Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 33 (2020) 102550

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Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports

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Pigments, incense, and bitumen from the New Kingdom town and cemetery T
on Sai Island in Nubia
Kate Fulchera, , Julia Budkab
⁎

a
Department of Scientific Research, British Museum, Great Russell Street, London WC1B 3DG, United Kingdom
b
Egyptian Archaeology and Art History, LMU Munich, Katharina-von-Bora-Str. 10, 80333 München, Germany

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: An analysis of paints found in ceramic sherd palettes from the 18th Dynasty (1548-1302 BCE) Pharaonic town on
Pigments Sai Island in Upper Nubia using polarised light microscopy and infrared spectroscopy revealed pigments from the
Egyptian blue standard Egyptian repertoire: red and yellow ochres, Egyptian blue, calcite, gypsum, anhydrite, and the bright
Ancient Nubia white huntite. Orange-yellow residues in ceramic sherds from the town were analysed using gas chromato-
Pistacia resin
graphy-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and were identified as Pistacia sp. resin, probably for use as incense. A dark
Bitumen
Canopic jars
organic substance from a vessel in the elite Pharaonic cemetery of the island was analysed using a second GC–MS
Incense method and was shown to be bitumen. Biomarkers in the bitumen indicate that its source may be the same as a
sample from another Pharaonic town in Upper Nubia, suggesting a possible Nubian source. This is one of the
earliest identifications of the use of bitumen in a funerary context in the ancient Nile Valley, and the furthest
southern example yet analysed. Black fluids containing bitumen were used in Egypt as part of the process of
mummification and for funerary anointing rituals; it is likely that the bitumen material at Sai was related to these
practices.

1. Introduction
The 18th Dynasty (1548-1302 BCE) town and cemetery on Sai
Island were the focus of the European Research Council project
AcrossBorders from 2013 to 2017 (Budka, 2020). The project aimed to
build upon research conducted by the French Sai Island Archaeological
Mission (SIAM) in the northern part of the town from 2008 to 2012
(Budka and Doyen, 2013). Two new sectors in the town, SAV1 West and
SAV1 East (Fig. 1), were excavated by the AcrossBorders project
(Budka, 2018a) and yielded pigments and resin, analyses of which are
presented in this paper. Additional samples come from Tomb 26 in
cemetery SAC5. The National Corporation for Antiquities and Museums
in Sudan allows the export of archaeological samples for analysis,
which allowed these pigments and organic residues to be compared to
those analysed from Egypt and other sites in Nubia. Pigments were
analysed using polarised light microscopy and infrared spectroscopy.
Organic materials were analysed using gas chromatography – mass
spectrometry with separate methods to target resins and bitumen.
Third Cataracts in Upper Nubia (Sudan) and was one of the key sites
during the Egyptian 'colonisation' of Nubia in the New Kingdom. The
Pharaonic town on Sai Island in Upper Nubia was built during the 18th
Dynasty on the eastern coast of the island in the typical style of an
Egyptian walled town (Budka, 2017a). The southern part (SAV1),
comprises a temple dedicated to Amun (Temple A) built by Thutmose
III and a residential quarter, excavated by a French mission in the 1950s
and 1970s (Adenstedt, 2016; Azim, 1975; Vercoutter, 1986). With the
town wall, the sandstone temple and other features, the town on Sai
falls into the category of the so-called Nubian temple towns – fortified
towns built in the New Kingdom (Budka, 251–252, 2018b; Vieth,
2018).
Approximately 800 m south of the Pharaonic town, the elite cem-
etery of the New Kingdom population is located. This pyramid ceme-
tery, discovered in the season 1972–73 by the French mission, com-
prises Pharaonic style tombs (Minault-Gout and Thill, 2012). In 2015,
the AcrossBorders project discovered a new shaft tomb, Tomb 26, built
in the 18th Dynasty (Budka, 2017b).

1.1. The archaeological context 1.1.1. SAV1 West

A new site, SAV1 West was opened in line with the western town
Sai Island is located approximately halfway between the Second and gate in 2014 (Budka, 2018a). The aims were to investigate the western

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: KFulcher@britishmuseum.org (K. Fulcher).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102550
Received 30 May 2020; Received in revised form 24 August 2020; Accepted 25 August 2020
Available online 06 September 2020
2352-409X/ © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
K. Fulcher and J. Budka
Fig. 1. Map of New Kingdom town of Sai with excavation sectors SAV1 West and SAV1 East highlighted, squares within sectors which yielded samples are indicated.
Map: Cajetan Geiger for AcrossBorders.
town enclosure, its date, structure and stratigraphic position.
Two trenches were originally laid out, Square 1 (10 × 10 m) and
Square 2 (5 × 15 m). A western (Square 1W, 5 × 10 m), a north-
western (Square 1NW, 2 × 5 m), a southern (Square 1S, 10 × 10 m)
and a southeastern extension (Square 1SE, 6 × 10 m) followed, the
latter with a small eastern addition (Square 1SE_E, 3 × 5 m) (Budka,
2020, 122–151). These squares yielded remains of the western town
enclosure, a so called “wall street” running along the enclosure wall, as
well as six domestic structures of the New Kingdom.
The scattering of the pigment and resin finds from SAV1 West ac-
cording to squares is illustrated in Fig. 2. The pigments found in the
town were on the interior side of dish fragments, which we refer to as
palettes (Fig. 3A). A total of 26 finds, including five not analysed for the
present study, shows quite interesting distribution patterns. A number
of palettes were found in the so called ‘wall street’, thus adjacent to the
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Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 33 (2020) 102550
town enclosure. The majority were found in the debris covering the
small domestic structures east of the enclosure. All in all, the palettes
from SAV1 West were found near the town enclosure and particularly in
ceramic-rich filling layers. Many dozens of ceramic sherds with resin
residue on their interior surface were also found in SAV1 West, both
dishes with flat bases (Fig. 3B) and also burners with tall stands (Budka
2020, 217-2018, fig. 87). Some of these residues had been burnt; we
refer to these as incense burners.
1.1.2. SAV1 East
SAV1 East was opened as a new excavation area in 2013, aiming to
achieve a more complete understanding of the layout of the 18th
Dynasty occupation. The area is located 30–50 m north of the sandstone
temple at the eastern edge of the town (Fig. 1). Fieldwork in SAV1 East
was conducted from 2013 to 2017, opening four different squares with
K. Fulcher and J. Budka
Fig. 2. Distribution of palettes and incense burners (0012/2017, 0423/2015, 0245/2015, P041) in SAV1 West. Map: Cajetan Geiger for AcrossBorders.
various extensions. The area provided new information on the city map
of Sai, yielding a large administrative building (Building A) with several
cellars and magazines datable to the 18th Dynasty (Budka, 70–122,
2020; Budka, 2018a).
The two plaster samples from SAV1 East analysed for the present
study both derive from Square 4 (Fig. 1) and are associated with de-
stroyed parts of Building A. They are most likely parts of former schist
pavements covering magazines with vaulted cellars in the structure
(Budka, 2020, 97).
1.1.3. Tomb 26
Tomb 26 (Fig. 4A) in cemetery SAC5 was fully excavated in three
seasons 2015–2017 (Budka, 2017b). At the base of its shaft, a large
rock-cut room was labelled as Feature 2. Along the north wall of this
chamber, a trench is located (Feature 4, 1.90 × 0.70 × 1.40 m) and
yielded a number of burials. At the bottom of this trench, what is most
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Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 33 (2020) 102550
likely the original burial chamber (Feature 6) opens towards the north.
It was found sealed with flood deposits and was obviously undisturbed
since ancient times. The chamber held two wooden, painted coffins of
which only traces survived in the flood sediments as well as rich burial
equipment of Egyptian style. According to the inscribed finds and the
human remains, the double burial in Feature 6 can be identified as the
overseer of goldsmiths Khnummose (main burial along the north wall)
and an anonymous female, presumably his wife (second burial in the
entrance area). Both are dateable to the 18th Dynasty by stratigraphy,
finds and ceramics, and confirmed by C14 dates.
In the north-western corner of Feature 2 the entrance to a hidden
chamber, concealed by a plastered stone wall, was revealed. This
western chamber, labelled Feature 5, yielded eleven adults and three
infant burials. The burial equipment is again Egyptian in style and the
burials can be dated to the 18th Dynasty (Budka, 2017b, 2019).
Of the eight samples from Tomb 26, one comes from Feature 4, four
K. Fulcher and J. Budka Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 33 (2020) 102550

Fig. 3. (A) Palette containing pigments SAV1W P069.1. (B) Sherd containing resin SAV1W 0423/2015. Photo: Kate Fulcher.

from Feature 5 and three from Feature 6 (Fig. 4B). Those from Feature 4
and 6 are all associated with the decayed coffins – only some plaster
and paint traces were documented during the excavation, the wood
only survived in very few cases due to the heavy and repeated flooding
of Tomb 26.
One sample from Feature 5 is also associated with a coffin (SAC5
432). Another piece of blue (SAC5 393/2017), found below the cranium
of one of the infant burials might also belong to a coffin. However, since
it is unclear whether the infants were deposited in wooden boxes,
painted linen or proper coffins, this remains hypothetical. SAC5 371,
found alongside the right upper body of Individual 245/2017 (a female)
in the northern part of Feature 5, is a mysterious object. It is one of six
small 'stick shaped' fragments of an unclear object(s) (Fig. 5). The bright
blue colour goes all way through without a core. The object is probably
mould made, with one flat surface and the other mostly rounded (the
sides are somewhat angular). Red pigment is visible on the rounded
surface of several of these fragments.
The last sample from Feature 5 is SAC5 352/2017, the dark co-
loured organic remains found in a ceramic vessel. This small vessel
(Fig. 6) was one of a pair placed around the head area of Individual
145/2017, a male person. The vessels are obviously derived from ca-
nopic jars, containers for the inner organs of a mummy – they have
human faces on the vessel neck. The black material from which the
sample was taken almost filled the vessel (Fig. 6); the other vessel
contained no visible residue. Four other smaller “model” canopic jars
were also found around the body, all with lids which were shaped as

Fig. 4. Ground plan of Tomb 26 with (A) relevant features for samples and (B) distribution of samples within the tomb. Map: Cajetan Geiger for AcrossBorders.

4
K. Fulcher and J. Budka
Fig. 5. “Sticks” of Egyptian blue from Feature 5 in Tomb 26, some with red
pigment (above). Photo: Cajetan Geiger for AcrossBorders.
human faces, and all empty (for other types of ceramic canopic jars
from SAC5 see Minault-Gout & Thill, 2012, vol. 2, pl. 131) .
1.2. Pigments and organic residues in ancient Egypt and Nubia
Most scientific analysis of pigments from ancient Egypt have been
conducted on tomb walls and objects in museum collections, including
coffins, the number of studies is extensive (for example, El Goresy,
2000; Lee & Quirke, 2000; Pagès-Camagna & Guichard, 2010). Paint
palettes and lumps of pigment are reported from some domestic and
industrial sites in Egypt, which in some cases have been analysed sci-
entifically (Bruyère, 221–222, 1939; David et al., 2001; Fulcher, 2018;
Kemp and Stevens, 533, 2010; Nicholson, 2007; Pagès-Camagna and
Raue, 2016; Prell, 98–99, 2011; Weatherhead, 1995; Weatherhead and
Buckley, 1989). A recent review of ancient Egyptian pigments
Fig. 6. Vessel SAC5 352/2017 containing bitumen from Feature 5 in Tomb 26. Drawing: AcrossBorders.
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Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 33 (2020) 102550
summarises the known palette (Scott, 2016). Yellow and red ochres are
very commonly observed (Lee and Quirke, 2000; McCarthy, 2001;
Pagès-Camagna and Guichard, 2010). Egyptian blue is usual, although
may indicate some level of status due to the knowledge required for its
manufacture (Hatton et al., 2008; Lee and Quirke, 2000; Rehren et al.,
2001; Shortland, 2000). The use of calcite (calcium carbonate) and
gypsum or anhydrite (calcium sulphate) in Egypt and Nubia is well
attested, both as pigments and plasters or mortars (Anderson and
Ahmed, 2011; Cuezva et al., 2016; Feneuille et al., 2014; Ghorab et al.,
1986; Lacovara and Winkels, 2018; Morgan, 2018; Regourd et al.,
1988; Scott, 6, 2016; Winkels, 2007). Huntite was usually used in more
limited contexts to emphasise white areas in painting schemes (Ambers,
2004; Heywood, 2001). Greens in Egypt are usually identified as
Egyptian green, but there appear to have been a range of greens used,
some of which had an organic component (Liang and Scott, 2014; Scott,
2010); green was not observed at Sai. Black pigments are usually
identified as carbon-based, from burning organic matter (Scott, 2016,
3), but bitumen has also been identified as a pigment, both in Egypt and
Nubia (Fulcher et al., 2020; Siddall, 2011).
Organic materials such as oils and resins were used in ancient Egypt
for incense, varnish, ritual deposits, medicine, mummification, and
application to the coffin and funerary items placed in the tomb. Resin
from Pistacia sp. has been identified in incense burners and storage jars
from Amarna in central Egypt (1353-1336 BCE) (Stern et al., 2003).
Pistacia resin was also used as a varnish on coffins (Serpico and White,
2001). Conifer resin has been identified as the blackened residue on
jugs from the tombs of early dynastic kings (c. 3000 BCE), and the
brown residue in a Middle Kingdom (c. 990-1800 BCE) calcite cylinder
jar (Sarret et al., 2017; Serpico and White, 1998). An analysis of the
contents of jars from the foundation deposits of the 18th Dynasty
mortuary temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahari identified pistacia
resin, conifer resin, a fatty substance (either vegetable oil or animal fat),
and a balsam (Serpico, 2011). The complex black liquid used for
mummification was a mixture of natural products, which varies be-
tween examples, but is always some combination of plant oil, animal
fat, conifer resin, pistacia resin, natural wax (from bees or plants), and
K. Fulcher and J. Budka
bitumen, plus other possible volatile products which can no longer be
detected (Brettell et al., 2017; Buckley et al., 2004; Buckley and
Evershed, 2001; Clark, 2006; Łucejko et al., 2017; 2012 Ménager et al.,
2014; Tchapla et al., 2004). A black liquid application, which is painted
onto funerary items and poured over coffins and mummy cases, appears
to be similar to the mummification mixture, being made of up organic
materials from the same list (Bianucci et al., 2015; Clark, 2006 (ex-
amples within); Fulcher et al., 2020; McCreesh, 2009; Serpico and
White, 2001).
Bitumen is a petroleum product that occurs naturally and was col-
lected by ancient people in the form of a thick liquid from seeps, or
solid masses from, for example, the Dead Sea, where it rose to the
surface, probably following tectonic activity (Nissenbaum, 1978;
Nissenbaum et al., 1980). Most bitumen from ancient Egypt has been
identified as coming from the Dead Sea (Clark et al., 2016; Connan,
1999; Harrell and Lewan, 2002; Łucejko et al., 2017; Maurer et al.,
2002; Nissenbaum, 1992; Nissenbaum and Buckley, 2013; Rullkötter
and Nissenbaum, 1988). Other sources were also used, although ap-
parently less frequently. A seep in Egypt at Gebel Zeit on the southern
shore of the Gulf of Suez, has been matched to black drips on a coffin in
the British Museum EA24906 (Barakat et al., 2005; Harrell and Lewan,
2002; Rullkötter and Nissenbaum, 1988).
2. Methods
All pigment samples were analysed by infrared spectroscopy (IR)
and polarised light microscopy (PLM).
PLM is a widely used technique for the identification of historical
pigments (Eastaugh et al., 2004a; Kakoulli, 2002). The sample is
mounted on a glass microscope slide using Meltmount, a material of
known refractive index (1.662), and is then examined in transmitted
light using a polarised light microscope, at up to 400x magnification.
This method allows the various components present in a pigment to be
observed. For this study the percentage of minerals present has been
estimated by eye from samples examined under the polarised light
microscope. Particles are assessed in both plane polarised light and
crossed-polarised light. Features observed in plane polarised light in-
cluded colour, shape, size, refractive index, relief, and pleochroism
(Eastaugh et al., 2004a). Those observed in crossed-polarised light in-
clude isotropism, birefringence, and extinction (Eastaugh et al., 2004b).
Attenuated total reflectance spectra were taken using the Smart iTR
diamond accessory on the Nicolet 6700 main bench with a DLaGTS
detector. Spectra were acquired over a range of 4000–550 cm−1 using
32 scans at a resolution of 4 cm−1 and automatic gain, and were
identified by comparison with in-built databases and British Museum
reference materials. Before each sample was analysed, a background
analysis was run to remove the effects on the final spectrum of atmo-
spheric water vapour, CO2 and the internal components of the instru-
ment.
Five samples were analysed for organic components using Gas
Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS). Four were from incense
burner sherds found in sector SAV1 West, these had a glossy, pale red to
yellow appearance, and a texture like hard toffee. The sample that came
from the ceramic jar in Tomb 26 was much darker in colour. Based on
their appearance, all were analysed for resinous materials using GC–MS
Method 1, and sample SAC5 352/2017 was also analysed to determine
whether it contained bitumen using GC–MS Method 2.
GC–MS Method 1: Samples were solvent extracted using 1 ml di-
chloromethane (DCM), ultrasonicated and kept at 40 °C for 2 h. The
soluble extract was removed and the process repeated twice. The so-
luble extracts were combined and reduced to dryness under nitrogen.
The samples were prepared for GC–MS analysis by adding 50 µl of the
derivatising agent N,O-Bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide
(BSTFA) + 1% trimethylchlorosilane (TMCS) and warming to 70 °C for
one hour to form trimethylsilyl (TMS) derivatives. Blanks and reference
materials from the British Museum were prepared alongside. 1 µl of
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Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 33 (2020) 102550
each derivatised sample was auto-injected splitless into an SGE HT5
12 m column, internal diameter 0.22 mm, film thickness 0.1 µm, fitted
with a 1 m × 0.53 mm pre-column. The oven was initially isothermal at
50 °C for 2 mins, then ramped up at 10 °C/min to 370 °C and held at this
temperature for 15 mins. The detector was an Agilent 5975 mass
spectrometer using EI at 70 eV. Each sample was analysed twice, first in
scan mode over the range 50–750 amu, then in Selected Ion Monitoring
(SIM) mode targeting different ions over three time periods: 0–15 mins
(aromatics) m/z 105 (benzoic acid), 205 (cinnamic acid), 267 (4 hy-
droxybenzoic acid), 297 (vanillic acid) (Modugno et al., 2006); 15–25
mins (conifer resin, pitch) m/z 219 (pitch), 239 (dehydroabietic acid),
253 (7-oxo-dehydroabietic acid), 459 (15-hydroxy-7-oxo-dehy-
droabietic acid) (Modugno and Ribechini, 2009); 25–35 mins (pistacia
resin) m/z 189 (oleanonic and moronic acid), 409 (moronic acid), 421
(masticadienonic acid and isomer), 526 (M+ for oleanonic, moronic
and masticadienonic acids) (Colombini et al., 2012). Data was analysed
using MassHunter software and the NIST MS Search Program v.2.3.
A further targeted analysis was undertaken on the four samples from
the town using a longer column to search for particular biomarkers. 1 µl
of each derivatised sample was auto-injected splitless into an Agilent
30 m HP5-MS column, internal diameter 0.25 mm, film thickness
0.25 µm. The oven was set at 60 °C, ramped 10 °C/min to 200 °C, and
then at 3 °C/min to 325 °C and held for 5 mins. The detector was an
Agilent 5977 mass spectrometer using EI at 70 eV. Each sample was
analysed twice, first in scan mode over the range 50–800 amu, then in
Selected Ion Monitoring (SIM) mode targeting ions m/z 189 (oleanonic
and moronic acid), 203 (oleanonic and moronic acid), 408 (oleanonic
acid), 409 (moronic acid), 421 (masticadienonic acid and isomer), 511
(masticadienonic acid and isomer), 526 (M+ for oleanonic, moronic
and masticadienonic acids). Data was analysed using MassHunter
software and the NIST MS Search Program v.2.3.
GC–MS Method 2: The sample was solvent extracted three times
using 1 ml DCM as in the method above, then de-ashphalted by adding
1 ml hexane and leaving the asphaltenes to settle out overnight. The
resultant maltene extract was removed and dried under a stream of
nitrogen. This extract was fractionated using solid phase separation in a
column. The column was a glass pipette held upright and plugged with
glass wool and half filled with dried silica (chromatography grade
60–120 µm, pre-extracted with DCM/methanol 97:3, followed by
hexane, then oven dried) to which hexane was added to exclude
moisture. The extract was dissolved in 100 µl hexane and slowly added
to the column. The first fraction was extracted using 3 ml hexane wa-
shed through the pipette; the second using 3 ml DCM:hexane 1:3; the
third using 3 ml DCM:methanol 2:1. Each fraction was collected at the
base of the pipette and dried under nitrogen. The first elute was re-
dissolved in hexane and auto-injected into a 30 m Agilent HP5-MS
column, internal diameter 0.25 mm, film 0.25 µm. The oven was set at
60 °C for 2 mins, ramped 4 °C / min to 290 °C, and held for 30.5 min.
The gas column was coupled to an Agilent 5973 mass spectrometer,
using EI at 70 eV. Each sample was analysed twice, first in scan mode
over the range 50–550 amu, then in Selected Ion Monitoring (SIM)
mode targeting ions: 191 (hopanes and tricyclic terpanes), and 217
(steranes) (Peters et al., 2005). Data was obtained by integration of the
peaks using MassHunter software.
3. Results
3.1. Pigments
All yellows from all locations were identified as iron oxides, often
with associated quartz (Table 1), as would be expected for a yellow
ochre (Helwig, 2007; Hradil et al., 2003). Most of the yellow pigments
from the palettes were mixed with gypsum to make a yellow plaster.
FTIR spectra gave peaks for kaolinite (Supplementary Fig. 1), consistent
with an ochre (Eastaugh et al., 407, 2004a; Elias et al., 2006; Genestar
and Pons, 2005), and are very similar to FTIR spectra for yellow ochres
K. Fulcher and J. Budka Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 33 (2020) 102550

Table 1
Results of analysis of pigments from town and Tomb 26, organised by colour.
Sample no. Location Object Minerals present (%)

Yellow SAV1W 1244/2016 SAV1W, Sq. 1SE Palette Yellow iron oxide (50), gypsum (50)
SAV1W 0452/2015 SAV1W, Sq. 1S Palette Gypsum (95), yellow iron oxide (5)
SAV1W 1233/2016 SAV1W, Sq. 1SE Palette Yellow iron oxide (50), organic material (50)
SAV1W P045 SAV1W, Sq. 1 Palette Gypsum (70), calcite (18), quartz (10), yellow iron oxide (2)
SAV1W P048 SAV1W, Sq. 1 Palette Gypsum (80), yellow iron oxide (15), calcite (5)
SAV1W P047 SAV1W, Sq. 1 Palette Yellow iron oxide (25), gypsum (25), calcite (25), quartz (25)
SAV1W 0338/2015 SAV1W, Sq. 1S Pigment Yellow iron oxide (95), quartz (5)
SAV1W P069.1 SAV1W, Sq. 1 Palette Gypsum (90), quartz (5), yellow iron oxide (3), calcite (2)
SAC5 432 SAC5, Tomb 26, F5 Pigment from decayed coffin Yellow iron oxide (60), quartz (40)
Red SAV1W 0550/2015 SAV1W, Sq. 1S Palette Red iron oxide (50), quartz (50)
SAV1W P042 SAV1W, Sq. 1 Palette Gypsum (98), red iron oxide (2)
SAV1W P069.1 SAV1W, Sq. 1 Palette Red iron oxide (90), quartz (10)
White SAV1W P205 SAV1W, Sq. 1S Palette Anhydrite (100)
SAV1W 0012/2017 SAV1W, Sq. 1SE Palette Anhydrite (100)
SAV1W P051 SAV1W, Sq. 1 Palette Anhydrite (99), calcite (1)
SAV1W 1291/2016 SAV1W, Sq. 1SE Palette Anhydrite (98), calcite (2)
SAV1W 0650/2015 SAV1W, Sq. 1S Palette Huntite (98), quartz (2)
SAV1E 2380/2014 SAV1E, Sq. 4 Loose floor plaster Anhydrite (100)
SAV1E 205/2014 SAV1E, Sq. 4 Loose floor plaster Anhydrite (100)
SAC5 229/2017 SAC5, Tomb 26, F6 Coffin plaster Calcite (50), gypsum (50)
SAC5 219/2017 SAC5, Tomb 26, F6 Coffin pigment Calcite (98), quartz (2)
Blue SAV1W 0230/2015 SAV1W, Sq. 1S Palette Egyptian blue (100)
SAC5 091/2017 SAC5, Tomb 26, F4 Paint from coffin fallen onto skull Egyptian blue (100)
SAC5 393/2017 SAC5, Tomb 26, F5 Pigment Egyptian blue (100)
SAC5 218/2017 SAC5, Tomb 26, F6 Coffin paint Egyptian blue (90), calcite (10)
SAC5 371 SAC5, Tomb 26, F5 “blue stick” Egyptian blue (100)

from Amara West (Fulcher, 2018). In plane polarised light fine trans-
lucent yellow particles were observed, adhering to and in combination
with quartz; in crossed polars the birefringence was masked by the
strong body colour (Supplementary Fig. 2; Eastaugh et al., 2004a, 141).
All three reds sampled came from palettes excavated from the town
in sector SAV1 West, and all were iron oxide (Table 1). As with the
yellow samples, FTIR spectra gave peaks for kaolinite (Supplementary
Fig. 3), again consistent with an ochre (Eastaugh et al., 2004a, 326). In
plane polarised light fine translucent brownish-red particles were ob-
served, again adhering to and in combination with quartz; under
crossed polars the interference colours were masked by the red body
colour (Supplementary Fig. 4). In two cases quartz was also present, as
would be expected for red ochre. In one case the red pigment was mixed
with gypsum to create a red plaster.
Four white samples were 100% gypsum or anhydrite (Table 1.).
Both gypsum and anhydrite are calcium sulphate; anhydrite is the de-
hydrated form of gypsum, the two can be distinguished between using
FTIR (Supplementary Fig. 5; Genestar & Pons, 2005) and PLM
(Eastaugh et al., 2004b, 291, 295). Two white samples consisted of
almost 100% anhydrite with a very small inclusion of calcite. Calcite is
distinctive in PLM due to its variable relief in plane polarised light, and
high birefringence and strong interference colours under crossed polars
(Eastaugh et al., 2004b, 277). Of two white samples taken from Tomb
26, one was a 50:50 mix of gypsum and calcite, and the other an almost
pure calcite. These much higher levels of calcite suggest that it was
being added deliberately in funerary contexts. The use of pure gypsum/
anhydrite and pure calcite in individual contexts suggests that these
were not co-occurring minerals, but were mined and used separately.
One sample of white from a palette was identified as huntite, a
magnesium calcium carbonate. Particles observed in plane polarised
light were clear and colourless and very fine, aggregating in pom-poms
(Eastaugh et al. 2004a, 289). The FTIR spectrum (Fig. 7A) gave clear
peaks for huntite (Maravelaki-Kalaitzaki and Kallithrakas-Kontos,
2003).
The five samples of blue were all identified as Egyptian blue
(Table 1) by FTIR (Fig. 7B; Mazzocchin et al., 2004; Mirti et al., 1995)
and PLM (Supplementary Fig. 6). Under plane polarised light translu-
cent pale blue particles were observed, that were pleochroic to
colourless. Under cross polars the particles were strongly birefringent,
masked by the blue body colour (Eastaugh et al., 2004a, 23). The blue
sample from the coffin also contained calcite, which was probably
contamination from the coffin plaster.
3.2. Organic residues
Of the five samples that were analysed for resinous material, the
four from incense burners from SAV1 West in the New Kingdom town
were found to contain a triterpenoid plant resin, in all cases identifiable
as Pistacia sp. resin, sometimes referred to as mastic (Table 2;
Supplementary Fig. 7). The many species of pistacia cannot be differ-
entiated using this method (). Of the components of pistacia resin, three
are considered to be diagnostic: moronic acid, masticadienonic acid,
and isomasticadienonic acid. Pistacia resin also contains oleanonic acid
but this alone is not diagnostic as it also occurs in other triterpenoid
resins such as dammar (Colombini et al., 2000; Modugno and Ribechini,
2009). The compound 28-norolean-17-en-3-one was detected in two
samples: SAV1W 012/2017 and SAV1W 0245/2015, discussed below.
No biomarkers for conifer resin (dehydroabietic acid and its deriva-
tives) were detected in any of the samples. 4-hydroxybenzoic acid was
detected in the four incense burners, but vanillic acid, cinnamic acid
and benzoic acid were not detected in any samples. The presence of 4-
hydroxybenzoic acid without other aromatic compounds is non-diag-
nostic and has been reported as a component in parts of the pistacia
plant (Barrecaa et al., 2016; Saitta et al., 2014). Sample SAC5 352/2017
from the jar in Tomb 26 contained no resin detectable using these
methods.
Using GC–MS Method 2, SAC5 352/2017 was found to contain
hopanes (m/z 191) and steranes (m/z 217), which are markers for bi-
tumen (Fig. 8) (Connan and Dessort, 1991; Peters et al., 2005;
Rullkötter and Nissenbaum, 1988). The patterns of hopanes and ster-
anes and the relative abundance of biomarkers in the sample can be
compared to that for reference samples from known bitumen sources to
try to ascertain the geological source of the bitumen (Figs. 8 and 9;
Table 3). The sample from Sai is not a good match for the Dead Sea, the
gammacerane is too low, the Ts/Tm ratio too high, and the diasteranes
too high (compare, for example, Connan & Nissenbaum, 2004). The

7
K. Fulcher and J. Budka
Fig. 7. FTIR spectra in the region 4000–550 cm−1 of (A) sample from SAV1W 0650/2015, peaks indicate huntite (1505, 1432, 1112, 890, 866, 743); (B) sample from
SAV1W 0230/2015, peaks indicate Egyptian blue (1159, 1047, 998, 793, 755, 662, 594). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
pattern of biomarkers observed for Sai SAC5 352/2017 also does not
align with those for the seep from Gebel Zeit. However, the results are
similar to a sample from Amara West (PS121 in Fig. 9), a Ramesside
town (inhabited c. 1250–800 BCE) approximately 15 km downstream
from the 18th Dynasty town on Sai Island (Fulcher et al., 2020).
4. Discussion
The pigments identified from Sai are commonly recognised in other
Egyptian contexts and have also been found in palettes and on coffins at
the Pharaonic town of Amara West, a neighbouring site of Sai in Upper
Nubia (Fulcher, 2018). The loose floor plaster from the schist floor in
SAV1 East was found to be anhydrite (anhydrous calcium sulphate),
which partially concurs with a previous analysis of floor plaster from
the same area, which concluded that both gypsum (calcium sulphate)
and lime were used in the making of plaster at New Kingdom Sai
(Budka, 2020, 269–273). Anhydrite and gypsum occur naturally to-
gether in “gypsite” soils that were likely the source of most calcium
8
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 33 (2020) 102550
sulphate in ancient Egypt (Harrell, 2017). No lime was detected in the
sample analysed for this study, suggesting that either the plaster was
not of the same batch, or it was not homogenous. It appears that calcite
pigment (calcium carbonate) at Sai was reserved for coffins, whereas
calcium sulphate (either gypsum or anhydrite) was used in the town. A
similar pattern of usage of these two whites was observed at Amara
West, the town walls were plastered in white gypsum, or gypsum mixed
with yellow or red ochre, whereas the coffins were frequently plastered
with calcite (Fulcher, 2018). The bright white mineral huntite was
found in one palette at Sai, suggesting a more limited use, perhaps for
painting details rather than large areas. An interpretation of the palettes
from SAV1 West, according to their intriguing clustering along the town
enclosure, would be that these are associated with producing plaster
and paint for decorating mud brick buildings. In respect to recent finds
in the Middle Kingdom fortress of Shalfak (Näser et al., 2017), and the
painted town gate at Amara West (Spencer, 2017), it is possible that the
enclosure wall of Sai was also once painted. At SAV1 West, no proof
was, however, found on the enclosure itself. In the northern part of the
K. Fulcher and J. Budka Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 33 (2020) 102550

Table 2 town of Sai, SAV1 North, a white plaster surface coating that covered
Compounds identified in organic material by GC–MS. the southern facing of the town enclosure was observed (Adenstedt,
Sample no. Location Compounds identified Identification of 2018). As part of the rubbish fill of the streets and domestic structures,
material the palettes may also have been discarded after being used to decorate
houses or coffins, as seen at Amara West (Fulcher, 2018).
SAV1W 012/ SAV1W, Sq. Oleanonic acid Pistacia sp.
Examples of red and yellow ochre were more common in the town
2017 1SE Masticadienonic acid
Isomasticadienonic acid
palettes, whereas Egyptian blue was more likely to be found in the
28-norolean-17-en-3-one tomb, which suggests it was a more prestigious pigment, saved for
SAV1W 0423/ SAV1W, Sq. Oleanonic acid Pistacia sp. special uses such as decorating coffins. The function of the sticks of
2015 1 Tr. Moronic acid Egyptian blue is completely unknown and there are no published par-
Masticadienonic acid
allels attested (for different shapes of Egyptian blue pigments see, e.g.,
Isomasticadienonic acid
SAV1W 0245/ SAV1W, Sq. Oleanonic acid Pistacia sp. Weatherhead & Buckley 1989, 210–214).The Egyptian blue stick may
2015 1S Moronic acid be an example of raw material formed into a convenient shape for
Masticadienonic acid transport and usage.
Isomasticadienonic acid
Pistacia sp. resin was identified in four incense burner sherds from
28-norolean-17-en-3-one
SAV1W P041 SAV1W, Sq. Oleanonic acid Pistacia sp.
the town. Many examples of incense burners have been excavated from
1 Tr. Moronic acid domestic contexts at Sai, the majority at SAV1 West (Budka 2020, 217-
Masticadienonic acid 2018, fig. 87). The compound 28-norolean-17-en-3-one, which has been
Isomasticadienonic acid used as a marker for heating of pistacia resin (Serpico and White, 2001,
SAC5 352/ SAC5, Tomb Hopanes and steranes Bitumen
2000), was identified in two of the resin samples, one of which had a
2017 26, F5
distinctly darker colour (Supplementary Fig. 8). However, the same
compound was not identified in incense that visibly appeared to be
burnt from the ancient Egyptian town of Amarna (Stern et al., 2003);

Fig. 8. Partial chromatograms for sample SAC5 352/2017. SIM for m/z 191 showing terpanes (20/3 to 30/3), hopanes (29αβH to 34αβH), 31–35 in R and S
configurations (R for C33 and S for C35 obscured by larger peaks), 18α-22,29,30-trisnorneohopane (Ts), 17α-22,29,30-trisnorhopane (Tm), and gammacerane
(GCR). SIM for m/z 217 showing steranes.

9
K. Fulcher and J. Budka
this anomaly is yet to be explained. The Amarna study observed com-
pounds at m/z 453 in the chromatograms of the burnt resin, and sug-
gested these as alternative molecular indicators of heating; these were
not present in the Sai samples. Heating experiments carried out by Stern
et al. (2003) concluded that 28-norolean-17-en-3-one was produced
when modern samples of pistacia resin were heated, so its presence
should probably be taken as evidence of heating; yet it appears not to be
uniformly present in burnt archaeological resins, so its absence cannot
be used as evidence for a lack of heating. All in all, the ceramic as-
semblage from SAV1 West, the archaeological findspots of the incense
burner sherds with resin and the parallels from Amarna suggest that
Pistacia resin was used as incense in the New Kingdom town of Sai.
Pistacia trees are not native to Egypt, and it is likely that the resin was
imported. An analysis of the ceramic fabric of the transport vessels at
Amarna used for pistacia resin indicates that the resin at that site was
imported from the area around modern Haifa, which accords with the
suspected native habitats of ancient resin-producing species (Serpico
et al., 2003; Serpico and White, 2000). Imported storage vessels from
the southern Levant are also present at Sai (Budka, 2020, 202), al-
though these do not contain visible traces of resin.
The presence of bitumen in the ceramic vessel from Tomb 26 is
intriguing. Bitumen has been identified from ancient Egypt as one
component of mummification balm (Clark et al., 2016; Connan, 1999;
Harrell and Lewan, 2002; Łucejko et al., 2017; Maurer et al., 2002;
Nissenbaum, 1992; Nissenbaum and Buckley, 2013; Rullkötter and
Nissenbaum, 1988), and also as a component of a ritually applied black
liquid that is very similar to mummification balm (Fulcher et al., 2020;
Serpico and White, 2001). Such liquids, that have been applied during
the funeral rather than during mummification, are known in Egypt at
least from the 18th Dynasty onwards, for example poured over the
middle coffin of Tutankhamun (Carter, 2014). However, only bitumen
Table 3
Hopane ratio data used in Fig. 9.
Ts/Tm
SAC5 352/2017 from Sai Island 0.6
PS121 from Amara West 0.3
Gebel Zeit from Barakat et al. (2005) 1.3
Dead Sea from reference collection at the British Museum 0.1
10
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 33 (2020) 102550
Fig. 9. Radar diagram of four biomarkers
from the sample from Sai containing bi-
tumen (SAC5 352/2017), sample PS121
from a palette from Amara West (Fulcher
et al., 2020), and two references (Dead Sea
from a reference sample in the British Mu-
seum Reference Collection, Gebel Zeit from
Barakat et al., 2005). Data shown in
Table 3.
was identified in the Sai sample, whereas the other examples that have
been analysed were mixtures.
The vessel containing the bitumen material at Sai appears to be
associated with or related to canopic jars, based on the modelling of its
neck, to resemble a head as seen on the lids of standard canopic jars,
and its placement in the tomb. Canopic-type jars are rare in New
Kingdom Nubia, even from elite tombs, and may have been used in a
way that was not directly correlated with their use in Egypt, but instead
a locally developed system of consumption and display within Nubia, or
even more locally at Sai, in a phenomenon that has been referred to as
“entangled objects” (Lemos, 2018; Spence, 2019). Although there is
evidence in New Kingdom Nubia for interest in the preservation of the
body in the form of body wrappings and masks, there is not yet any
evidence for the preservation of body tissue through the use of mum-
mification (Lemos, 2020, 14; Spence, 2019, 559). There is limited
evidence for the practice of using the ritual black anointing liquid,
poured over the outside of a wrapped body, from shrouds in a mid-18th
Dynasty tomb at Aniba, and associated with linen and coffin fragments
in two tombs at Amara West of 19th and 20th Dynasty date (Fulcher
et al., 2020; Lemos, 2020, 15). The identification of a black residue
containing bitumen within a vessel at Sai is an interesting addition to
this corpus. Two pieces of black material were also found in close as-
sociation with the body associated with the vessel. One piece came from
the general area of the body, one from the right upper leg. However, the
body was skeletal with no wrappings, and none of the soft tissues were
preserved, which suggests that this was not an attempt at mummifica-
tion. The black fragments on the body may indicate an application of
the ritual black anointing liquid as seen at Aniba and Amara West.
The earliest mummification balms containing bitumen that have
been analysed so far date to the 19th Dynasty (Clark, 2006, EA48001;
Connan and Dessort, 1991, no.192). Bitumen was identified in one 18th
GCR/C30αβH Ol/C30αβH C29αβH/C30αβH
0.2 0.1 1.0
0.2 0.1 1.0
0.1 0.3 0.5
0.6 0.00 0.9
K. Fulcher and J. Budka
Dynasty example of black varnish on a canopic box in the British Mu-
seum (Serpico & White 2001, EA35808), although the source of the
bitumen was not determined. The 18th Dynasty date of the Sai bitumen
makes it one of the earliest definitive identifications of the funerary use
of bitumen in the Nile Valley, and the furthest southern example so far
known. The biomarkers in the Sai sample are quite a good match for
those from one sample from Amara West (PS121, see Fulcher et al.,
2020). This may indicate that another source of bitumen was being
exploited during the New Kingdom. The source of this bitumen has not
yet been identified, but given that the only samples with this set of
biomarkers have been found in Upper Nubia, it might suggest that a
local source of bitumen was being exploited in Nubia at this time.
However, given that there are only two samples, caution must be taken
in any interpretation, and further research is required.
5. Conclusions
The pigments from the 18th Dynasty town on Sai Island conform to
the expected types of pigment from Egyptian contexts of this date. Their
findspots indicate that they may have been used to decorate walls
within the town. The plasters found in palettes in the town and from the
schist floor are gypsum or its dehydrated form, anhydrite, which is also
in line with Egyptian practice. The presence of huntite in a palette is
interesting, as it is thought that this bright white pigment was generally
used in smaller areas and reserved for painting vignettes or designs.
Multiple incense burners have been found at Sai containing a yellowish
resin. The four examples analysed for this study identified pistacia
resin, and it seems likely that pistacia was being imported from the
Levant to burn as incense, as is also evidenced at Amarna. The presence
of a ceramic jar containing a black bitumen material from Tomb 26 on
Sai raises interesting questions about the use of black anointing fluid in
New Kingdom Nubia. There are a few instances of black funerary li-
quids used in Nubia at this time, but currently no evidence for the
preservation of bodily tissues via mummification. This is a significant
difference in the treatment of the dead from Egypt, where mummifi-
cation was a widespread, if elite only, practice.
6. Data availability
All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting
Information files. Raw data files are held in the archives of the British
Museum, Department of Scientific Research (Project Record no. 7671-
Sai) and can be viewed by contacting KF or science@thebritishmu-
seum.ac.uk.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Kate Fulcher: Data curation, Formal analysis, Resources,
Investigation, Methodology, Visualization, Writing - original draft,
Writing - review & editing. Julia Budka: Project administration,
Funding acquisition, Resources, Supervision, Writing - review &
editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The AcrossBorders project by Julia Budka has received funding by
the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh
Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013), ERC Grant Agreement no.
313668. Permission to export the samples to Germany was kindly
11
Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 33 (2020) 102550
granted by the National Corporation for Antiquities and Museums,
Sudan (NCAM) and sincere thanks go to Abdelrahman Ali Mohamed
(then Director General), El-Hassan Ahmed Mohamed (Director of
Fieldwork) and also Huda Magzoub (AcrossBorders’ NCAM inspector,
2013–2017). Analyses were undertaken at the British Museum during a
PhD funded by the AHRC (Ref. 1350956) and a post-doctoral position
funded by the Wellcome Trust (Grant ref: 097365/Z/11/Z). Support
staff at the museum were funded by the Wellcome Trust. Many thanks
to the reviewers whose helpful comments significantly improved the
paper.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102550.
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