Flow kinematics

The Euler (spatial) description

The Lagrange (material) description

Useful operators of vector analysis

Flow kinematics – the Euler (spatial) description

time: t  vx (x, y, z, t) 
P   
v(P) v (P)   vy (x, y, z, t) 
x  v (x, y, z, t) 
   z 
r y 
z  P’
 
v(P’)
 vx (x  x, y  y, z  z, t) 
 x  x    
    v (P')   vy (x  x, y  y, z  z, t) 
r  r  y  y   v (x  x, y  y, z  z, t) 
O  z  z   z 
 
Flow kinematics – the Euler (spatial) description

time: t  vx (x, y, z, t) 
P   
v(P) v (P)   vy (x, y, z, t) 
x  v (x, y, z, t) 
   z 
r y 
z  P’
 
v(P’)
 vx (x  x, y  y, z  z, t) 
 x  x    
    v (P')   vy (x  x, y  y, z  z, t) 
r  r  y  y   v (x  x, y  y, z  z, t) 
O  z  z   z 
 
Flow kinematics – the Euler (spatial) description

Steady-state flow:
𝜕v
=0
𝜕t

Acceleration:
𝜕v
a≠
𝜕t
𝜕v
=0
𝜕t

a≠0
𝜕v
≠0
𝜕t
Flow kinematics – the Lagrange (material) description

 vx * (P, t) 
  
particle: P v * (P, t)   vy * (P, t) 
P  * 
v*(P,t)  v (P, t) 
 z 

time t
P  vx * (P, t  t) 
v*(P,t+t)   
v * (P, t  t)   vy * (P, t  t) 
 * 
time t+t  v (P, t  t) 
 z 

O
Flow kinematics – the Lagrange (material) description

 vx * (P, t) 
  
particle: P v * (P, t)   vy * (P, t) 
P  * 
v*(P,t)  v (P, t) 
 z 

time t
P  vx * (P, t  t) 
v*(P,t+t)   
v * (P, t  t)   vy * (P, t  t) 
 * 
time t+t  v (P, t  t) 
 z 

dv ∗
a=
dt
Boundary conditions are written in Euler description !

h
vx z= =0
2
z

h
vx z=− =0
2
Operators in vector analysis

Gradient of scalar field:

Divergence of vector field:

Rotational of vector field:

Laplacian of scalar field:

Laplacian of vector field:

Material time derivative

 Euler description of a scalar field: p=p(x,y,z,t)

𝜕p 𝜕p 𝜕p 𝜕p
dp = dt + dx + dy + dz
𝜕t 𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z

𝜕p 𝜕p dx 𝜕p dy 𝜕p dz
Divide by dt: + + +
𝜕t 𝜕x dt 𝜕y dt 𝜕z dt

For a particle which Dp 𝜕p 𝜕p 𝜕p 𝜕p

moves by (dx, dy, dz) = + v + v + v
Dt 𝜕t 𝜕x x 𝜕y y 𝜕z z
during time dt
 Dp 𝜕p 𝜕p 𝜕p 𝜕p
= + vx + vy + vz
Dt 𝜕t 𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
vx + vy + vz p
𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z

An operator applied on p(x,y,z,t)

The scalar product of v and 𝛻

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
vx + vy + vz = 𝐯. 𝛁
 a scalar operator 𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z
 Material time derivative D/Dt of a scalar field

Dp 𝜕p 𝜕p 𝜕p 𝜕p 𝜕p
= + vx + vy + vz = + v. 𝛻 p
Dt 𝜕t 𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z 𝜕t

It is the time rate of change of the pressure of a fluid particle

Material time derivative of a vector field

Dvx
Dt
Dv D𝐯𝐲 Vector formed by the material
=
Dt Dt time derivatives of components
D𝐯𝐳
Dt

Acceleration in Euler description

𝜕vx 𝜕vx 𝜕vx 𝜕vx

+ vx + vy + vz
𝜕t 𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z
Dv 𝜕𝐯𝐲 𝜕𝐯𝐲 𝜕𝐯𝐲 𝜕𝐯𝐲 𝜕v
a= = + vx + vy + vz = + v. 𝛻 v
Dt 𝜕t 𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z 𝜕t
𝜕𝐯𝐳 𝜕𝐯𝐳 𝜕𝐯𝐳 𝜕𝐯𝐳
+ vx + vy + vz
𝜕t 𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z
 Second Newton’s law in Euler description

𝜕v
ρ + v. 𝛻 v = ρg − 𝛻p =0, no friction forces
𝜕t

For viscous Newtonian

𝜕v incompressible fluids
ρ + v. 𝛻 v = ρg − 𝛻p + η𝛻 2 v (with friction forces):
𝜕t
Navier-Stokes
equations
 The Bernoulli equation

It amounts to conservation of energy

(a scalar equation in units Jkg-1)

It can be derived from second Newton’s law

(readily for steady-state flows of perfect fluids)

Some fluid mechanics problems are more easily

solved using the Bernoulli equation
 The Bernoulli equation

𝜕v
Second Newton’s law: ρ + v. 𝛻 v = ρg − 𝛻p + η𝛻 2 v
𝜕t

Assumptions: Steady-state flow

Perfect (inviscid) fluid

𝛻p
v. 𝛻 v − g + =0
ρ
 The Bernoulli equation

Acceleration of gravity written as a gradient:

𝜕
𝜕x
0 𝜕 Potential energy
g= 0 = −gz = −𝛻 gz
𝜕y per unit mass
−g
𝜕
𝜕z

𝛻p 𝛻p
v. 𝛻 v − g +
ρ
=0 v. 𝛻 v + 𝛻 gz + =0
ρ
 The Bernoulli equation

Additional assumption: “incompressible fluid”

Constant volume flow  Mass density of fluid is constant

𝛻p p
ρ = Cst ⇒ =𝛻
ρ ρ

𝛻p p
v. 𝛻 v + 𝛻 gz + =0 v. 𝛻 v + 𝛻 gz + 𝛻 =0
ρ ρ
 The Bernoulli equation

v2
A relation of vector analysis: v. 𝛻 v = 𝛻 + 𝛻×v ×v
2

𝜕vx 𝜕vx 𝜕vx

vx + vy + vz
𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z v 2 vx 2 vy 2 vz 2
𝜕vy 𝜕vy 𝜕vy = + +
v. 𝛻 v = vx + vy + vz 2 2 2 2
𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z
𝜕vz 𝜕vz 𝜕vz
vx + vy + vz
𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z

𝜕vx 𝜕vy 𝜕vz

vx + vy + vz
𝜕x 𝜕x 𝜕x
v2 𝜕vx 𝜕vy 𝜕vz
𝛻 = vx + vy + vz
2 𝜕y 𝜕y 𝜕y
𝜕vx 𝜕vy 𝜕vz
vx + vy + vz
𝜕z 𝜕z 𝜕z
 The Bernoulli equation

v2
v. 𝛻 v = 𝛻 + 𝛻×v ×v
2
𝜕 𝜕vz 𝜕vy
−
𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z
vx
𝜕 𝜕vx 𝜕vz
𝛻×v = × vy = −
𝜕vx 𝜕vx 𝜕vx 𝜕vx 𝜕vy 𝜕vz 𝜕y vz 𝜕z 𝜕x
vx + vy + vz vx + vy + vz
𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z 𝜕x 𝜕x 𝜕x 𝜕 𝜕vy 𝜕vx
𝜕vy 𝜕vy 𝜕vy 𝜕vx 𝜕v 𝜕vz −
vx + vy + vz vx + vy
y
+ vz 𝜕z 𝜕x 𝜕y
𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z 𝜕y 𝜕y 𝜕y
𝜕vz 𝜕vz 𝜕vz 𝜕vx 𝜕vy 𝜕vz
vx + vy + vz vx + vy + vz
𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z 𝜕z 𝜕z 𝜕z

𝜕vz 𝜕vy 𝜕vx 𝜕vz 𝜕vy 𝜕vx

− vz − − vy −
𝜕y 𝜕z 𝜕z 𝜕x 𝜕x 𝜕y
vx
𝜕vx 𝜕vz 𝜕vy 𝜕vx 𝜕vz 𝜕vy
𝛻×v ×v= − × vy = vx − − vz −
𝜕z 𝜕x vz 𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕y 𝜕z
𝜕vy 𝜕vx 𝜕vz 𝜕vy 𝜕vx 𝜕vz
− vy − − vx −
𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕y 𝜕z 𝜕z 𝜕x
 The Bernoulli equation

p v2 p
v. 𝛻 v + 𝛻 gz + 𝛻 =0 𝛻 + 𝛻 × v × v + 𝛻 gz + 𝛻 =0
ρ 2 ρ

Additional assumption: “irrotational flow”: 𝛻 × v = 0

Final expression of Bernoulli equation

Perfect fluid v2 p
Steady-state flow 𝛻 + 𝛻 gz + 𝛻 =0
Incompressible fluid
2 ρ
Irrotational flow

v2 p
+ gz + = Cst. In the fluid
2 ρ
Kinetic energy
per unit mass potential energy Work of pressure
per unit mass forces per unit mass
 Velocity and kinetic power of a jet

A vA0 pA=pB=patm


If dissipations are neglected

(perfect fluid)

vB
𝟐
 𝐯𝐁
B + 𝐠 𝐳𝐁 − 𝐳𝐀 = 𝟎
𝟐

𝟐
𝐯𝐁
Kinetic power: ×𝛒×𝐪 Js-1 (Watts)
𝟐

Jkg-1 m3s-1
kgm-3
 Horizontal pipe flow

zin zout= zin

vin
vout = vin

If dissipations are neglected Bernoulli 𝐩𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐨𝐮𝐭

= 𝐩𝐢𝐧 = 𝐩𝐨𝐮𝐭
(perfect fluid) equation 𝛒 𝛒

For a viscous fluid, we know that: 𝐩𝐢𝐧 > 𝐩𝐨𝐮𝐭

 Need for a more general formulation of Bernoulli equation

The Bernoulli equation with a dissipation term

vin 2 pin v𝑜𝑢𝑡 2 pout

+ gzin + = + gzout + +𝐞
2 ρ 2 ρ
Energy per unit mass
dissipated into heat

Horizontal pipe flow of a viscous fluid

zin zout= zin

vin
vout = vin

4q
v= mean velocity
πD2
pin pout 1 2 4L
− =e= v × ×f L, D length and diameter of pipe
ρ ρ 2 D
f: friction factor