MEASUREMENT

MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION

The terms measurement and evaluation are used interchangeably. ‘Measurement’ refers to
the process of assigning numerals to events, objects etc., according to certain rules. Tyler
(1963,7) defines measurement as “assignment of numerals, according to rules”. According
to Nunnally (1970,7) “Measurement consists of rules for assigning numbers to objects in
such a way to represent quantities of attributes.” Nunnally reveals the following main
properties of measurement:
1. In process of measurement, numbers are assigned according to some rules. A
number is a kind of numeral to which is assigned some quantitative meaning. In
measurement, the investigator assigns numbers, not of his choice, but according to
certain fixed and explicit rules. Rules are the procedures to transform qualities of
attributes into numbers (Nunnally et al.) Rules are of different types. One type is
where the procedure is obvious and explicit.
2. Measurement is always concerned with certain attributes or features of the object.
Attributes or features of the object are measured not the subject itself. For example:
we measure aptitude, personality of the person, not the person himself. When the
investigator is measuring the attribute of the person, he is faced with two difficulties.
First, he may asked to measure an attribute, the existence of which is doubtful, such
as Extra-sensory perception. Second, he may asked to measure attributes which are
not unitary, rather a mixture of several attributes such as personality adjustment.
3. In the process of measurement, numerals are used to represent quantities of the
attributes. Measurement involves the process of qualification. Qualification indicates
how much or to what extent that particular attribute is present in a particular object.
For example: Investigator is measuring the achievement of child in arithmetic, he
quantifies by saying 80% has child gained in his class. The percentage indicates how
much of arithmetic knowledge he has gained in class.
Measurement is different from synonym “evaluation”. Evaluation means appraisal or
assessment with respect to some standard. Tuckman (1975,12) defines evaluation as “a
process wherein the parts, processes or outcomes of a programme are examined to see
whether they are satisfactory, particularly with refence to the programme’s stated
objectives, our own expectations or our own standards of excellence.” Thus, evaluation
involves a process of appraisal of an object with refence to some standard. The standard
may be social, cultural or scientific. The standard may also be true or arbitrary. Example:
when the child is said to be short or the typist is classified as a ‘Grade A’ typist, it means the
performance of the typist and the height of a child are being compared with refence to
some standard.
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT (OR MEASUREMENT SCALES)
A Postulate is defined as a sort of assumption which stipulates the relationship between
groups, objects or events being measured. Postulates helps to understand the different
relationships among the objects measured by the different levels of measurement scales.
According to Guilford (1954,11), there are nine basic postulates of measurement. There are
three general headings.
1.Postulates relating to equalities or identities
2. Postulates relating to rank order
3. Postulates relating to additivity
There are three postulates relating to equalities or identities, two variations in postulates
relating to rank order and four variations in postulates relating to additivity. Thus, a total of
nine postulates of measurement exists.
The three variations in postulates relating to identities or equalities are as follows:
1. Either a=b or a≠b. This means numbers are either equal (a=b) or they are not equal
(a≠b) but not both. This postulate is more essential for classification.
2. If a=b then b=a. This means that the relation of equality among numbers is
symmetrical, and therefore we can interchange a for b and b for a.
3. If a=b, b=c then a=c. This means that the objects which are equal to the same object
are also equal to one another.
The two postulates relating to rank are:
4. If a>b the b>a. This means that the relation between a and b is asymmetrical. That is,
we cannot reverse the relationship a> b or a<b interchanging a and b.
5. If a>b, b>c the a>c. This is a transitivity postulate and indicates a definite order in
ranking. This is an important postulate on which most psychology, sociology and
education are dependent.
The four postulates relating to additivity are:
6. If a=p and b>0 then a+b>p. This postulate indicates the summation process and also
demonstrates that when a zero is added, it produces no variability in the result.
7. A+b= b+a. This postulate denotes that process of addition, the order of numbers is
not important because if a=4, b=2, then 4+2=6 and 2+4=6.
8. If a=p and b=q then a+b=p+q. This postulate indicates that process od addition,
identical numbers or objects may be substituted for one another without making any
change in result.
9. (a+b)+c=a+(b+c). This postulate indicates that process of addition, the order of
combinations of objects or numbers makes no difference.
Stevens (1951), there are four ways assigning numerals to the attributes of objects. Based
on these four ways, there are four different levels of measurement or scales. The first five
are enough for four levels of measurement.
Nominal or Classificatory Scale of Measurement: The simplest and most basic type and the
lowest type of measurement is what Stevens called a nominal scale. It is a nonquantitative
scale of measurement. A nominal scale uses symbols, such as words or numbers to classify
or categorize the values of a variable into groups or types. In nominal measurement,
members of any two groups are never equivalent but all members of any group are always
equivalent and this equivalence is reflexive, transitive and symmetrical. Nominal
measurement statistical measurements are counting, percentage, mode etc. while addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division are not possible. Drawbacks: It is most elementary
and simple. It is the least precise method of quantification.
Ordinal Scale of Measurement: This is the second level of measurement in which there is a
property of magnitude but not of equal intervals or an absolute zero. In this numbers
denote the rank order of the individuals. Numbers are arranged from highest to lowest or
vice versa. It allows you to determine which person is higher or lower but doesn’t allow you
to know exactly how much higher or lower a person is as compared to another. Socio-
economic status is a good example. In this, relationship of greater than is usually irreflexive,
transitive and asymmetrical. The permissible statistical operations are median, rank
correlation percentiles and all included in nominal measurement. Drawbacks: Ordinal
measures are not absolute quantities nor they convey the distance between the rank values
is equal. There is no way to ascertain whether a person has any of the characteristics being
measured.
Interval or Equal-Interval Scale of Measurement: It is the third level of measurement and
includes all characteristics of nominal and ordinal scales. The salient feature of this
measurement is that numerically equal distances on the scale indicate equal distances. The
unit of measurement is constant and equal, therefore known as equal- interval
measurement. Since the numbers are after equal intervals they can be added and
subtracted from each other. Fahrenheit and Celsius are good examples. The difference
between 1⁰ and 2⁰ is same amount of temperature. The distance between adjacent points
on interval scale is equal, it does not possess absolute zero point. The zero point is
somewhat arbitrary. The difference between numbers reflects magnitude which are
meaningless. If a person scores zero in numerical aptitude test, does not mean he has no
knowledge of numerical operations. Psychological tests and inventories are interval scales.
Statistics used in this are arithmetic mean, SD, Pearson r etc. F-test and T-tests can be
applied. Only statistics coefficient of variation cannot be used.
Ratio Scale of Measurement: It is the highest level of measurement and has all properties
of nominal, ordinal and equal interval scale plus absolute or true zero point. Ration scale is
that ratio of any two numbers independent of unit of measurement. Example: The ratio of
16:28 is equal to 4:7. In this, all nine postulates can be applied and all statistical operations
can be applied including coefficient of variation. Weight, length, loudness etc. are examples
of ratio scale. Distinction between Interval scale and ratio scale is that in former, the zero
point is arbitrary and in latter, the zero point is true. Temperature in Celsius and Fahrenheit
an example of interval scale and length is feet and inches is an example of ratio scale.
PROPERTIES OF SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
There are three important properties that make scale of measurement different from one
another- magnitude, equal intervals and absolute zero.
1.Magnitude: It is defined as the property of “moreness”. Any scale is said to have the
property of magnitude if it can be said that particular instance of the attribute represents
more, less or equal amounts of the given quantity that does another instance. (Mc Call,
1994)
2.Equal Intervals: A scale has the property of equal intervals if the difference between any
two points at any place on the same scale has the same meaning as the difference between
two other points that differ by the same number of scale units. When the scale really has
the property of equal intervals, the relationship between the measured units and some
outcome can be described by a straight-line equation in the form of y= a +bx. This equation
shows that an increase in equal units on a given scale reflects equal increases in the
meaningful correlates of the units. (Kaplan& Saccuzzo, 2001)
3.Absolute Zero: An Absolute Zero is said to exist when nothing of the property being
measured exists. For example: If a psychologist wants to assess shyness on the scale from 0
through 5, it is very hard to define what it means for a person to have absolutely no
shyness. These are the basic attributes of scales of measurement over which all the four
scales of measurements, by Stevens, differ from each other.
FUNCTIONS OF MEASUREMENT
IN SELECTION: The function of measurement tools in selection to predict the ability of the
individual. Sometimes selected personnel fail to prove their mettle thus measurement
helps to take action such as dismissal, suspension etc.
IN CLASSIFICATION: Measurement helps in various types of classification, which is
necessary for programme to work effectively. Like, a psychiatrist wishes to classify patients
in different mental illness he is helped by the tool of measurement.
IN COMPARISON: The re always exist individual differences in traits, mental processes,
abilities, etc. between two individuals. Whenever any two persons are compared on any of
above factor’s measurement come in use.
IN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING: Measurement helps in guidance and counselling.
Counselling is a specialized guidance programme and refers to advise to individual to arrive
at workable solution to adjustment problems. Measurement helps individuals to know their
strengths and weaknesses and also helps in diagnose mental disabilities, deficiencies, etc.
IN RESEARCH: It helps in research activities also. Research is the investigation undertaken
to discover new facts about problem. In researches, effect of one variable or variables is
studied while effect of other variables are controlled. Variety of measurements are restored
to confirm the design, statistical calculation, results, etc.
IN IMPROVING CLASSROOM INSTRUCTIONS: By measuring the outcome of instruction, it
becomes clear how many students are benefitted by instructions and how many are not or
least benefitted by it. After analysis some essential suggestions for modification in
instruction can be made.
ETHICS IN RESEARCH
Introduction: Ethics is the study of proper action. Research ethics concerns the
responsibility of researchers to be honest and respectful to all individuals who may be
affected by their research studies or their reports of the studies results. Section 8 of the
Ethics Code was adopted by the APA in Oct 2002 as its official position on research and
publication. The basic categories of ethical responsibility is responsibility to the human and
non-human individuals who participate in the research study responsibility to the discipline
of science.
ETHICAL ISSUES MUST BE CONSIDERED AT EACH STEP IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS: What
measurement techniques may be used for certain individuals? How researchers select
individuals to participate in studies? Which research strategies and designs may be used
with populations and behaviors? How studies may be carried out with individuals? How
results are reported?
Good Ends Bad Ends
Good Means Ethical Research Subjective Ethics (Backfires)
Bad Means Machiavellian Research Unethical Research
Ethical Matrix for social science Research
Ethical Issues and Human Participants in Research
NO HARM: The researcher is obligated to protect participants from physical or
psychological harm. Psychological harm is in which participants may feel increased anxiety,
anger, lower self- esteem especially in situations where they feel that they have been
cheated or insulted. Any risk of harm must be justified. Participants must be informed of
any potential risks.
INSTITUTIONAL APPROVAL: There is requirement that all human research be reviewed by
an IRB dates back to 1966.  The surgeon general initiated an institutional review
requirement at the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (DHEW). This policy was
extended to all investigations funded by the Public Health Service. By 1973, the DHEW
regulations governing human research required a review by an IRB for all research receiving
Public Health Service funds. This means that all institutions had to establish an IRB and file
an assurance policy with the OPRR of the Department of Health and Human Services. Once
this assurance policy is approved, it becomes a legal document. Ethical Standard 8.01 of the
Ethics Code specifies that, when such institutional approval is required, psychologists must
provide accurate information about their research proposal, receive approval from the IRB,
and then conduct the research in accordance with the approved protocol.
INFORMED CONSENT: It refers to fully informing the research participants about all aspects
of study. Human participants should be given complete information about the research
from purpose and procedures to any risks and benefits and their role in it. They should
understand the information and then voluntarily decide whether or not to participate. They
should be given:
Information: If not possible to provide the subject with information about the purpose of
the study, then we can explain to them at least exactly what will be done.
Understanding: Some participants may not be competent to understand the research e.g.,
children. Therefore, it is necessary to provide the information to the parent or a guardian.
Voluntary Participation: Participants decide to participate of their own free will (no
obligation because of a teacher or a professor asked them to do so.)
Dispensing with Informed Consent: The ideal procedure is to fully inform participants
about research but ethics code recognizes that there might be times when participants
dispense with informed consent. Federal guidelines as well as APA’s Ethical Code, Standard
8.05 recognizes the necessity of sometimes forgoing the requirement of informed consent
but only under specific and limited conditions.
Informed consent and minors: Standard 3.10(b)(4) states that permission must be obtained
from a legally authorized person, if this substitute consent is permitted or required by law.
In most instances, the substitute consent is obtained from the minor’s parents or legal
guardians after they have been informed of all the features of the study that might affect
their willingness to allow their child to participate. Standard 3.10(b) (1 & 2) of the Ethics
Code specifies that the minor be given an appropriate explanation of the study and that he
or she give his or her assent. Assent means that the minor agrees to participate in the
research after receiving an appropriate explanation. By appropriate, we mean that the
explanation is one that is in language that the minor can understand. It is informing the
research participant of all aspects of the study that might influence his or her willingness to
volunteer to participate.
Active Consent and Passive Consent: It is a verbally agreeing and signing a form consenting
to participate in research. Active consent involves consenting to participate in a research
study by verbally agreeing and signing a consent form. Ideally, the parent reads the consent
form and either gives or refuses consent and returns the consent form to the researcher.
Ethical concerns have been raised when passive consent procedures are used, because
these studies might include children whose parents actually oppose their participation in
the research but did not return the consent form or perhaps did not receive it. Passive
Consent: It is received from a parent or guardian by not returning the consent form
(Ellickson,1989). The APA Ethics Code does not directly address passive consent so it is
imperative that you inform the IRB whenever you want to use passive consent and receive
their approval prior to making use of this technique.
DECEPTION: Deception refers to deceit. It also runs counter to the basic moral principle of
trust that psychologists should adhere to when conducting research with humans . Informed
consent cannot be obtain before the study to obtain unbiased results researchers must
sometimes use deception because participants may adjust their own levels of performance
in an attempt to satisfy the experimenter.
Passive deception (or omission) is the withholding or omitting of information (researcher
intentionally does not tell participants some information about the study)
Active deception (or commission) is the presenting of misinformation about the study to
participants (misleading participants about the specific purpose of the study) (Rosnow &
Rosenthal, 1998).
Kelman (1967) predicted that the persistent use of deception would cause research
participants to become distrustful of psychologists and undermine psychologists’ relations
with them. Fortunately, this prediction has not come true. Sharpe, Adair, and Roese (1992)
revealed that current research participants are as accepting of arguments justifying the use
of deception as they were 20 years ago. Soliday and Stanton (1995) found that mild
deception had no effect on attitudes toward researchers, science, or psychology. Fisher and
Fyrberg (1994) even found that most of the student research participants in their study
believed that the deception studies they evaluated were scientifically valid and valuable.
Most also believed that the use of deception was an important methodology to retain even
when other methodologies, such as role playing or questionnaires, were available.
Guidelines for a study involving deception:
1. The deception must be justified in terms of some benefit that outweighs the risk to the
participants.
2. The researcher cannot conceal from the participants any significant aspects of the study
that is expected to cause physical pain or severe emotional stress.
3. The researcher must provide the participant with debriefing that explains the true nature
of the experiment, including the use and purpose of deception after the study is completed.
DEBRIEFING: Debriefing is a post experimental discussion or interview about the details of
the study, including an explanation for the use of any deception. Holmes (1976a, 1976b)
has appropriately pointed out that there are two goals of debriefing and both must be met
for debriefing to be maximally effective: dehoaxing and desensitizing.
Dehoaxing refers to debriefing the participants about any deception that the researcher
might have used. In the dehoaxing process, the problem is one of convincing the participant
that the fraudulent information given was, in fact, fraudulent.
Desensitizing refers to debriefing the participants about their behavior. If the experiment
has made participants aware that they have some undesirable features (e.g., that they
could and would inflict harm on others), then the debriefing procedure should attempt to
help the participants deal with this new information.
This is typically done by suggesting that the undesirable behavior was caused by some
situational variable rather than by some dispositional characteristic of the research
participant Another tactic used by researchers is to point out that the research participant's
behavior was not abnormal or extreme.

Coercion and Freedom to Decline Participation: The concern with coercion has probably
been expressed most frequently over the widespread use of research participant pools and
the nature of the relationship between professors and students. Professors might present
situations where students might feel coercive pressure to participate, such as providing
extra-credit for participation. Individuals must always feel free to decline to participate in or
free to withdraw from the research at any time. This principle seems quite reasonable and
relatively innocuous.
Confidentiality, Anonymity, and the Concept of Privacy
Confidentiality is the practice of keeping strictly secret and private the information or
measurements obtained from individual an during a research study.
Anonymity is the practice of ensuring that an individual's name is not directly associated
with the information or measurements obtained from that individuals (e.g. using codes).
Privacy refers to controlling other people's access to information about a person. There are
two aspects to privacy that must be considered (Folkman, 2000).
The first involves a person's freedom to identify the time and circumstances under which
information is shared with or withheld from others. For example, a person might not want
information about his or her sexual behavior shared with others, or he or she might agree
to share this information only if it is aggregated with others information so they cannot be
identified. The second is the person's right to decline receiving information that he or she
does not want. For example, a person might not want to know if he or she performed
worse on a task than the average person.
ETHICAL ISSUES IN ELECTRONIC RESEARCH: The increasing use of the Internet in the
conduct of psychological studies is logical, given the advantages it offers. Internet studies
can access not only a large number of individuals in a short period of time but also those
with diverse backgrounds. The ease with which many studies can be conducted with the
Internet medium also raises ethical issues. These issues focus on topics such as informed
consent, privacy, and debriefing.
Informed Consent and Internet Research: - Obtaining the informed consent of participants
is one of the vital components of conducting ethical research, because this is the
component that recognizes the autonomy of research participants. Obtaining informed
consent and answering questions participants might have regarding consent is a relatively
simple process in the context of most experiments.
Privacy and Internet Research:- Maintaining the privacy of the research data collected from
participants is essential to the conduct of an ethical study, as participants can be harmed
when their privacy is invaded or when there is a violation of confidential information.
Debriefing and Internet Research:- To conduct an ethical study, it is necessary to debrief
participants following its completion. To be most effective, debriefing should be interactive,
with the researcher providing a description of the study, including its purpose and the way
in which it was conducted. The researcher is also available to answer any questions the
participant might have, and, more importantly, to ensure that the participant is adequately
dehoaxed, if deception is used and desensitized it made to feel uncomfortable.

Nosek et al. (2002) anticipated such difficulties and have identified several options
researchers can use to maximize the probability of debriefing in the event that a study is
terminated early.
1. Require the participant to provide an e-mail address so that a debriefing statement can
be sent to them.
2. Provide a "leave the study" radio button on every page that will direct them to a
debriefing page.
3. Incorporate a debriefing page into the program driving the experiment that directs the
participant to this page if the study is terminated prior to completion.
Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
-Beneficence: - Acting for the benefit of others.
-Nonmaleficence: - Do no harm to others.
EHICAL ISSUES IN PREPARING THE RESEARCH REPORT: Fidelity and Responsibility, Justice
and Respect for people’s rights and Dignity
you must write a research report stating how the research was conducted and what was
found. In writing the research report, the two moral principles of justice and fidelity and
scientific integrity are involved. Justice involves the decision of authorship, or who receives
credit for the research. Fidelity and scientific integrity in the preparation of the research
report refers to the accurate and honest reporting of all aspects of the study.
AUTHORSHIP
Authorship is important because it is used to identify the individual or individuals who are
responsible for the study. It provides a record of a person’s scholarly work and, for the
professional, relates directly to decisions involving salary, hiring, promotion, and tenure.
Everyone who makes a contribution to the research study should not receive authorship.
The order of authorship of these individuals is typically such that the person who made the
most substantial contribution is listed as the first author while others who contributed are
acknowledged in a footnote.
WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT
The primary ethical guideline that must be followed in writing the research report is
honesty and integrity.
ETHICAL ISSUES AND SCIENTIFIC INTEGRITY: - Two ethical issues relevant to the written
reports of the research study are: -
FRAUD: - It is an explicit effort of a researcher to deceive and misrepresent the data. Fraud
needs to be distinguished from an error. Error is an honest mistake that occurs in the
research process. Safeguards against fraud:-
-Replication of studies by different scientists.
-Peer review when a researcher submits a research article for publication (editor of the
journal and a few experts in the field critically review the paper in extreme detail).
PLAGIARISM: It is the representation of someone else's ideas or words as one's own, it is
unethical!!!
-Reference citations must be included in your paper whenever someone else's ideas or
work has influenced your thinking and writing.
- Whenever you use direct quotations or even paraphrase someone else's work, you need
to give them credit.
- Include a complete list of references at the end of the paper. If in doubt about whether a
citation is necessary, cite the source anyway.
ETHICAL ISSUES AND NONHUMAN SUBJECTS IN RESEARCH
APA guidelines for the use and treatment of nonhuman subjects in research are as follows:-
1.animals must be treated humanely, qualified individuals must conduct research, the
research must be justified and the researcher has a responsibility to minimize discomfort or
harm.
2.Institutions that conduct research with animals have an animal research review board
called the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC).Committee consists of a
veterinarian, at least one scientist experience in animal research and a one member of
public with no affiliation with the institution.
Animal Research Guidelines: The APA Ethics Code focuses primarily on animal welfare and
not animal rights. Animal welfare is concerned with improving laboratory conditions and
reducing the number of animals needed in research (Baldwin, 1993). Animal rights focuses
on the rights of animals. This position states that animals have the same rights as humans
and should not be used in research. Because there is often no substitute for the use of
animals as research participants, the focus of attention is on animal welfare, which
concerns the humane treatment of animals.
I. Justification of the Research: Research using animals should be undertaken only when
there is a clear scientific purpose and a reasonable expectation that the research will
increase our knowledge of the processes underlying behavior, increase our understanding
of the species under study, or result in benefits to the health or welfare of humans or other
animals. Any study conducted should have sufficient potential importance to justify the use
of animals, and any procedure that produces pain in humans be assumed to also produce
pain in animals. The research cannot be conducted until the protocol has been reviewed by
the IACUC.
II. Personnel: All personnel involved in animal research should be familiar with the
guidelines. Any procedure used by the research personnel must conform with federal
regulations regarding personnel, supervision, record keeping, and veterinary care. Both
psychologists and their research assistants must be informed about the behavioral
characteristics of their research animals so that unusual behaviors that could forewarn of
health problems can be identified.
III. Care and Housing of Animals: Any research procedures used on animals are to be
reviewed by the IACUC to ensure that they are appropriate and humane. This committee
essentially supervises the psychologist who has the responsibility for providing the research
animals with humane care and healthful conditions during their stay at the research facility.
There is a need for care and housing of animals.
IV. Acquisition of Animals: Animals used in laboratory experimentation should be lawfully
purchased from a qualified supplier or bred in the psychologist’s facility.  If animals must be
taken from the wild, they must be trapped in a humane manner. Endangered species
should be used only with full attention to required permits and ethical concerns.
V. Experimental Procedures:
1. Studies, such as observational and other noninvasive procedures, that involve no
aversive stimulation and create no overt signs of distress are acceptable.
2. Alternative procedures that minimize discomfort to the animal should be used when
available.
3. Procedures using restraint must conform to federal guidelines and regulations.
4. It is unacceptable to use a paralytic drug or muscle relaxants during surgery without a
general anesthetic.
5. Laboratory-reared animals should not be released because, in most cases, they cannot
survive or their survival might disrupt the natural ecology.
VI. Field Research: Psychologists conducting field research should disturb their populations
as little as possible and make every effort to minimize potential harmful effects on the
population under investigation. The study of endangered species requires particular
justification and must receive IACUC approval.