used
for energy storage will differ depending on the technology
being used; however, most energy storage systems will
include the following four main components [5];
 Storage Medium (the device which will store the energy
until it is required)
 Charging System: the method of allowing energy flow
from the external system into the storage medium
 Discharging System: the method used to release stored
energy back into the power system
 Control: Governing the operation of the storage system
According to [3], energy storage systems can be broadly
classified into three groups based upon their response
characteristics as follows; short term energy storage (seconds
to minutes) – used for power quality applications; long term
energy storage (minutes to hours) – used for grid congestion
management and frequency response; and real long term
energy storage (hours to days) – used for supply and demand
matching over long periods.
In addition to classification based on response
characteristics, energy storage systems can also be classified
based upon the form in which the energy is stored. Using this
method, storage systems can be classified into groups such as
mechanical storage, electrochemical storage, electrical
storage and thermal storage [6].
IV. OVERVIEW OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY STORAGE
TECHNOLOGIES
The number of technologies which exist for the storage of
electrical energy is vast. Such technologies include:
 Flow battery energy storage
 Superconducting magnetic energy storage
 Capacitors (Super-capacitors, electrolytic double layer
capacitor, Ultra-capacitor etc.)
 Batteries (Lead-Acid, Nickel Cadmium, Sodium Sulphur,
Lithium Ion etc.)
In this section, a review of several technologies relating to
the direct storage of electrical energy, i.e. technologies where
electrical energy is obtained directly from the device will be
presented. Information such as operating principles, system
components and device characteristics will be provided.
A. Flow Battery Energy Storage (FBES)
Like conventional batteries, Flow Battery Energy Storage
works by converting chemical energy into electrical energy
[1]. Unlike conventional batteries, FBES uses two aqueous
electrolytic solutions contained in separate tanks. During
normal operation, each of the aqueous solutions are pumped
through an electrochemical cell, where a reversible
electrochemical redox reaction occurs and electricity is
generated [1, 7]. FBES technology is relatively young, and
three main types of commercially developed flow battery
exist; Vanadium Redox Battery (VRB), Polysulphide
Bromide Battery (PSB) and Zinc Bromine Battery (ZnBr)
[8]. Due to a low self discharge (because electrolytes are
stored in separate tanks) and the ability to withstand full
discharge without damage, FBES systems have both a long
lifespan and low maintenance requirement, making the
technology suitable for long term energy storage [7].
B. Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage stores energy in
the form of a magnetic field created by direct current passed
through a cryogenically cooled super-conducting coil [9].
This stored energy can then be discharged from the system
almost instantly as required [10]. SMES systems generally
consist of three main components; a superconducting
magnetic coil; a power conditioning system; and a cryogenic
refrigeration unit [11]. The superconducting coil will usually
be made from an alloy known as ‘niobium-titanium’ (NbTi),
which operates at a temperature similar to the boiling point of
hydrogen (approx. -269°C) [5]. Connection to power systems
can be made using either current source or voltage source
conversion technology. Power conditioning equipment
generally includes an AC-DC converter, used for conversion
of AC current from the power system into DC during periods
of coil charging. This converter is then used in reverse when
discharging coil current back to the system, converting the
stored DC current back to AC current as required [10].
According to [3], the power capacity of SMES systems is
typically in the range 0.3-3.0MW and the technology is most
suited for power quality regulation and transient stability
improvements due to its very short discharge time (within
seconds).
C. Capacitor Energy Storage
Capacitors consist of two metallic plates separated by a
layer of insulating material known as a dielectric [12]. When
charged, energy is stored in the dielectric material within an
electrostatic field [13]. The amount of energy which can be
stored is affected by the size of plates, plate separation and
the material used for the dielectric [7]. Capacitors have the
advantage of being able to withstand thousands of
charge/discharge cycles without material degredation
occuring [5]. Capacitors do however suffer from short
discharge times and high energy dissipations due to self
discharge loss, meaning capacitors are only effective in short
term applications such as power quality conditioning tasks
such as bridging or voltage stabilisation [6]. They are not
suitable or effective for long term energy storage [13].
D. Supercapacitor Energy Storage
Supercapacitors (also known as Electro-Chemical Double
Layer Capacitors (EDLCs)) contain two conduction
electrodes, a porous membrane separator and an electrolyte
[6]. According to [14], the use of porous carbon as a current
collector means that a much larger surface area is achieved,
and relatively large amounts of energy can therefore be stored
at the collector surface. Because of this, EDLCs can have
very high capacitances (in the range of kilofarads), compared
with milli or microfarads for a conventional capacitor.
Compared with batteries, supercapacitors have a much higher
power density (in the range 800-2000W/kg) [4]. Like regular
capacitors, supercapacitors can withstand a high number of
charge/discharge cycles without degredation, making them
suitable for short time – high power applications [15].
Generally, supercapacitors operate in the range of
approximately 2V per cell. Individual cells can however be
series connected into modules which themselves are parallel
connected with adjacent modules. Modules with voltages of
between 200-400V have been achieved, although values
above this are still not fully feasible owing to reliability and
safety issues [16].
E. Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS)
Battery energy storage systems store electrical energy in
the form of chemical energy. When discharged, chemical
energy within the battery is conveted into electrical energy
for supply to an external circuit [7]. During charging, the
reverse is true and electrical energy is converted to chemical
energy within the battery [17]. BESS covers a number of
storage technologies referred to as ‘batteries’. Examples of
such battery technologies include [18];
 Lithium-Ion batteries
 Lead Acid batteries
 Nickel batteries
 Sodium Sulphur batteries
Batteries are comprised of multiple cells, containing either
a solid or liquid electrolyte and a postive and negative
electrode [19]. Despite being one of the oldest technologies
for storage of electrical power, factors such as ease of use and
reliability mean that it is still a widely used and favoured
technology for energy storage [11]. A wide ranging power
storage capability (100W – 20MW) means that battery energy
storage can be suited to many different applications [3]. The
modular nature of batteries allows multiple devices to be
connected together as required to increase power capacity [5].
Lead acid is considered to be the oldest and most mature
battery energy storage technology, having been in existance
since 1859 [20]. Despite this, Lead Acid is still a widely used
battery energy storage technology due to advantages
including; low cost, negligible maintenance requirement, and
low self-discharge rates [21]. Lead Acid technology is still
considered to be popular for applications such as
Uninterruptable Power Supplies (UPS) [11]. Factors such as
high toxicity, increased weight due to lead content, and low
power density do however mean that for certain applications
such as energy management, use of lead acid batteries has
been hindered [12]. Newer battery technologies such as
Lithium-Ion have now achieved a significant penetration into
the field of consumer electronics, and are also beginning to
transition into hybrid and electric vehicle applications [20].
Factors such as very high energy densities and high
efficiencies make this battery technology attractive, and have
also led to its application as a power source within medical
devices [21]. Sodium-Sulphur is another battery technology
which is considered to show promise, with this type of battery
having advantages such as high energy density, high
efficiency and deep discharge tolerance [21]. This technology
is currently employed in large scale energy storage
applications such as renewable energy management and
integration. A high operating temperature (300°C – 350°C)
and the highly corrosive nature of the sodium polysulfide
discharge products does however mean that this technology is
primarily suitable only for large-scale, non-mobile
applications [20].
V. OVERVIEW OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY STORAGE
TECHNOLOGIES
This section of the paper will examine energy storage
technologies that produce electrical energy by means of
energy conversion from forms such as kinetic or potential
energy. Such technologies include;
 Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)
 Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage (PHS)
 Flywheel Energy Storage
A. Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)
Compressed Air Energy Storage uses electrically powered
compressors to force air into underground voids (such as
caverns) at a very high pressure, a process which is often
undertaken during times of low demand or during ‘off-peak’
electricity periods [16]. The compressed air is then released
and mixed with fuel before being heated and used to drive an
expansion turbine (similar to a gas turbine) and subsequent
generator [13]. CAES is considered a long term energy
storage technology, being suitable for supplying power during
periods when grid outages or failures occur [3]. According to
[21], CAES systems can also be used for smoothing of the
intermittent power output from renewable energy sources.
CAES usage is not currently widespread, however, systems
installed in Germany and USA have yielded outputs of
290MW & 110MW respectively [7].
B. Pumped Hydroelectric Storage (PHS)
Pumped Hydroelectric Storage (PHS) is a large scale
energy storage system, having a typical rating of
approximately 1000MW [13]. PHS systems will normally
comprise of; two reservoirs located at different elevations, a
unit to pump water to the higher level reservoir during off
peak electricity hours (to store the water as hydraulic
potential energy); and a turbine/generator to turn the water
flowing from the higher level reservoir into electricity during
peak demand periods [13]. The amount of energy which can
be stored is dependent on both the size of the upper storage
reservoir and the difference in height between the upper and
lower reservoirs [11]. PHS is, however, constrained by the
requirement for two large areas of land (for reservoirs) which
must be situated at different heights, meaning its application
is very much governed by the geography of the area [5].
C. Flywheel Energy Storage (FES)
Flywheel energy storage systems store energy in the form
of kinetic energy [7]. A mass, rotating on two magnetic
bearings (to reduce friction) is connected to a generator,
allowing electrical energy to be produced [8]. The system is
charged by operating the generator as a motor and using it to
increase the rotational speed of the flywheel. The flywheel is
then discharged when the electric machine regenerates
through the drive (reducing flywheel speed) [7]. FES can be
classified as either high speed or low speed FES. High speed
FES provides long period storage but low power capacity.
Low speed FES is the opposite [1]. Flywheel material,
geometry and length are all factors which can affect the
energy storage capability of the FES system [22].
VI. COMPARISON OF ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES
The characteristics of different energy storage technologies
can vary drastically. Table 1 presents a technical comparison
of several energy storage technologies [1, 3, 8].
 TABLE I
TECHNICAL COMPARISON OF ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES [1, 3, 8].

Storage Density Eff. Discharge Capital Cost Life-time Advantages Disadvantages

Stage of Development
Device (Wh/kg) (%) Time (€/kW) (yrs)
Super 85- Long Life Cycle, Low Energy Density,
0.1-5 Sec./Min Developing 200-1000 30-40
Capacitor 98 High Efficiency toxic compound
Lead-Acid 60-
24-45 Available 50-150 Low Cost Lead Requires Recycling
Batteries 95
High Cost, Lithium
Lithium 90- High Power, Energy
80-150 Available 150-250 oxide & Salt require
Batteries 100 Density & Eff.
recycling.
Min./Hours 2-10 High Power & NiCd highly toxic, NiZn,
Nickel 60-
20-120 Available 200-750 Energy Density, NiMh & NA-NiCL2
Batteries 91
Good Efficiency require recycling
Sodium
High Energy
Sulphur 150-240 >86 Available 170 High Production Cost.
Density & Eff.
Batteries
Early Phase of
ZnBr FB 37 75 900€/kWh High Capacity Low Energy Density
Commercialisation
Min./Hours 10
Vanadium Early Phase of
- 85 1280 High Capacity Low Energy Density
FB Commercialisation
97- Developed to 10MW. Health Impact for Large
SMES - Sec./Min 350 40 High Power
98 Potential for 2000MW Scale Sites
High Capacity, low
75- 140-680m for Disturbs Local Wildlife
PHES - Days Available 40 cost per unit
85 1000MW and Water Levels
capacity
High Capacity,
Problematic in obtaining
CAES - 80 Days Available 400 30 relatively low cost
sites suitable for use
per unit capacity
Flywheel 30-100 90 Sec./Min Available 3000-10000 20-30 High Power Low Energy Density

VII. APPLICATIONS OF ENERGY STORAGE WITHIN POWER
SYSTEMS
Energy Storage technologies such as those described
above can provide great benefit to electrical power
systems, enabling increased renewable source integration
and increased supply security and stability to be achieved
[14]. Some typical applications of energy storage systems
to power systems are described in this section of the paper.
A. Integration of Renewable Energy Sources (RES)
One of the main uses for energy storage systems is to
increase the integration of RES such as wind and solar
[14]. The intermittent nature of inputs from renewable
power sources can result in voltage and frequency
fluctuations occurring within the grid, negatively affecting
system stability [14]. As such voltage and frequency
fluctuations can occur very quickly and frequently, it is
necessary to employ energy storage technologies with high
cycling lifetimes and short response times.
Supercapacitors, batteries (excluding conventional lead
acid) and SMES are therefore particularly suited for this
purpose [7]. According to [7], a widely accepted method
for mitigation of the power fluctuations associated with
DFIG wind turbines is to incorporate an energy storage
system within the DC link of the back-to-back converters
of the machine. This storage system will have a controller
which interacts with the control system of the wind turbine
to optimize the overall net power flow to the grid. [23]
explains that connection of a supercapacitor energy storage
system to the DC-link of a DFIG through a two quadrant
DC/DC converter (with additional control elements)
provides a solution to achieve high levels of wind turbine
integration into electical grids.
B. Load Shifting
Because renewable sources cannot be controlled with
the same level of accuracy or predictability of generation
methods such as fossil or nuclear power, their output does
not always coincide with the times of peak energy demand
of the grid. This presents grid operators with numerous
difficulties in terms of matching generation requirements
with those of demand, and means that in some cases,
generation can either exceed or fall short of consumer
demand. Load shifting allows delivery of renewable
energy to be delayed from periods of non-peak demand to
those of peak demand. Energy storage systems can store
the renewable energy output during low demand periods
and then release it into the grid at times of peak demand.
This helps to smooth excess grid demand and increase the
value of renewable energy sources. Energy storage
technologies suitable for this purpose must be able to
operate and react in the region of several minutes and
several hours, therefore technologies such as CAES,
Pumped Hydro and Flow batteries are considered to be
suitable for this purpose [8].
C. Transmission & Distribution Upgrade Deferral
Transmission and Distribution (T&D) upgrade deferral
refers to the delaying or deferring of upgrades to existing
T&D infrastructure within a power system by installation
of either a temporary or permanent EES downstream of the
overloaded T&D node [17]. T&D deferral allows the
annual carrying charges for capital investment to be
avoided, thus reducing the overall cost to ratepayers,
improving asset utilisation and releasing capital for other
infrastructure projects [17].
D. Grid Black Start
In the event of a total grid power loss, it may be
necessary to restore power using a process known as black
start [12]. Energy storage systems can be used for this
purpose. For example, in power generating facilities,
batteries can be used to provide a source of power to start a
diesel generator or similar device, which can then be used
to generate electrical power to supply auxiliary systems for
a major generating unit, which can then supply power back
to the grid.
E. Energy Arbitrage
Energy Arbitrage refers to the process of charging
energy storage systems when energy demand and therefore
cost is low, before then discharging the energy storage
system back into the grid during periods of high demand
and cost, thus making a profit. Typically, Pumped Hydro
Storage (PHS) is used for this purpose due to the fact that
it can be built for large scale energy storage (+100MW)
and used for discharge over a relatively long period of time
(up to several days). Compressed Air Energy Storage
(CAES) is another technology which can be implemented
for this purpose, again due to the large capacities and
relatively long discharge times which are possible [14].
F. Voltage/VAR Support
Voltage/VAR support is an ancillary function provided
by system operators in order to assist in the maintaining of
grid system stability. Voltage/VAR support requires the
supply or absorption of reactive power (VAR’s) in order to
maintain grid voltage within a specified range [17]. This
process has typically been carried out by power generators;
however the fact that reactive power cannot be effectively
transmitted over long distances means that distributed
energy storage systems could provide a realistic alternative
[17]. Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) is a
technology which could potentially be used for this
purpose. An example of BESS usage for Voltage support
is the experimental storage system produced by A123
Corporation in California, having a capacity of
8MW/32MWh using Lithium-Ion Technology. This
installation has been developed to provide improved
renewable energy integration, alongside provision for
ancillary capabilities such as voltage support [24].
VIII. FUTURE ADVANCES AND DEVELOPMENTS IN
ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGY
Since the earliest developments in energy storage
technology, there have been numerous advances in the
technology available for the storage of energy. Generally
speaking, the effectiveness of an energy storage system
can be evaluated in terms of factors such as [25];
 Energy Density (Wh/kg)
 Power Density (W/kg)
 Cycle Efficiency (%)
 Self-Discharge Characteristics
 Cycle lifespan (number of cycles)
 Chronological lifecycle
Future developments in the technology associated with
energy storage systems will therefore be aimed at
improving such characteristics. Already, developments in
the field of energy storage technology are producing very
promising results with respect to such characteristics.
Advances in the development of carbon nanotubes are
enabling a new generation of supercapacitors to be
developed. Using carbon nanotubes, it is predicted that a
supercapacitor having a one square centimetre conductive
plate will have a surface area of approximately 50000
square centimetres, compared with 2000 square
centimetres for a standard carbon based supercapacitor,
enhancing both the lifespan and storage capability of the
supercapacitor, with specific energies as high as an Ni-Cd
battery (60Wh/kg) being anticipated [26].
In the field of flywheel energy storage, the development
of low-loss, high performance bearings and high
performance composite fibres is being investigated in
order to bring improvements to factors such as device
reliability, manufacturing costs, storage capacity and
power density, making FES a more desirable EST [25].
Battery technology is also predicted to be the subject of
significant technical developments in the coming years.
Advanced lead-acid batteries, created by adding upto 40%
activated carbon to the negative electrode composition
will benefit from an increased cycling life (upto 2000 extra
cycles) compared with exisiting designs. Coupled with low
costs, it is envisaged that this will again make lead-acid a
realistic choice for battery storage systems [26]. Lithium
based cells are expected to benefit from improvements to
electrodes, plates, current collectors and seals in the future,
complemented by improvements to processing and
fabrication techniques [25]. Developments in technologies
such as lithium-sulphur and lithium-sulphide cells are,
however, currently only being investigated by a small
number of organisations and will only be commercially
possible provided the technology can compete in terms of
life cycle and expected cost considerations [25].
Alongisde refinements to existing technology, new
technologies such as Gravity Power Module Energy
Storage (GPMES) are also predicted to play an increasing
role in future energy storage systems. GPMES uses two
water filled shafts, one wider than the other, connected at
both ends. Water is pumped through the smaller shaft,
which in turn raises a high-weight piston situated in the
larger shaft - the reversal of this process allows the piston
to force water to flow back through a pump and generate
power [18]. Additionally, the development of new
technologies such as Mini-CAES and above ground CAES
which have evolved from existing Compressed Air Energy
Storage (CAES) are likely to allow increased usage of
such technology, enabling some of the disadvantages of
exisitng CAES such as obtaining suitable operational sites
to be overcome [26].
IX. CONCLUSION
Numerous energy storage technologies are currently in
existence. Some are now highly developed, with others
still in their infancy. Existing energy storage technologies
allow energy to be stored in a variety of forms, for a
variety of timescales, and with varying capacities.
Application of specific technologies differs, with
technologies such as Supercapacitors and SMES being
suitable for short-period, fast response applications, and
technologies including CAES and PHS being more suited
to long term, long discharge applications. Increased use of
intermittent energy sources such as wind and solar will act
as a stimulus for increased energy storage implementation
within power systems. The correct application of energy
storage technologies within power systems allows the
potential of renewable energy sources to be realised to a
greater extent, enabling disadvantages such as voltage and
frequency fluctuation and mismatching of supply and
demand peaks to be reduced, with grid stability being
increased as a result. Future developments in energy
storage technology such as the application of Carbon
Nanotube technology to Supercapacitor design and the
introduction of low-loss bearings for flywheel systems
look set to bring further improvements in terms of device
efficiency, energy density and extended component
lifecycles.
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