J. Phys.

Earth, 21, 415-431, 1973

BODY WAVE SPECTRA FROM PROPAGATING

SHEAR CRACKS

Tamao SATO and Tomowo HIRASAWA

Geophysical Institute, Faculty of Science,

Tohoku University,
Sendai
(Received
December 14,1973)

An earthquake source model studied in this paper predicts a higher

value of P wave corner frequency than S wave corner frequency; the ratio

of P to S wave corner frequency is about 1.3 on the average. This result

owes mainly to the slip characteristics on the fault, that is, the center of the

fault slips for a longer time than the edges and consequently a greater
relative displacement takes place near the center. Relationships of source

dimension with the corner frequencies for P and S waves are derived to

estimate the source dimension of earthquakes from teleseismic body wave

spectra. The far-field spectra from the present model of equidimensional

rupture propagation demonstrate the spectral decay of ω-2 at high frequen-

cies. The seismic efficiency is found to be independent of the size of source

dimension and expressed as a function of initial stress, stress drop, and

rupture velocity. Being interpreted in terms of this model, the ratio of fric-
tional stress to final stress can be estimated from observations of rupture
velocity.

1. Introductian

In recent studies on the source mechanism, ARCHAMBEAU (1968),

BURRIDGE (1969), and BRUNE (1970) tried to eliminate the arbitrariness in the

specification of the time function of dislocation motion. Archambeau and

Burridge have regarded the seismic source as a relaxation process of the initial

stress in the source region, and solved independently initial-value problems.

Brune, on the other hand, cｏnsidered that the time function was related directly

to the effective stress available to accelerate the two sides of fault. The near-

and far-field spectra, thus derived from the Brune's model, explain observa-

tional data comparatively well (HANKS and WYSS; 1972, TRIFUNAC; 1972).

In spite of its usefulness, Brune has presented only S wave spectrum. Attempts

have been made to relate source parameters with theoretical P wave spectra by

HANKS and WYSS (1972) and TRIFUNAC (1972), in which the corner frequency

for P waves is higher than that for S waves. These derivations, however, are

largely intuitive, and the result of higher corner frequency for P waves cannot

415
416T. SATOand T.HIRASAWA

be rationalized in terms of the directivityfunctionfor reasonablevaluesof

rupture velocityas far as conventionaldislocation models are concerned
(HIRASAWA and STAUDER; 1965, SAVAGE; 1972).
Recent observations clearlyshow thatin generalthe cornerfrequencies
forP waves are greaterthanthoseforS waves (MOLNAR etal.;1973,TRIFUNAC;
1972). These observedratiosof P to S wave corner frequencies range from
about 1 to 3 even aftera reasonablecorrection forattenuation,
and thisrange
isconsistent with the ratiosof predominantperiodsof S waves to those of P
waves determined by FURUYA (1969).Although theseearthquakesare con-
sideredto be causedby the slipon faults, the conventionaldislocationmodels
are incompetentto explainthe observedratiosof P to Swave cornerfrequen-
cies.Therefore,itisquiteimportanttofind another realistic
dislocationmodel
for which P wave cornerfrequencyishigherthan S wave cornerfrequency.
In thispaper,a physicallyplausibledislocation model is presentedin
orderto explainthe spectral shiftof P waves from S waves. As isintroduced
inthe followingsection, thetime functionof the model isspecified by making
use of the static
solutionof cracks.

2. Specification
of theRelative
Displacement
on Faults

We model earthquakes(relatively
smallones)asfollows:Rupture initiates
at a pointand spreadsradiallyoutwards at a constantspeed untilitfinally
stops,thusforming a circularfaultsurface.As soon as a pointispassedand
encircledby the rupture front
line,slipstarts thereand the relativedisplace-
ment at each moment isspecifiedby the static solutionof the circular
crack.
According to ESHELBY (1957),in an infinitehomogeneous isotropic medium
with a Poisson'sratioequalto 1/4,the relativeshiftof the facesof acircular
crack under a uniform shearstressisgiven by
(1)
where,

K=(24/7π)(σ/μ),

σ; applied shear stress,

μ; shear modulus,

α; radius of the circular crack,

ρ; distance of a point on the crack from its center.

Suppose that the rupture, initiating at t=0, spreads radially outwards at a

constant velocity, v, then the radius of the circular fault, a, is vt at time t.

Following the assumption made above, we obtain the relative displacement

on the fault surface at time t by substituting vt for the radius, a, in (1), that is,

(2)
 Body Wave Spectra from Propagating Shear Cracks417

where H(t)is the Heaviside unit step function

H(t)=0; t<0

H(t)=1; t>0.

When a further assumption is made that the rupture stops abruptly at ρ=L,
the time function of relative displacement is completely specified by

(3)

Properly speaking, (3) is not the solution for the dynamical stress relaxation

problem. But it supposedly represents a first approximation to the dynamical

process.
In the conventional dislocation models, the time functions of relative

displacement, D(ξ,t), are usually written in the form,

(4)

Fig. 1. Dimensionless displacement

time functions (solid curves) at

different points (ρ/L=0.0, 0.2,

0.4, 0.6, 0.8) on the faulting sur-

face. The ordinate of the time

function is given at the right-

hand side of the figure. The

dashed line indicates the arrival

time of the rupture front with

respect to ρ/L for which the ordi-

Fig.2. Coordinatesystemused.Shadedarea
nate is given at the left-hand side. inthe x1-x2 plane
represents
fault surface.
418 T. SATO and. T. HIRASAWA

F(ξ) expresses the variable distribution (if any) of the final relative displace-

ment in the direction of the fault length. G(t) is the time function which is

assumed to satisfy the initial and final conditions,

G(t)=0; t<0,

G(t)=1; t→ ∞.

SAVAGE (1966) has calculated the form of body waves radiated from an ex-

panding circular fault. His model is quite similar to ours in a sense, but
decisively different in the expression of D(ρ,t). In his model D(ρ,t) has the

same form as (4), that is,

(5)
The expression of D(ρ,t) in (5) indicates that the duration of slip is constant

at every point on the fault. On the other hand, as can be seen in Fig. 1, the

duration of slip in the present model is dependent on the spatial coordinate,

ρ. The center of the fault slips for a longer time than the edges and a greater
relative displacement takes place near the center.

3. Far-Field Radiation Spectra

We assume an infinite, isotropic, homogeneous medium with a Poisson's

ratio equal to 1/4. Taking the starting point of the fault at the origin of the

Cartesian coordinates (x1, x2, x3), we introduce polar coordinates (r0,θ,φ) by

the relations

x1=r0sinθcosφ,

x2=r0sinθsinφ,

x3=r0cosθ,

where r0 being distance from the starting point of the fault to an observation

point.Let the (x1,

x2)-plane
be the faultplane,and the positive x1-axis
be
parallel to the direction of relative displacement. A point on the fault is
specified by (ρ,φ'), and the distance between the point and an observation

point is denoted by r, as shown in Fig. 2.

Following HASKELL'S study (1964), the displacement components of P-

and S-waves at large distances can be written as

(6)
 Body Wave Spectra from Propagating Shear Cracks419

where,

(7)

In the expression of (7), c denotes either α or β and they are the seismic ve-

locities of P and S waves respectively.

Here we use the time function of relative displacement presented in (3).

The time derivative of D(ρ,t) in (3) is

(8)

Since r≒r0-ρsinθcos(φ'-φ), we obtain

(9)

where,

Substituting (9) into (7), we carry out the integration. According as (v sin θ/c)

is smaller than unity or not, two different cases occur in evaluation of the

integral. When we assume a subsonic rupture propagation (v<β), the relation

of (vsinθ/c) smaller than unity holds at every angle, θ. For the case, Ic is

calculated as

(10)

where,
x=vτ/L,

k=(v/c)sinθ.

In (10) the time τ is changed to a dimensionless quantity x. Figure 3 shows

the forms of Ic at several angles of θ. The far-field displacements of P- and

S-waves are related to Ic through the equations in (6). The absolute amplitudes

of the displacements are dependent on the radiation pattern and geometrical

spreading. The appearance of the signal in Fig. 3 should be characterized by

an initial quadratic increase with time corresponding to the growth of the

420T. SATO and T. HIRASAWA

Fig. 3. The far-field displacement as a function of time radiated from

the present model. The figures in the left column represent the P

waves and those in the right column the S waves. The time, L/v,

required for rupture to travel from the center to the edge of the
fault surface is chosen as a unit of time. This is for the case

v/β=0.7.

rupture, followed by an abrupt decrease corresponding to the delayed time at

which the rupture stops. This discontinuity in slope is called a stopping phase

(SAVAGE and HASEGAWA; 1964).

It is calculated that the area enclosed by an Ic-curve of (10) and τ-axis is

constant for any value of (vsinθ/c), that is,

(11)
Alternatively, we prove that the relation of (11) must hold for the present

model. The Fourier transform of Ic(τ) is

(12)
Changing the order of integration and putting t'=τ+qc-1 in (12), Ac(ω) can
 Body Wave Spectra from Propagating Shear Cracks 421

be rewritten as follows;

(13)

For the limiting case in which ω tends to zero, (13) reduces to

(14)

where D0 is the finalrelativedisplacement and M0 isseismic moment defined as

(15)

Therefore, the Eq. (14) is exactly equivalent to (11).

The spectral amplitude of Ic(τ) in (10) is analytically calculated to yield

(16)
where,

(17)

From (6)and (16),the spectral

amplitudesof the far-field
displacements
are

(18)

where Rθφ(P, S) are the radiation patterns of P and S waves expected for the

point source element. Although Ω(P, S) in (18) is apparently complicated, it

is flat low frequencies with the height proportional to the seismic moment

(AKI; 1966) and decreases proportionally to ω-2 on the average at high frequ-
encies as demonstrated in Fig. 4. A spectrum's corner frequency is defined

by the frequency at which the high and low frequency trends intersect. In

the graphical determination of corner frequencies we fix a line of high frequ-

ency trend with the gradient corresponding to the ω-2-decay so as to make it

tangent to the first decreasing part of a spectral curve. In the present model,
422T. SATO and T. HIRASAWA

Fig. 4. Typical examples of far-field spectra for the case v/β=0.5 and 0.8.

the corner frequency, f0=ω0/2π, varies only with the angle θ which is measured

from the normal to the fault plane; there is no directivity with respect to φ,

and thus all azimuths are equivalent. This is due to the symmetrical property

of the circularly expanding rupture.

If stations are randomly located on a focal sphere, the probability of

observing the signal between θ and θ+dθ is proportional to sinθdθ. Clearly

the most likely value of θ is 90° and the least likely is 0°. Only 13 percents

of the observation should be associated with values of less than 30°. Therefore

the expected value of corner frequency, <f0(P, S)>, can be expressed by

(19)

In practicewe made an approximationto (19)here in the determinationof

(P,S)>,thatis, <f0

As shown in Table 1, the corner frequency gets smaller with an increase in θ.

It is noteworthy that the ratio of P to S wave corner frequency is larger than

unity at every point except at θ=0 where the spectra for P and S waves are
 Body Wave Spectra from Propagating Shear Cracks423

Table 1. Corner frequencies, f0(P, S), and predominant frequencies, fp(P, S),

of P and S waves when v/β=0.9.

alike. The spectral decay at high frequencies at θ=0 is inversely proportional

to ω. At the other points the spectra show ω-2-decay as mentioned before.

We experimented with different rupture velocities and tried to derive the

relationship between the source dimension and the expected value of corner

frequency. To estimate a source dimension, L, from teleseismic body wave

spectra, BRUNE (1971) has related the source dimension to the corner frequ-

ency for S waves through the equation

HANKS and WYSS (1972) assumed a similarrelationfor P waves as

Being interpreted in terms of the present seismic source model, the source
dimension is related to the expected values of corner frequency as

(20)

where Cp and Cs are implicitfunctionsof rupture velocityas presentedin

Table2. The numerical

valuesofcoefficients
Cp,s and Dp,s
in Eq.
(20),
and theratios
ofP toS wavecorner
andpredominant
frequencies.
424T. SATO and T. HIRASAWA

Table 2. The corner frequency of P waves is about 1.3 times as large as that

of S waves in an average sense. The ratios <f0(P)>/<f0(S)> are a little depend-

ent on the rupture velocity, and take values from 1.26 to 1.39 as the values

of v/β vary from 0.5 to 0.9. From observational view point, it is sometimes

useful to have expressions similar to (20) for the predominant frequencies in

the velocity spectra. The source dimension is related to the expected values

of predominant frequency <fp(P, S)> through (20) when Cp and Cs are replaced

by Dp and Ds. The numerical values of Dp and Ds given in Table 2 are graph-

ically obtained from the velocity spectra. The ratio of P to S wave predomi-

nant frequellcy is also about 1.3 on the average and consistent with the result

for the corner frequency.

According to FURUYA'S observation (1969), the ratios of S to P wave

predominant periods for large and small earthquakes range from about 1 to 3.
These values may be due partly to the influence of propagation path on the

waves. It is, however, difficult to explain them by the effect when the hypo-

central distances are small and the predominant periods are long. Recently

MOLNAR et al. (1973) found that the observed ratios of P to S wave corner

frequencies range from about 1 to 3 even after the correction for attenuation

with reasonably assumed attenuation factors. The teleseismic body wave

spectra derived from the present model may account for the ratios ranging from

1 to 1.5, but the ratios as large as 2 or 3 cannot be explained by simle dis-

location models. HANKS and WYSS (1972) assumed f0(P)/f0(S) is nearly equal

to α/β, however, they did not take into account the effect of rupture propaga-

tion. The ratio nearly equal to α/β can be realized, if possible, when the

rupture velocity is much larger than the S wave velocity. This supersonic

propagation of rupture is considered to be impossible for spontaneous earth-

quake sources, because there is no stress concentration necessary to break the

bonding at the tip of rupture propagation (IDA and AKI; 1972).

4. Total Energy and Efficiency

In this section we consider how much wave energy is radiated from the

present source model. The radiated energies of P and S waves are

(21)

Using (6)and (10),we carry out the above integrationsto have

(22)
 Body Wave Spectra from Propagating Shear Cracks425

where,

(23)

Then the total wave energy is

(24)
where,

(25)
When we regardearthquakesas a kindof conversionprocessfrom poten-
tialenergyto seismicone, the efficiency becomes an important parameter.
ESHELBY (1957)has presentedthe interaction energy, Eint,of the circular
crack in the elastic
body with the uniform shearstress
field:

(26)
Hence the efficiency defined as the ratio of Es to Eint is ηv in (25). In this

definition of efficiency the complete stress drop is presumed. If the stress

drops from σ1 to σ2, the efficiency can be generalized as

(27)
where,

(28)
By introducing the concept of average frictional stress, σf, across the
fault surface during rupture, WYSS and MOLNAR (1972) offered another formu-

lation for efficiency, that is,

(29)

Since(27)and (29)must be equal,we obtain

(30)

Once we fix a model for the dynamic process in relaxing the tectonic stress,

ηv can be calculated in general according to the model. For example, ηv is

obtainable from (25) for the present model. Therefore an estimation of the

average frictional stress is possible from the knowledge of initial and final

stress with (30), even though we do not know in detail the dynamic state of

stress across the fault. The inequality relationship between the average
426T. SATO and T. HIRASAWA

frictionalstressand the finalstresscan generallybe derivedfrom (30),thatis,

(31)

In terms of the present seismic source model, ηv is a function of v/β as illus-

trated in Fig. 5. For the values of v/β less than about 0.8, ηv is approximately

proportional to (v/β)(v/β)2,
but the deviation from the proportionality becomes

great when v/β approaches to unity. Figure 5 in combination with (31) shows
that the average frictional stress is larger than the final stress in the range of

v/β smaller than about 0.9. Rupture velocity is here an important source

parameter and related closely to the average frictional stress; the larger the
average frictional stress is, the smaller the rupture velocity becomes.

At present, no reliable data are available from source parameter studies

to determine the ratio of the final stress to the average frictional stress, Al-

though Es, M0, and L can be estimated from seismic waves in general, it is

Table 3. Ratios of P to S wave energy

and ηv with varying rupture velocity

(see Eq. (25)).

Fig. 5. ηv as a function of v/β (see

Eq. (25)).
 Body Wave Spectra from Propagating Shear Cracks427

quite difficult to get an additional independent information on the initial stress

σ1, without which an estimate of the efficiency η or the frictional stress δf is

impossible.

From (22), the energy ratio of P to S waves is

(32)
As shown in Table 3, the ratio is almost constant and takes a value of about

0.05 for v/β smaller than 0.9. This value of the ratio is compared with 0.043

for a double couple point source and 0.213 given by KOYAMA et al. (1973) for

a spherical cavity model (so called HONDA'S model).

Another characteristic feature of this model is that η in (27) does not

depend on the size of source dimension. If both ηd and rupture velocity are

assumed constant irrespective of individual earthquakes, the present model

satisfies strictly the similarity condition that AKI (1967) has proposed for his

ω-2 model.

5. Discussions

In the present model, the far-field source spectrum decays in inverse pro-

portion to the square of frequency beyond a corner frequency. This result is

consistent with the statistical "ω-square model" proposed by AKI (1967).

From the theoretical study by HIRASAWA and STAUDER (1965), the spectral

decay of ω-3 should be expected for a model of equidimensional rupture propa-

gation with a ramp time function. The reason why the spectral decay of ω-2
is obtained for the present model of equidimensional rupture propagation may

be explained possibly by the singularity of D(ρ,t) at the tip of faulting. Physi-

cally D(ρ,t) should be so modified that the singularity is eliminated. However,

it is important that the present model gives finite values both for the strain

energy released and for the total wave energy. If the modification of D(ρ,t)

near the fault tip is limited within a sufficiently short width compared with

wave-lengths under consideration, the present results would not be affected

by this modification.

The far-field source spectra from the present model show the spectral
shift of P-waves from S-waves; the corner frequency of P-waves is about 1.3

times as large as that of S-waves. On the other hand, conventional dislocation

models cannot predict a higher value of P-wave corner frequency than S-wave

corner frequency for reasonable values of rupture velocity (HIRASAWA and

STAUDER; 1965, SAVAGE; 1972). The time functions for these dislocation

models can be commonly expressed in the form of (4), which indicates that

the duration of slip is the same at every point on the fault. This assumption

may be too simple to describe the detailed process in relaxing the tectonic
428T. SATO and T. HIRASAWA

stress. In the present model,as isunderstoodfrom (3),the centerofthe fault

slipsfor a longertime than the edgesand consequentlya greaterrelative dis-
placementtakesplacenear the center.This difference in the specification
of
thetime functionaffects the far-field
spectraenough to yielda differentresult
forthe ratioof P- to S-wave cornerfrequency.
For instance, letus compare the presentmodel with thebilateral rupture
model,forwhich SAVAGE (1972)showed thattheS-wave cornerfrequencywas
on the averageslightly largerthan the P-wave corner frequency.When we
study the body waves in the time domain, itisfound forboth modelsthatthe
durationtime of S waves islongerthan thatof P waves atevery observation
point. Inspiteof thislongerdurationforS-waves,the bilateral rupturemodel
cannotpredictthattheP-wave cornerfrequencyisthehigher. Thisisbecause
the effectivedurationof S-waves ismade shorterthan thatofP-waves by the
abruptdecreasein displacementcorrespondingto the delayed time at which
the rupturestops.On the otherhand, the effect isnot so severeforthe present
model; the decreaseat the arrivalof the stoppingphase isrelatively gentleas
shown in Fig. 3. This gentledecreaseresultsfrom the followingcharacteris-
ticsofslippageon the fault:1)The centerof the faultslipsfora longertime
than the edges and 2) the finalrelativedisplacementvarieswith the Eq. (3),
which indicates a greaterdisplacementnear the center. Although the fault
geometry of the presentmodel is circularand equidimensional, even for a
relatively long thinfaultmodel we can expecta highervalueofP wave corner
frequencythan S wave cornerfrequencyifthe above conditions of slipchar-
acteristics are satisfied.
HANKS and WYSS (1972) showed that the source dimension, as estimated
from teleseismic body-wave spectra interpreted by the use of BRUNE's model

(1970), agrees well with the same parameter from field data for three large
shallow earthquakes. It is interesting to estimate the source dimension by

interpreting the body-wave spectra in terms of the present model and compare

it with the same parameter from the field data. Since Cp and Cs in (20) depend

on the rupture velocity, a different source dimension is to be estimated with

a different rupture velocity. However, the source dimension from the body-

wave spectra agrees better with that from the field data when v/β is assumed

about 0.9 for each of the three earthquakes. Source dimensions estimated

with smaller values of rupture velocity cannot explain the field observations.

We consider this as an evidence that the values of v/β for these earthquakes

are about 0.9. Furthermore, v/β equal to about 0.9 means that the relation

of σf=σ2 holds during the rupture if the process in relaxing the tectonic stress

is well simulated by the present seismic-source model. As is noticed in Table

4, source dimensions from the P-wave spectra do not agree so well with those

from the field data. This is because the average ratio of P- to S-wave corner
 Body Wave Spectra from Propagating Shear Cracks429

Table 4. Estimates of source dimension.

Remarks: The results for tha field data and for the Brune's model are taken from HANKS
and WYSS (1972). The results of the present model are obtained for v/β=0.9, in which α/β
and β are taken to be and 3.5km/sec, respectively, as used by HANKS and WYSS (1972).

frequency is about 1.4 for the present model while the same ratios observed

for these earthquakes are about 2 on the average.

For the San Fernando, California, earthquake of February 9, 1971, the

P-wave corner frequencies determined by WYSS and HANKS (1972) are plotted

against the angle θ which is measured from the normal to each of the two

nodal planes of P-waves obtained by DILLINGHR and ESPINOSA (1971) as shown

in Fig. 6. Interpreting the directivity of corner frequency in terms of the

present model, we first tried to identify the fault plane between the two nodal

planes. in spite of fairly scattered data their general tendency seems to be in

favor of Plane-1, since the corner frequency is theoretically expected to de-

crease with an increase of θ, like the solid curves in Fig. 6. Judging from the

location of aftershocks and the trace of surface fault (ALLEN et al.; 1971),

Plane-1 is properly considered as the fault plane and Plane-2 as its auxiliary

Fig. 6. Corner frequeucies in Hertz plotted against the angle θ in degree for the San

Fernando, California, earthquake of February 9, 1971. Plane-1 and Plane-2 are

the nodal planes dotermined by DILLINGER and ESPINOSA (1971); δ=50°,φ=

N30°E for Plane-1 and δ=40°, φ=S30°W for Plane-2. Here δ and φ are the dip

angle and the die direction, respectively. The solid line represents the directivity

of corner frequency expected from the present model with v/β=0.9.

 430T. SATO and T. HIRASAWA

one. It is reported that the area outlined by the aftershock zone is roughly

circular with a radius of L=12km (ALLEN et al.; 1971) and the tectonic

movement that occurred during the San Fernando earthquake can reasonably

be explained by the dislocation model with the dimension of 14km by 19km

(MIKUMO; 1973). Taking these into consideration, we assume a circular fault

with a radius of L=10km for the main shock. Then we try to find a suitable

value of rupture velocity which satisfies the observed corner frequencies. A

reasonable agreement between theory and observation is obtained for v/β=0.9.

This is seen in the left of Fig. 6, where the solid curve indicates the theoretical

corner frequency as a function of θ in the case of (L=10km, v/β=0.9). The

same theoretical curve is drawn also in the right figure for the sake of reference.

We wish to thank Prof. Z. Suzuki and Dr.K. Yamamota for their valuable suggestions.
This study was supported partly by Grant in Aid for Scientific Research, the Ministry of

Education of Japan, and partly by the Japan Society for Promotion of Science.

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