ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIOUR IN ORGANISATION

QUES 1: WHAT DO YOU UNDERSTAND BY ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR?

DISCUSS ITS FEATURES AND OBJECTIVES OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR.

Organizational Behavior (OB) is the study of human behavior in organizational settings, the
interface between human behavior and the organization, and the organization itself.
Organizational Behavior researchers study the behavior of individuals primarily in their
organizational roles.

One of the main goals of organizational behavior is to revitalize organizational theory and
develop a better conceptualization of organizational life. As a multidisciplinary field,
organizational behavior has been influenced by developments in a number of allied disciplines
including sociology, psychology, economics, and engineering as well as by the experience of
practitioners.

“Organizational behavior is directly concerned with the understanding, prediction, and

control of human behavior in organizations.” — Fred Luthans.

Organizational behavior is the study of both group and individual performance and activity
within an organization.

This area of study examines human behavior in a work environment and determines its impact
on job structure, performance, communication, motivation, leadership, etc.

It is the systematic study and application of knowledge about how individuals and groups act
within the organizations where they work. OB draws from other disciplines to create a unique
field.

For example, when we review topics such as personality and motivation, we will again review
studies from the field of psychology. The topic of team processes relies heavily on the field of
sociology.

When we study power and influence in organizations, we borrow heavily from political sciences.
Even medical science contributes to the field of Organizational Behavior, particularly in the
study of stress and its effects on individuals.

There is increasing agreement as to the components or topics that constitute the subject area of
OB.

Although there is still considerable debate as to the relative importance of change, there appears
to be general agreement that OB includes the core topics of motivation, leader behavior, and
power, interpersonal communication, group structure and processes, learning, attitude
development, and perception, change processes, conflict, work design, and work stress.

Features of Organizational Behavior

Organizational Behavior is the study and application of knowledge about how people,
individuals, and groups act in organizations. It does this by taking a system approach.

That is, it interprets people-organization relationships in terms of the whole person, the whole
group, the whole organization, and the whole social system.

Its purpose is to build better relationships by achieving human objectives, organizational

objectives, and social objectives.

1. Organisational behaviour is a rational thinking, not an emotional feeling about people. The
major goals of organizational behaviour are to explain and predict human behavioural in
organisations. It is action-oriented and goal-directed.
2. Organisational behavioural seeks to balanced human and technical values at work. It seeks to
achieve productivity by building and maintaining employee’s dignity, growth and satisfaction,
rather than at the expense of these values.
3. Organisational behaviour integrates behavioural sciences. Many of its core concepts are
borrowed from others fields and discipline like social psychology, sociology, and anthropology,
etc.
4. Organisational behaviour is both a science and an art, the knowledge about human behaviour
in organisations leans towards being science. Modern organizational behaviour is, at once,
empirical, interpretative, and critical. It is an interpretative science in the pursuit of knowledge
and meaning.
The basic purpose is to make meaningful the facts of organizational life. Modern OB is an optic
perspective; a process for looking at events, a way of life. It has empirical facts, and interesting
interpretations and powerful paradigms.
 However it is an inaccurate science to provide specific answers to specific organizational
problems. As such very little can be prescribed to consistently predict relationships between a
variable on broad scale. The skills in applying the knowledge clearly lean towards being art.
5. Organisational behaviour exists at multiple like levels. Behaviour occurs at the individual, the
group, and the organizational systems levels. Behaviour that is attributable to each of these levels
can be both identified and isolated but at the same time these three levels interact with each other
and OB-being affected by the behaviour of individuals, group level behaviour is affected by the
organizational level phenomena and so on.
6. Organisational behaviour does not exist in vacuum. Organisations are made up of both social
and technical components and therefore characterized as social-technical systems. The
operational implication of this is that any approach of looking at behaviour must also take into
account the technical component of organisation especially such issues as the nature of work and
the technology. Organisations at the same time, must take into account the constructs of the
working environment, for example, the extent to which the market and the product is changing.

Objectives of Organizational Behavior

The organizations in which people work have an effect on their thoughts, feelings, and actions.
These thoughts, feelings, and actions, in turn, affect the organization itself.

Organizational behavior studies the mechanisms governing these interactions, seeking to identify
and foster behaviors conducive to the survival and effectiveness of the organization.

1. Job Satisfaction.
2. Finding the Right People.
3. Organizational Culture.
4. Leadership and Conflict Resolution.
5. Understanding Employees Better.
6. Understand how to Develop Good Leaders.
7. Develop a Good Team.
8. Higher Productivity.

These 8 objectives of organizational behavior show that OB is concerned with people within

the organization, how they are interacting, what is the level of their satisfaction, the level of
motivation, and find ways to improve it in a way the yields most productivity.
 QUES 2: DISCUSS THE APPROACHES TO ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR.

Organizational Behavior is the study of human behavior in organizations. Organizational

Behavior relates to the connection between employees and the owner in an organization. This
study includes areas of research devoted to improving job performance, increasing job pleasure,
promoting modernism, and encouraging leadership. Organizational Behavior relates to the
relationship between employees and the employer in an organization. Both are working towards
the realization of the goals and objectives of any organization, and a close and fruitful
coordination between the two is one of the major factors towards this realization.

Organizational behavior approaches are a result of the research done by experts in this field.

These experts studied and attempted to quantify research done about the actions and reactions of
employees, with regard to their work environments.

It is a field that has begun developing only recently and new approaches and results are being
expounded every day.

There are 4 Approaches to Organizational Behavior studies;

1. Human resources approach.

2. Contingency approach.
3. Productivity approach.
4. Systems approach.

And one more approach to study organizational behavior is Interdisciplinary Approach.

Human Resources Approach

This approach recognizes the fact that people are the central resource in any organization and
that they should be developed towards higher levels of competency, creativity, and fulfillment.

People thus contribute to the success of the organization.

The human resources approach is also called as the supportive approach in the sense that the
manager’s role changes from control of employee to active support of their growth and
performance.

The supportive approach contrasts with the traditional management approach.

In the traditional approach, managers decided what employees should do and closely monitored
their performance to ensure task accomplishment.

In the human resources approach, the role of managers changes from structuring and controlling
to supporting.

Contingency Approach

The contingency approach (sometimes called the situational approach) is based on the premise
that methods or behaviors which work effectively in One situation fail in another.

For example; Organization Development (OD) programs, way work brilliantly in one situation
but fail miserably in another situation.

Results differ because situations differ, the manager’s task, therefore, is to identify which method
will, in a particular situation, under particular circumstances, and at a particular time, best
contribute to the attainment of organization’s goals.

The strength of the contingency approach lies in the fact it encourages analysis of each situation
prior to action while at the same time discourages the habitual practice of universal assumptions
about methods and people.

The contingency approach is also more interdisciplinary, more system – oriented and more
research-oriented titan any other approach.

Productivity Approach

Productivity which is the ratio of output to input is a measure of an organization’s effectiveness.

It also reveals the manager’s efficiency in optimizing resource utilization.

The higher the numerical value of this ratio, the greater the efficiency.

Productivity is generally measured in terms of economic inputs and outputs, but human and
social inputs and outputs also are important.

For example, if better organizational behavior can improve job satisfaction, a human output or
benefit occurs.

In the same manner, when employee development programs lead to better citizens in a
community, a valuable social output occurs.
Organizational behavior decisions typically involve human, social, and/or economic issues, and
so productivity usually a significant part of these decisions is recognized and discusses
extensively in the literature on OB.

Systems Approach

The Systems Approach to OB views the organization as a united, purposeful system composed
of interrelated parts.

This approach gives managers a way of looking at the organization as a whole, whole, person,
whole group, and the whole social system.

In so doing, the systems approach tells us that the activity of any segment of an organization
affects, in varying degrees the activity of every other segment. A systems view should be the
concern of every person in an organization.

The clerk at a service counter, the machinist, and the manager all work with the people and
thereby influence the behavioral quality of life in an organization and its inputs.

Managers, however, tend to have a larger responsibility, because they are the ones who make the
majority are people oriented.

The role of managers, then, is to use organizational behavior to help build an organizational
culture in which talents are utilized and further developed, people are motivated, teams become
productive, organizations achieve their goals and society reaps the reward.

Inter-Disciplinary Approach

Organizational behavior is an integration of all other social sciences and disciplines such as
psychology, sociology, organizational theories etc.

They all are interdependent and influence each other. The man is studied as a whole and
therefore, all disciplines concerning man are integrated.
QUES 3: DISCUSS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ORGANISATIONAL
BEHAVIOUR AND BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES.

Organizational behavior is an academic discipline concerned with describing, understanding,

predicting, and controlling human behavior in an organizational environment. Organizational
behavior has evolved from early classical management theories into a complex school of thought
—and it continues to change in response to the dynamic environment and proliferating corporate
cultures in which today's businesses operate.
"The task of getting organizations to function effectively is a difficult one," wrote David A.
Nadler and Michael L. Tushman in Hackman, Lawler, and Porter's Perspectives on Behaviors in
Organizations . "Understanding one individual's behavior is a challenging problem in and of
itself. A group, made up of different individuals and multiple relationships among those
individuals, is even more complex…. In the fact of this overwhelming complexity,
organizational behavior must be managed.
Ultimately the work of organizations gets done through the behavior of people, individually or
collectively, on their own or in collaboration with technology. Thus, central to the management
task is the management of organizational behavior. To do this, there must be the capacity
to understand the patterns of behavior at individual, group, and organization levels,
to predict what behavior responses will be elicited by different managerial actions, and finally to
use understanding and prediction to achieve control. "

THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

Organizational behavior scientists study four primary areas of behavioral science: individual
behavior, group behavior, organizational structure, and organizational processes. They
investigate many facets of these areas like personality and perception, attitudes and job
satisfaction, group dynamics, politics and the role of leadership in the organization, job design,
the impact of stress on work, decision-making processes, the communications chain, and
company cultures and climates. They use a variety of techniques and approaches to evaluate each
of these elements and its impact on individuals, groups, and organizational efficiency and
effectiveness.
"The behavior sciences," stated Gibson, Ivancevich, and Donnelly in Organizations: Behavior,
Structure, Processes, "have provided the basic framework and principles for the field of
organizational behavior. Each behavioral science discipline provides a slightly different focus,
analytical framework, and theme for helping managers answer questions about themselves, non
managers, and environmental forces."
In regard to individuals and groups, researchers try to determine why people behave the way they
do.
They have developed a variety of models designed to explain individuals' behavior. They
investigate the factors that influence personality development, including genetic, situational,
environmental, cultural, and social factors. Researchers also examine various personality types
and their impact on business and other organizations. One of the primary tools utilized by
organizational behavior researchers in these and other areas of study is the job satisfaction study.
These tools are used not only to measure job satisfaction in such tangible areas as pay, benefits,
promotional opportunities, and working conditions, but also to gauge how individual and group
behavior patterns influence corporate culture, both positively and negatively.

Organisational behaviour exists as long as human factor works in organisations. Behavioural

pattern may change in accordance with the needs of the organisations. If we observe the growth
path of management thought since the days of Henry Fayol and F.W. Taylor to this day, we
understand that human force at work has behaved according to the needs of the day and for the
growth and success of the organisations.
Behavioural aspect is influenced by human psychology and the environment in which human
factor lives and works. OB may be relatively a new field of study. But lived with organisations
ever since the organisations started functioning for serving business objectives. Behaviour moves
with any living object and more so with human factor. Only recently behavioural aspects in
organisations are identified considering cognitive aspects and social systems in which
organisations function. Today, OB has systems in which organisations function, and it has been
considered as a strong factor for organizational success.
In the process of giving prime place for OB, “Human Resources Management” (HRM) is playing
key role in organizational development (OD). Technology is replacing human force at work in
organisations. Information technology and other highly advanced technology may be adopted in
organisations. Robots developed with faultless technology, may function lessening the burden
for human factor at work. But brain behind this technology is human brain and only human
factor should operate this technology. Thus, in future, human factor at work may be minimised,
but behavioural aspect continues.
Behavioural aspects are unpredictable. Availing the assistance of various disciplines (such as
psychology, sociology, anthropology, etc.), behavioural aspects are understood and accordingly
methods and procedures are developed and adapted. The behavioural pattern changes. In non-
technical organisations, human factor works more. As more and more technology is introduced,
behavioural aspects of human factor also changes. But OB aspects are eternal.

MCQS
1. Work attitudes can be reflected in an organisation through
a. Job satisfaction
b. Organisational commitment
c. Both ‘A’ and ‘B’
d. None of the above
 2. The model(s) of Organisational Behaviour is (are):
a. Autocratic
b. Custodial
c. Supportive
d. All of the above

3. At the norming stage, the team is involved in defining ______

a. Goals
b. Roles
c. Relations
d. None of the above

4. The philosophy that guides an organization’s policies towards its employees and customers is
an important part of
a. Management strategy
b. Organisation behaviour
c. Organisational culture
d. Organisation development

5. Organisation structure primarily refers to

a. how activities are coordinated & controlled
b. how resources are allocated
c. the location of departments and office space
d. the policy statements developed by the firm

6. A major problem with a task force type of management is

a. there is no logical basis for task force information
b. its status is too inflexible
c. accountability
d. lack of planning

7. Communication begins with

a. Encoding
b. Idea Origination
c. Decoding
d. Channel Selection

8. Policies are sometimes defined as a(n)

a. Shortcut For Thinking
b. Action Plan
c. Substitute For Strategy
d. Substitute For Management Authority

9. _____________ embodies a team concept, is based on the principle of mutual

contribution by employer and employees
a. Autocratic model
b. Custodial model
c. Supportive Model
d. Collegial Model

10. Forces affecting organisational behaviour are

a. People
b. Environment
c. Technology
d. All of the above

11. In present context, challenges for OB are

a. Employee expectation
b. Workforce diversity
c. Globalisation
d. All of the above

12. “Leadership motivates the people to work and not the power of money”, this concept is
related to a. Autocratic model
b. Custodial model
c. Supportive Model
d. Collegial Model

13. Organisational behaviour is

a. A science
b. An art
c. A science as well as an art
d. None of the above

14. The study of organisation behaviour has certain basic assumptions. They are
a. An industrial enterprise is an organisation of people
b. These people must be motivated to work effectively
c. The goals of the employee and the employer may not necessarily coincide
d. All of the above Answer: d

15. Which of the following frameworks is used in the development of the overall model of
OB?
 a. The cognitive framework
b. The behaviouristic framework
c. The social learning framework
d. All of the above

16. “Might is right” is the motto of

a. Autocratic Model
b. Custodial Model
c. Supportive Mode
d. Collegial Model

17. The _____ is based on the environment. Though _____ like thinking, expectations and
perception do exist, and they are not needed to manage or predict behaviour.
a. Behaviouristic approach, Cognitive processes
b. cognitive processes, behaviouristic approach
c. Social cognitive, behaviouristic approach
d. Cognitive processes, social cognitive

18. Which of the following personality characteristics are associated with people who are
likely to exhibit violent behaviour on the job?
a. Neurotic
b. Optimistic
c. Extraverted
d. Type A

19. Stress can affect not only your health but also other aspects of your life. What else can be
affected by stress?
a. Family relationships
b. Work performance
c. Your attention to safety
d. All of the given options

20. Unsafe acts can be reduced through all of the following methods except:
a. Job rotation
b. Screening
c. Training
d. All of the above
 UNDERSTANDING INDIVIDUAL
BEHAVIOUR
QUES 1: DISCUSS THE VRIOUS FACTORS INFLUENCING THE INDIVIDUAL
BEHAVIOUR.

There are millions of stars in the sky, but every star is different. Similarly, there are millions of
people in the universe, but each person is different from the multiple
perspectives. Organizations are composed of individuals. Each individual is different from each
other on the basis of different psychological factors such as motives, aspirations, perceptions and
abilities.

Individual behavior means some concrete actions by a person. For instance, how a teacher
behaves in the class reflects his behavior. Organizational behavior has a great challenge as well
as responsibility to deal with the difference in individual behavior in the context
of organizations.

Psychology, a discipline contributing to organizational behavior, helps to examine how people

are similar, and how they differ in their thinking, feeling, and behaviors. The behavior of an
individual is influenced by various factors. Some of the factors lie within himself e.g. his
instincts, personality traits, internal feelings etc. while some lie outside him comprising the
external environment of which he is a part, e.g. weather conditions, events conveying some
information, and other people’s behavior that directly influences his behavior.

Employees. However, they have high rate of unavoidable absence. This probably because of
poor health associated with old age. With regard to productivity, older age results in reduced
productivity. This is because of the decline in individual’s skills as he grows older in age. This is
a positive association between age and satisfaction.

ii) Gender (Sex)

There are important differences between men and women which is because of their inherent
qualities and family responsibilities that affect their job performance. Man is expected to be
tough while a woman is expected to be gentle and highly emotional, are some of the stereotyped
assumption that have no basis in genetic influences. These behaviors are developed due to
differences in treatment that the boys and girls receive in the family environment.
Psychological studies have found that women are more willing to conform to authority and less
aggressive. On the other hand, men are more aggressive, have more expectations, and are more
ambitious than women. While the stability rate is higher among women employees,
the absenteeism rate is also higher; this can be attributed to the fact that they are expected to
shoulder more family responsibilities than men. Research studies on male and female employees
say that there are no consistent male-female difference in problem-solving ability, analytical
skills and competitive drive.

Even though some work roles are assumed to be the exclusive domain of modified to
accommodate man in these positions. As far as the administration of the management process
is concerned, women, in general do not differ from men in their operative behaviors.

iii. Emotional Intelligence

Highly intelligent employees learn job-related skills and other organizational practices quickly,
and organizations have to spend less time for training them. People with high intelligence have a
good decision-making ability because of their good analytical and reasoning skills. They are very
productive and have a high achievement drive. This is the age of emotional intelligence, and
today’s recruiting managers make sure that candidates have it. The five components of emotional
intelligence at work are:

 Self-awareness: Self-confidence, realistic self-assessment and self-deprecating sense of

humor.
 Self-regulation: Trust worthiness and integrity, comfort with ambiguity and openness to
change.
 Motivation: A strong drive to achieve, even in the time of failure, and organizational
commitment.
 Empathy: Expertise in building and retaining talent, cross-cultural sensitivity and service
to clients and customers.
 Social Skills: Effectiveness in leading change, persuasiveness and expertise in building
and leading teams.

iv) Marital Status

Marital status has influence on absenteeism, turn over and satisfaction. Married employees have
fewer absences, undergo less turn over, and are more satisfied with their jobs than the unmarried
ones. In fact, married employees are more conscious of their responsibilities. Satisfaction levels
were found to be in equal ratio among both married and unmarried employees. Employees
belonging to both categories were unsatisfied in terms of the salary they got from organizations.
Marriage imposes additional responsibility hence the need for steady job and steady income.

v) Education

Education has its effect upon individual behavior largely through the level and type of education
received. Increased levels of education serve to increase an individual’s expectations about
positive outcomes. These outcomes are generally perceived to be a more satisfying job, higher
income level and greater alternative sources for occupational choice i.e. the good life.

vi) Religion

Religion and culture also determine attitude towards work and towards financial incentives. In
other words, religion and religiously based cultures that play an important role in determining
some aspects of individual behavior, especially those that concern morals, ethics and a code of
conduct. Highly religious people have high moral standards and usually do not tell lies or talk ill
of others. They are highly contented thus strive for the goal of achievement and self-fulfillment.

vii) Abilities

Ability refers to the actual skills and capabilities that a person possesses and is required for the
effective performance of activities. Ability of an individual is made up of two sets of skills i.e.
intellectual ability and physical ability. Railways need to ensure that its employees possess the
necessary abilities to engage in the behavior required for effective performance. This is
accomplished either by careful selection of people or by a combination of selection and training.

2. Psychological Factors
Psychological factors may include perception, values, attitudes, psychological needs, personality
and motivation. All factors can be explained as follows:
i) Perception

Perception is an outcome of an object. It is the view point which one interprets a situation. For
instance, a railway booking clerk facing a well-dressed person perceives him to be of high status
and talks to him nicely, whereas he tends to ignore an ill-dressed person, or make him wait,
though both the passengers want first class ticket. Perception is a major factor that contributes to
individual behavior and differences, both in personal and organizational life.

ii) Values

Values are the foundation for behavioral difference among individuals, and they help in
understanding the attributes and motivation. Values represent the basic conviction that a specific
made of conduct is personally or socially preferable to an opposite mode of conduct. They have
both context and intensity attributes. The context attribute says that a mode of conduct is
important and the intensity attribute gives importance to specific. Values are judgmental by
nature, and every individual has a different conception of what is right, good or desirable and
what is not right, not good or undesirable.

In the today’s modern and competitive business environment, managers have to be capable of
working with people from different cultures. Because values and attributes differ across cultures,
and understanding of these differences will be helpful in explaining and predicting the behavior
of employees form different cultures.

iii) Attitudes

The term ‘Attitude’ is very common and used in everyday life to describe people’s behavior. It is
a way of organizing a perception. In other words, it is more or less a stable tendency to feel,
think, perceive and act in a certain manner towards an object or a situation. It is a tendency to act
in a certain way, either favorably or unfavorably concerning objects, people or events. Attitude
has three elements in it that lead to measurable outcomes. These are feelings, thoughts and
behavior. Feelings and thoughts can be measured by simply asking individuals about their
feelings and opinions. Behavior can be measured either by actual one’s actions or simply by
asking the person how he would act in a certain situation. By measuring and integrating these
three elements, a person’s attitude towards a given situation can be established.

In general, a person may have a positive attitude which means a good outlook of life, or negative
attitude which means continuous complaining about problems in life. For example, if you
showed a glass half-filled with water to A and B and asked them to describe it.

If A says, “The glass is half-full”, B says “The glass is half-empty” then here A’s attitude is
positive and that of B is negative. Positive attitude is something that organizations look for while
interviewing candidates. Organizationally speaking, an employee’s negative attitude about work
may be reflected by sub-standard work performance, excessive absenteeism, excessive
complaining about work environment or disobedience of rules or authority. These attitudes can
be changed with simply persuasion or by training and coaching.

iv) Psychological Needs

Psychological needs basically mean the internal needs of a person. Individuals differ in their
patterns of psychological needs. Such needs are derived from the source within an individual.
Every individual has a different kind of need. There are three basic psychological needs: need for
excellence, need for affiliation and need for power. Types of psychological needs and their
behavior are shown in the table.

v) Personality

Personality factors must be taken into account in determining the suitability of an individual for a
position in an organization. It refers to personal traits such as dominance, aggressiveness,
persistence and other qualities reflected through a person’s behavior. An individual’s personality
determines the type of activities for which he is suited and the likelihood that the person would
be able to perform the task effectively.

vi) Motivation
Happy workers are the productive workers. To make them happy proper motivation is so
essential. Motivation refers to all the forces operating within a person to cause him to engage in
certain kinds of behavior rather than others. Motivation may be internal e.g. a person’s skill,
ability and intelligence; or external e.g., incentives, training, etc. Further, a person’s motivation
is influenced by this attitudes, beliefs, values and goals.

3. Organizational Factors

Individual behavior is influenced by a wide variety of organizational system and resources.

Systems such as the organizational structure and hierarchy strongly influence and constrain both
what individuals do and how they do. Some of the main organizational factors are organizational
culture and climate, tenure, reward system, leadership style etc.

i) Organizational Culture and Climate

Organizational culture and climate also affect an individual’s behavior at work. The various
dimensions of organizational culture are values, ethics, beliefs, climate and culture.
Organizational climate can be divided into following four categories.
ii) Tenure

Tenure refers to the length of time an employee spends with an organization. It has a direct
impact on productivity, job performance, turnover and absenteeism. There is a positive
relationship between seniority and job productivity and a negative relationship with seniority and
absenteeism. Tenure is another important factor that has an impact on an organization’s turnover.
The longer a person continues in a job, the less likely he/she is to quit. It is also true that there is
positive relationship between tenure and satisfaction. People who work longer with an
organization are not only satisfied with their work, but are also loyal to the organization.

iii) Reward System

Reward system is another influencing factor to the individual behavior. There is positive
relationship between rewards, and individual’s work performance. It means when people
perform well, they are positively reward through awards, encouragement and appreciation. The
aim of rewards should be to develop among employees pride in belonging to the organization
and a feeling that people are valued.
iv) Leadership Style

Leadership style is another factor that helps in determining individual’s behavior at work.
Leadership styles can be divided as autocratic, democratic, participative and consultative.

 Autocratic Leaders: Autocratic leaders take decision on their own, without consulting

other and use threats and other coercive ways to make people comply with their decisions.
Autocratic leaders can only be effective when there is no need for any contribution from the
others in the decision making and where the motivation of people to implement the decision will
not be affected by the fact that they were not involved in the decision making.
 Democratic Leaders: Democratic leaders involve their people in decision making.
Democratic decision making may be difficult when the options differ widely and it is difficult to
arrive at an equitable final decision. With this kind of leadership style, labor turnover and
absenteeism rate is low and productivity is high.
 Participative Leaders: Participative leaders involve people at all levels in the decision-
making process. Participative leaders attend to people’s problems and use rewards to encourage
appropriate performance. Individual performance is high with this kind of leadership style, and
people have a spirit of collaboration. 
 Consultative Leaders: In consultative leadership style, the focus of control for day-to-day
decision making and problem solving shifts from the leader to the group members. Individuals
display a fair amount of responsibility and ownership of the decisions made. Since a lot of
responsibility is with the subordinates, turnover and absenteeism rate is low.

4. Environmental Factors

Three main environmental factors that affect individual behavior are economic factors, political
status and technological changes.

i) Economic Factors

Economic factors play a very important role in determining individual behavior. All work is
performed within economic framework that both directly and indirectly the individual behavior.
Economic factors that influence individual behavior are:
 Employment Opportunities: Employment opportunities have strong influence on
individual behavior. Fewer job opportunities create fear of losing the present job and increase the
emphasis on job and increase the emphasis on job security and can change the basic motivation
pattern of the individual.
 Salaries and Wages: Salaries and wages satisfy various individual needs. They provide
food and shelter, and measurement of achievement and can even serve as status symbol. Money
is a complex variable and it affects on behavior tremendously. It is well known that wages attract
people to certain organizations and determine their satisfaction on jobs.
 General Economic Outlook: The general outlook also influences individual expectations.
Especially of those employed in industries, severely affected by economic cycles. In fact, some
employees experience layoffs and recalls during their entire working life, while others are
insulated from the economy (e.g., public sector employees). Individuals who experience frequent
layoffs are more likely to be motivated by factors that affect job security, while other individuals
would consider job security to be relatively unimportant and would be motivated by other
factors.
 Political Status: Political status of a country affects individual behavior in many ways.
When a country’s political status (government) is stable, it increases industries, increase job
opportunities and higher wages. An unstable government companies are reluctant to invest,
economic status is affected, jobs are affected, and ultimately individuals get affected.

ii. Technological Change

Technological change is included as an economic factor because of its potential effects upon
individual job opportunities. Technological change has its strongest impact at lower level jobs,
although increased automation, robotics, computerization and more sophisticated production
technologies can affect individuals at all levels. In addition to changing employment
opportunities, technological change has its effect on job design. Although the individual may
stay employed, the skills required to perform the job may be reduced, thus increasing the
downward pressure on wage rates.

QUES 2: HOW ATTITUDES AND VALUES ARE CRUCIAL FOR AN INDIVIDUAL

WORKING IN AN ORGANISATION?
Values are linked to attitudes in that a value serves as a way of organizing attitudes. Values are
defined as “the constellation of likes, dislikes, viewpoints, inner inclinations, rational and
irrational judgments, prejudices, and association patterns that deter- mine a person’s view of the
world.” 46 Certainly, a person’s work is an important aspect of his world. Moreover, the
importance of a value constellation is that once internalized, it becomes (consciously or
subconsciously) a standard or criterion for guiding one’s actions.

The study of values, therefore, is fundamental to the study of managing. There’s evidence that
values are also extremely important for understanding effective managerial behavior. Values
affect the perceptions not only of appropriate ends but also of appropriate means to those ends.
From the design and development of organizational structures and processes to the utilization of
particular leadership styles and the evaluation of the performance of subordinates, value systems
are persuasive.

An influential theory of leadership is based on the argument that managers can’t be expected to
adopt a leadership style that’s contrary to their “need structures” or value orientations. Moreover,
when managers evaluate subordinates’ performance, the effects of the managers’ values are
noticeable. For example, one researcher reports that managers can be expected to evaluate
subordinates with values similar to their own as more effective than subordinates with dissimilar
values.

The effect of values is more pronounced in decisions involving little objective information and,
consequently, a greater degree of subjectivity. Another aspect of the importance of values occurs
when the interpersonal activities of managers bring them into a confrontation with different, and
potentially contradictory, values. Studies have shown that assembly-line workers, scientists, and
people in various professional occupations are characterized by particular, if not unique, value
orientations.

Day-to-day activities create numerous situations in which managers must relate to others with
different views of what’s right or wrong. Conflicts between managers and workers,
administrators and teachers, and line and staff personnel have been documented and discussed in
the literature of management. The manner in which these conflicts are resolved and integrated is
particularly crucial to the organization’s effectiveness.

QUES 3: WHY JOB SATISFACTION IS CONSISDERED IMPORTANT? WHAT ARE

ITS COMPONENTS?
Job satisfaction is an attitude that individuals have about their jobs. It results from their
perceptions of their jobs, based on factors of the work environment, such as the supervisor’s
style, policies, and procedures, work group affiliation, working conditions, and fringe benefits.
While numerous dimensions have been associated with job satisfaction, five in particular have
crucial characteristics.

Pay

The amount received and the perceived equity of pay.

Job

The extent to which job tasks are considered interesting and provide opportunities for learning
and for accepting responsibility.

Promotion opportunities

The availability of opportunities for advancement.

Supervisor

The supervisor’s abilities to demonstrate interest in and concern about employees.

Co-workers

The extent to which co-workers are friendly, competent, and supportive.

In some studies, these five job satisfaction dimensions have been measured by the job descriptive
index (JDI). Employees are asked to respond yes, no, or can’t decide as to whether a word or
phrase describes their attitudes about their jobs.

The JDI attempts to measure a person’s satisfaction with specific facets of the job. Other
measures of job satisfaction, such as the Brayfield-Rothe measures, are more general. Figure 4.6
on the next page presents sample items from four scales measuring job satisfaction. A major
reason for studying job satisfaction is to provide managers with ideas about how to improve
employee attitudes. Many organizations use attitude surveys to determine levels of employee job
satisfaction.

National surveys in the past have indicated that, in general, 75 to 80 percent of workers are
satisfied with their jobs. There is still a general assumption that compensation is the most
important factor in terms of the job satisfaction factor. The next OB at Work feature suggests
that caution should be the rule when assuming that the way to improve job satisfaction is to use
money as the key reward.

Job security, communication, recognition, and trust should also be care- fully considered by
managers. Job Satisfaction and Job Performance One of the most researched, debated, and
controversial issues in the study of job satisfaction is its relationship to job performance. For
years, many managers believed that a satisfied employee was a high-performing employee.

Others proposed the opposite; that an employee who performs well is more likely to be satisfied
with his or her job. Research into these questions has attempted to clarify the extent and direction
of causality (i.e., which variable comes first) of the relationship between satisfaction and
performance.

In sum, managers and researchers alike will continue to be interested in the job satisfaction and
job performance relationship. Whenever possible, managers should create an environment in
which employees are both satisfied and perform their jobs well. From a practical standpoint,
most managers want employees who are both satisfied and productive. So managers continue to
be interested in job satisfaction despite evidence that satisfaction doesn’t determine, in any
significant way, the level of performance. But some theorists and researchers suggest
performance has a broader meaning than simply units or quality of production. 58 Performance
also covers a variety of citizenship behaviors, including showing untrained colleagues how to
complete a job, helping a fellow worker complete a job when he’s not feeling well, making
positive comments in the com- munity about the organization, working extra hard to deliver
promised goods or services, and not complaining when management doesn’t provide resources
as promised. These behaviors are more prevalent among satisfied workers.

MCQs

1. A horizontal extension of the object to increase task variety is called: a

a. Job evaluation
b. Job enrichment
c. Job enlargement
d. Job rotation
2. Total compensation constitutes of

a. direct rewards

b. indirect rewards

c. both of the given options

d. none of the given options

3. A system of retirement benefits that provides benefits like disability insurance, survivor’s
benefits, and Medicare is called.

a. Encoding

b. Unemployment Compensation

c. Workers’ Compensation

d. Social Security benefit

4. _______ exists when individuals performing similar jobs for the same firm are paid according
to factors unique to the employee

a. Employee Equity

b. Team Equity

c. Internal Equity

d. All of the given options

5. The evaluator uses a list of behavioural descriptions and checks of those behaviours that apply
to the employee. This method of appraisal is called

a. Forced-Choice Appraisal

b. Forced Distribution Appraisal

c. Checklist Appraisal
d. Behaviourally Anchored Rating Scales

6. Employee evaluations are directly affected by a “supervisor’s perceptions of who is believed

to be in control of the employee’s performance – the employer or the manager.” This theory is
known as

a. Attribution Theory

b. Stereotype

c. Halo Effect

d. None of above options

7. We can define as activities people perform to acquire, enhance, and use power and other
resources to obtain their preferred outcomes in a situation of uncertainty or disagreement.

a. Organisational politics

b. Executing authority

c. Collective bargaining

d. Position power

8. Protection from discrimination, safe working conditions and union formulation are rights,
provided to employees is ____ .

a. Contractual

b. Individual

c. Statutory

d. Organisational

9. The trust is _______ based on the behavioural predictability that comes from a history of
interaction a. Deterrence-based
b. Knowledge-based

c. Identification-based

d. None of the given options

10. Any compensation method that ties pay to the quantity or quality of work the person
produces is called

a. Gain-sharing Plan

b. Incentive Plan

c. Compensation Plan

d. Pay for Performance Plan

11. _______ is solely responsible for managing individual’s career.

a. Individual

b. Team

c. Organisation

d. HR Manager

12. Upward appraisal is done by

a. Immediate Supervisor

b. Peers

c. Subordinates

d. All of the above

13. Following ways can be used to avoid the high turnover of employees except

a. Use Recognition
b. Use the money

c. Use Positive Reinforcement

d. All of the above

14. The ________ leadership style is an expression of the leader’s trust in the abilities of his
subordinates.

a. Participative

b. Delegative

c. Authoritarian

d. All of the above

15. The purpose of job enrichment is to

a. expand the number of tasks an individual can do

b. increase job efficiency

c. increase job effectiveness

d. All of the given options

16. Strategic planning as a broad concept consists of

a. corporate strategy and business strategy

b. strategy formulation and strategy implementation

c. inputs and outputs

d. environmental analysis and internal analysis

17. According to Herzberg, which of the following is a maintenance factor?

a. Salary

b. Work itself

c. Responsibility

d. Recognition

18. Functional managers are responsible

a. for a single area of activity

b. to the upper level of management and staff

c. for complex organisational sub-units

d. for obtaining copyrights and patents for newly developed processes and equipment

19. The problem-solving process begins with

a. clarification of the situation

b. establishment of alternatives

c. identification of the difficulty

d. isolation of the cause

20. Organisational behaviour is a field of study backed by a body of associated with growing
concern for people at workplace

a. Theory
b. Research
c. Application
d. All of the above
 PERSONALITY

QUES 1: WHY ARE SOME PEOPLE CONCERNED ABOUT THE QUALITY OF THE
JOB THEY DO WHILE OTHERS AREN’T? WHY ARE SOME PEOPLE PASSIVE AND
OTHERS VERY AGGRESSIVE? DISCUSS ABOUT PERSONALITY AND ITS
INFLUENCING FACTORS.

The manner in which a person acts and interacts is a reflection of his personality. Personality is
influenced by hereditary, as well as cultural and social factors. Regardless of how it’s defined,
however, psychologists generally accept certain principles about personality:

1. Personality is an organized whole; otherwise, the individual would have no meaning.

2. Personality appears to be organized into patterns that are to some degree observable and
measurable.

3. Although personality has a biological basis, its specific development is also a product of social
and cultural environments.

4. Personality has superficial aspects (such as attitudes toward being a team leader) and a deeper
core (such as sentiments about authority or the Protestant work ethic).

5. Personality involves both common and unique characteristics. Every person is different from
every other person in some respects while being similar to other persons in other respects.

These five ideas are included in this definition of personality: An individual’s personality is a
relatively stable set of characteristics, tendencies, and temperaments that have been significantly
formed by inheritance and by social, cultural, and environmental factors. This set of variables
determines the commonalities and differences in the behavior of the individual.

A review of the determinants shaping personality indicates that managers have little control over
them. But no manager should conclude that personality is an unimportant factor in workplace
behavior simply because it’s formed outside the organization. An employee’s behavior can’t be
understood without considering the concept of personality. In fact, personality is so interrelated
with perception, attitudes, learning, and motivation that any attempt to understand behavior is
grossly incomplete unless personality is considered.
There are several factors that influence the shaping of our personality. By observing the
behaviour of a person, we can understand which behaviour has what influence on the personality
characteristics of an individual.

1. Heredity:

Some characteristics of our behaviour are genetic, which we inherit. Some of the traits like
physical height, slimness, dexterity, intellectual capacity, ability to learn, logical power, etc. are
also inherited. All these have a significant influence on our behavioural patterns.

2. Family background:
The socio-economic status of the family, education of the parents, and other family members
shape the personality of an individual to a considerable extent. In fact, family members
themselves try to influence the behaviour of children in a desperate attempt to personify their
own values, roles, etc.

3. Nature of people with whom we interact:

People influence each other and such influences shape the personality. For this reason, we often
say that one’s personality is constantly evolving and is shaped throughout one’s life.

4. Culture:
Culture shapes our personal values and predispositions. It is the unique characteristic of a social
group. The values and norms shared by its member’s sets it apart from other social groups. The
essence of culture is the collective programming of the mind.

According to anthropological concepts, culture relates to a shared system of beliefs, attitudes,

possessions, attributes, customs, and values that define group behaviour. Values are assumptions
about ‘how things ought to be’ in the group. Thus, culture plays a significant role in influencing
the behaviour of an individual.

QUES 2: STATE THE DIFFERENT PERSONALITY THEORIES.

Three theoretical approaches to understanding personality are the trait approach, the
psychodynamic approach, and the humanistic approach.

Trait Personality Theories

Just as the young child always seems to be searching for la- bels by which to classify the world,
adults also label and classify people by their psycho- logical or physical characteristics.
Classification helps to organize diversity and reduce the many to a few. One approach is by
using trait personality theories. Gordon Allpost was the most influential of the trait theorists. In
his view, traits are the building blocks of personality, the guideposts for action, the source of the
individual’s uniqueness. Traits are inferred predispositions that direct the behavior of an
individual in consistent and characteristic ways. Furthermore, traits produce consistencies in
behavior because they’re enduring attributes, and they’re general or broad in scope.

Psychodynamic Personality Theories

The dynamic nature of personality wasn’t addressed seriously until Sigmund Freud’s work on
psychodynamic personality theories was published. Freud accounted for individual differences in
personality by suggesting that people deal with their fundamental drives differently. To highlight
these differences, he pictured a continuing battle between two parts of personality, the id and the
superego, moderated by the ego. The id is the primitive, unconscious part of the personality, the
storehouse of fundamental drives. It operates irrationally and impulsively, without considering
whether what’s de- sired is possible or morally acceptable. The superego is the storehouse of an
individual’s values, including moral attitudes shaped by society. The superego, which
corresponds roughly to conscience, is often in conflict with the id: the id wants to do what feels
good, while the superego insists on doing what’s “right.”

The ego acts as the arbitrator of the conflict. It represents the person’s picture of physical and
social reality, of what leads to what and of which things are possible in the perceived world. Part
of the ego’s job is to choose actions that gratify id impulses without having undesirable
consequences. Often the ego has to compromise, to try and satisfy both id and superego. This
sometimes involves using ego defense mechanisms—mental processes that resolve conflict
among psychological states and external realities.

Humanistic Personality Theories

Humanistic personality theories emphasize the individual’s growth and self-actualization and the
importance of how people perceive their world and all the forces influencing them. Carl Rogers’s
approach to understanding personality is humanistic (people centered). His advice is to listen to
what people say about themselves and to attend to those views and their significance in the
person’s experiences.

Rogers believes that the human organism’s most basic drive is toward self-actualization — the
constant striving to realize one’s inherent potential. It’s hard to criticize theories that are so
people centered. Some critics complain, how- ever, that the humanists never explain clearly the
origin of the mechanism for attaining self-actualization. Other critics point out that people must
operate in an environment largely ignored by the humanists; an overemphasis on self neglects the
reality of having to function in a complex environment. Each major theoretical approach
improves our understanding of personality.

Trait theories provide a catalog that describes the individual. Psychodynamic theories integrate
the characteristics of people and explain the dynamic nature of personality development.
Humanist theories emphasize the person and the importance of self-actualization to personality.
Each approach attempts to highlight the unique qualities of an individual that influence her
behavior patterns.
Measuring Personality Characteristics

Personality tests measure emotional, motivational, interpersonal, and attitudinal character- istics.
Hundreds of such tests are available to organizations. One of the most widely used, the
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) , consists of statements to which a person
responds true, false, or cannot say. MMPI items cover such areas as health, psychosomatic
symptoms, neurological disorders, and social attitudes, as well as many well- known neurotic or
psychotic manifestations such as phobias, delusions, and sadistic tendencies.

Managers in organizations aren’t enthusiastic about using the MMPI. It’s too psycho- logically
oriented, is associated with psychologists and psychiatrists, and has a reputation of being used to
help people with problems. A tool some managers find more comfortable is the 100-question
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) , briefly described in the accompanying OB at Work
feature. There is little empirical-based evidence that has dampened the use of the MBTI in
organizations. More than 2 million people a year in the United States complete the MBTI.
Projective tests, also used to assess personality, have people respond to a picture, an ink- blot, or
a story.

To encourage free responses, only brief, general instructions are given; for the same reason, the
test pictures or stories are vague. The underlying reason for this is that each individual perceives
and interprets the test material in a manner that displays his or her personality. That is, the
individual projects his or her attitudes, needs, anxieties, and conflicts. A behavioral measure of
personality involves observing the person in a particular situation.

For example, an individual may be given a specific work situation problem to solve. The
person’s problem-solving ability is studied in terms of the steps taken, time required to reach a
solution, and quality of the final decision. Each of these measures of personality has drawbacks:
Self-report tests have an accuracy problem; projective tests require a subjective interpretation by
a trained person; and behavioral measures rely on a small sample of a person’s behavior.

QUES 3: HOW IS PERSONALITY FORMED? DISCUSS THE DIFFERENT PHASES

OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMEMENT.

Personality development is the development of the organized pattern of behaviors and attitudes
that makes a person distinctive. Personality development occurs by the ongoing interaction
of temperament, character, and environment.
Description

Personality is what makes a person a unique person, and it is recognizable soon after birth. A
child's personality has several components: temperament, environment, and character.
Temperament is the set of genetically determined traits that determine the child's approach to the
world and how the child learns about the world. There are no genes that specify personality
traits, but some genes do control the development of the nervous system, which in turn controls
behavior.
A second component of personality comes from adaptive patterns related to a child's specific
environment. Most psychologists agree that these two factors—temperament and environment—
influence the development of a person's personality the most. Temperament, with its dependence
on genetic factors, is sometimes referred to as "nature," while the environmental factors are
called "nurture."
While there is still controversy as to which factor ranks higher in affecting personality
development, all experts agree that high-quality parenting plays a critical role in the development
of a child's personality. When parents understand how their child responds to certain situations,
they can anticipate issues that might be problematic for their child. They can prepare the child
for the situation or in some cases they may avoid a potentially difficult situation altogether.
Parents who know how to adapt their parenting approach to the particular temperament of their
child can best provide guidance and ensure the successful development of their child's
personality.
Finally, the third component of personality is character—the set of emotional, cognitive, and
behavioral patterns learned from experience that determines how a person thinks, feels, and
behaves. A person's character continues to evolve throughout life, although much depends on
inborn traits and early experiences. Character is also dependent on a person's moral
development.
In 1956, psychiatrist Erik Erikson provided an insightful description as to how personality
develops based on his extensive experience in psychotherapy with children and adolescents from
low, upper, and middle-class backgrounds. According to Erikson, the socialization process of an
individual consists of eight phases, each one accompanied by a "psychosocial crisis" that must be
solved if the person is to manage the next and subsequent phases satisfactorily. The stages
significantly influence personality development, with five of them occurring during infancy,
childhood, and adolescence .

Infancy

During the first two years of life, an infant goes through the first stage: Learning Basic Trust or
Mistrust (Hope) . Well-nurtured and loved, the infant develops trust and security and a basic
optimism. Badly handled, the infant becomes insecure and learns "basic mistrust."
Toddlerhood

The second stage occurs during early childhood, between about 18 months to two years and three
to four years of age. It deals with Learning Autonomy or Shame (Will) . Well-parented, the child
emerges from this stage with self-confidence, elated with his or her newly found control. The
early part of this stage can also include stormy tantrums , stubbornness, and negativism,
depending on the child's temperament.

Preschool

The third stage occurs during the "play age," or the later preschool years from about three to
entry into formal school. The developing child goes through Learning Initiative or Guilt
(Purpose) . The child learns to use imagination; to broaden skills through active play and
fantasy; to cooperate with others; and to lead as well as to follow. If unsuccessful, the child
becomes fearful, is unable to join groups, and harbors guilty feelings. The child depends
excessively on adults and is restricted both in the development of play skills and in imagination.

School age

The fourth stage, Learning Industry or Inferiority (Competence) , occurs during school age, up to
and possibly including junior high school. The child learns to master more formal skills:

 relating with peers according to rules

 progressing from free play to play that is structured by rules and requires teamwork (team
sports)
 learning basic intellectual skills (reading, arithmetic)

At this stage, the need for self-discipline increases every year. The child who, because of his or
her successful passage through earlier stages, is trusting, autonomous, and full of initiative, will
quickly learn to be industrious. However, the mistrusting child will doubt the future and will feel
inferior.

Adolescence

The fifth stage, Learning Identity or Identity Diffusion (Fidelity) , occurs during adolescence
from age 13 or 14. Maturity starts developing during this time; the young person acquires self-
certainty as opposed to self-doubt and experiments with different constructive roles rather than
adopting a negative identity, such as delinquency. The well-adjusted adolescent actually looks
forward to achievement, and, in later adolescence, clear sexual identity is established. The
adolescent seeks leadership (someone to inspire him or her), and gradually develops a set of
ideals to live by.
The Child Development Institute (CDI) rightfully points out that very little knowledge is
available on the type of specific environment that will result, for example, in traits of trust being
more developed in a person's personality. Helping the child through the various stages of
emotional and personality development is a complex and difficult task. Searching for the best
ways of accomplishing this task accounts for most of the research carried out in the field of child
development today.
Renowned psychologist Carl Rogers emphasized how childhood experiences affect personality
development. Many psychologists believe that there are certain critical periods in personality
development—periods when the child will be more sensitive to certain environmental factors.
Most experts believe that a child's experiences in the family are important for his or her
personality development, although not exactly as described by Erikson's stages, but in good
agreement with the importance of how a child's needs should to be met in the family
environment. For example, children who are toilet trained too early or have their toilet
training carried out too strictly may become rebellious. Another example is shown by children
who learn appropriate behavior to their sex lives when there is a good relationship with their
same-sex parent.
Another environmental factor of importance is culture. Researchers comparing cultural groups
for specific personality types have found some important differences. For example, Northern
European countries and the United States have individualistic cultures that put more emphasis on
individual needs and accomplishments. In contrast, Asian, African, Central American, and South
American countries are characterized more by community-centered cultures that focus on
belonging to a larger group, such as a family, or nation. In these cultures, cooperation is
considered a more important value than competitiveness, which will necessarily affect
personality development.
Common problems
Infants who are just a few weeks old display differences between each other in how active they
are, how responsive they are to change, and how irritable they are. Some infants cry constantly
while others seem happy and stay fairly quiet. Child development research conducted by the CDI
has identified nine temperamental traits that may contribute to a child's personality development
being challenging or difficult:

 activity level (how active the child is generally)

 distractibility (degree of concentration and paying attention when the child is not
particularly interested)
 intensity (how loud the child is)
 regularity (the predictability of biological functions like appetite and sleep)
 sensory threshold (how sensitive the child is to physical stimuli: touch, taste, smell,
sound, light)
 approach/withdrawal (characteristic responses of a child to a new situation or to
strangers)
 adaptability (how easily the child adapts to transitions and changes such as switching to a
new activity)
 persistence (stubbornness, inability to give up)
 mood (tendency to react to the world primarily in a positive or negative way)

Temperamental traits are enduring personality characteristics that are neither "good" nor "bad."
Early on, parents can work with the child's temperamental traits rather than oppose them. Later,
as the child grows up, parents can help the child to adapt to his or her own world in spite of
inborn temperament.

Parental concerns
Most children experience healthy personality development. However, some parents worry as to
whether their infant, child, or teenager has a personality disorder. Parents are usually the first to
recognize that their child has a problem with emotions or behaviors that may point to a
personality disorder.
Children with personality disorders have great difficulty dealing with other people. They tend
to be inflexible, rigid, and unable to respond to the changes and normal stresses of life and find it
very difficult to participate in social activities. When these characteristics are present in a child to
an extreme, when they are persistent and when they interfere with healthy development, a
diagnostic evaluation with a licensed physician or mental health professional is recommended.

MCQs

1. The trait that dominates a personality so much that it influences nearly everything a
person does is a:

a. Global Trait 
b. Cardinal Trait 
c. Specific trait 
d. Central Trait 
e. Secondary trait

2. The method of science requires that independent observers must:

a. verify data. 
b. state a hypothesis in a form that can be tested 
c. derive a hypothesis from theory 
d. All of the above 
e. None of the above

3. The more hot and humid the weather, the less clothing a person wears is an
example of:
a. moderate correlation 
b. low correlation 
c. negative correlation 
d. high positive correlation 
e. no relationship

 
 

4. Talkative vs. silent; frank, open vs. secretive; adventurous vs. cautious; sociable vs.
reclusive these traits describe which dimension of personality?

a. Agreeableness 
b. Conscientiousness 
c. Extraversion 
d. Culture 
e. Emotional Stability

5. Who is the pioneer that proposed the 16 basic dimensions of normal personality and
devised a questionnaire (16PF) to measure them?

a. Carl Jung 
b. Raymond Cattell 
c. Julian Rotter 
d. Gordon Allport 
e. None of the above

6. When analyzing a past president to describe his personality by coding letters or

speeches he has written, you are using a process called

a. Big Five 
b. content analysis 
c. personality assumptions 
d. Implicit Personality Theory 
e. cognitive approach
  
7. The best known lexical research on terms relevant to personality was conducted by
whom and how many terms were compiled in this study?

a. Sheldon/3 
b. Ancient Greeks/4 
c. Allport/17,953 
d. Gordon/5 
e. Cattell/18,835

  
8. During psychology you are falling asleep. You know last night you only got three
hours of sleep; therefore you have a valid reason. The person sitting in front of you is
sleeping also. You automatically think that they are lazy and really don�t care about
the class. This is an example of

a. Halo effect 
b. Implicit Personality Theory 
c. Observer bias 
d. stereotype 
e. None of the above

  
9. Sheldon proposed three different types of traits. The traits that would best describe
a football player would be:

a. mesomorph 
b. endomorph 
c. ectomorph 
d. activomorph 
e. None of the above

10. If you say that a movie is really good and you like it you would also assume that
your best friend would like it. What implicit personality theory is this?

a. stereotype 
b. perceived similarity 
c. Halo effect 
d. observer bias 
e. All of the above

11. Psychologists seek to understand Robs personality through his thoughts, beliefs
and their impact on his behavior in certain situations. This is known as the

a. trait approach 
b. humanistic approach 
c. cognitive approach 
d. psychoanalytic approach 
e. All of the above

12. Devins personality is researched through 3 factors: extraversion, neuroticism and

psychoticism. This personality trait model is called:

a. Eysencks Trait Model 

b. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator 
c. Smith Model 
d. Cattells Sixteen factor Model 
e. Big Five

13. What is the trait approach to personality?

a. Assumes that people are motivated by unconscious emotional conflicts 

b. Assumes that each individual has stable personality characteristics 
c. Assumes that peoples thoughts and beliefs are central to personality 
d. Assumes that people have an innate tendency to become self-actualized 
e. Assumes that people are motivated by conflicts originating in childhood

14. William Sheldon suggested that body build was associated with personality traits.
Which one best describes a person whos sensitive and intellectual?
a. conservative 
b. neurotic 
c. endomorph 
d. mesomorph 
e. ectomorph

15. Eysenck originally developed ________________, a highly researched factor

theory of personality.

a. an interpersonal trait model 

b. a sixteen factor model 
c. a three factor model 
d. the Big Five 
e. the Implicit personality theory

16. There are ———- trait dimensions did Cattell propose?

i) 2
ii) 3
iii) 16
iv) 117
v) None of these

17. Which of the following are the aim of behavioural genetics is to learn about:
(1) the possibility of eradicating behavioural problems in children
(2) the ability of animals to learn the language
(3) the extent to which geneticists can modify people’s behaviour
(4) the genetic and environmental influences on human behaviour
(5) all of the above
(6) none of these

18. Which of the following characteristics describe someone who, according to Maslow, is self-
actualized?
a. creativity
b. confidence
c. Spontaneity
d. None of these
e. all of the above

19. Which of the following is not a defence mechanism?

a.  ingratiation
b. regression
c projection
d. Sublimation
f. None of these

20. The MMPI is used to measure:

a. leadership potential
b. the Big Five traits
c. personality and psychological disorders
d. unconscious drives
e. all of the above

21. Which of the following would NOT be useful to a behavioural geneticist?

a. case studies
b. family studies
c. adoption studies
d. twin studies
e. none of these
 PERCEPTION
QUES 1: DISCUSS ABOUT PERCEPTION AND ITS PROCESS.

Perception is the process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting information. This process
includes the perception of select stimuli that pass through our perceptual filters, are organized
into our existing structures and patterns, and are then interpreted based on previous experiences.
Although perception is a largely cognitive and psychological process, how we perceive the
people and objects around us affects our communication. We respond differently to an object or
person that we perceive favorably than we do to something we find unfavorable. Perception is
the sensory experience of the world. It involves both recognizing environmental stimuli and
actions in response to these stimuli. Through the perceptual process, we gain information about
the properties and elements of the environment that are critical to our survival. Perception not
only creates our experience of the world around us; it allows us to act within our environment.
Perception includes the five senses; touch, sight, sound, smell, and taste. It also includes what is
known as proprioception, a set of senses involving the ability to detect changes in body positions
and movements. It also involves the cognitive processes required to process information, such as
recognizing the face of a friend or detecting a familiar scent.

Types of Perception

Some of the main types of perception include:

 Vision 
 Touch
 Sound
 Taste
 Smell

There are also other senses that allow us to perceive things such as balance, time, body position,
acceleration, and the perception of internal states. Many of these are multimodal and involve
more than one sensory modality. Social perception, or the ability to identify and use social cues
about people and relationships, is another important type of perception.

How It Works
The perceptual process is a sequence of steps that begins with the environment and leads to our
perception of a stimulus and action in response to the stimulus. It occurs continuously, but you
do not spend a great deal of time thinking about the actual process that occurs when you perceive
the many stimuli that surround you at any given moment.

For example, the process of transforming the light that falls on your retinas into an actual visual
image happens unconsciously and automatically. The subtle changes in pressure against your
skin that allow you to feel objects occur without a single thought.

Perception acts as a filter that allows us to exist and interpret the world without becoming
overwhelmed by the abundance of stimuli.

Steps in the Perceptual Process

1. The Environmental Stimulus

2. The Attended Stimulus
3. The Image on the Retina
4. Transduction
5. Neural Processing
6. Perception
7. Recognition
8. Action

Impact of Perception

In order to see the impact of perception, it can be helpful to look at how the process works. This
varies somewhat for every sense. In the case of visual perception:

1. The environmental stimulus: The world is full of stimuli that can attract attention
through various senses. The environmental stimulus is everything in the environment that
has the potential to be perceived.
2. The attended stimulus: The attended stimulus is the specific object in the environment
on which attention is focused.
3. The image on the retina: This involves light actually passing through the cornea and
pupil and onto the lens of the eye. The cornea helps focus the light as it enters the eye,
and the iris of the eye controls the size of the pupils in order to determine how much light
to let in. The cornea and lens act together to project an inverted image onto the retina.
4. Transduction: The image on the retina is then transformed into electrical signals in a
process known as transduction. This allows the visual messages to be transmitted to the
brain to be interpreted.
5. Neural processing: The electrical signals then undergo neural processing. The path
followed by a particular signal depends on what type of signal it is (i.e. an auditory signal
or a visual signal).
6. Perception: In this step of the process, you perceive the stimulus object in the
environment. It is at this point that you become consciously aware of the stimulus.
7. Recognition: Perception doesn't just involve becoming consciously aware of the stimuli.
It is also necessary for the brain to categorize and interpret what you are sensing. The
ability to interpret and give meaning to the object is the next step, known as recognition.
 8. Action: The action phase of perception involves some type of motor activity that occurs
in response to the perceived and recognized stimulus. This might involve a major action,
like running toward a person in distress, or something as subtle as blinking your eyes in
response to a puff of dust blowing through the air.

The perceptual process allows you to experience the world around you and interact with it in
ways that are both appropriate and meaningful.
Take a moment to think of all the things you perceive on a daily basis. At any given moment,
you might see familiar objects in your environment, feel the touch of objects and people against
your skin, smell the aroma of a home-cooked meal, and hear the sound of music playing in your
next-door neighbor's apartment. All of these things help make up your conscious experience and
allow you to interact with the people and objects around you.

There are some things that you can do that might help you perceive more in the world around
you—or at least focus on the things that are important.

 Pay attention. Perception requires you to attend to the world around you. This might
include anything that can be seen, touched, tasted, smelled, or heard. It might also
involve the sense of proprioception, such as the movements of the arms and legs or the
change in position of the body in relation to objects in the environment.
 Make meaning of what you perceive. The recognition stage is an essential part of
perception since it allows you to make sense of the world around you. By placing objects
in meaningful categories, you are able to understand and react appropriately.
 Take action. The final step of the perceptual process involves some sort of action in
response to the environmental stimulus. This could involve a variety of actions, such as
turning your head for a closer look or turning away to look at something else.

QUES 2: STATE THE IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT. DISCUSS THE THEORIES

INFLUENCING IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT.

d depend upon how rationally the threat from the new entrant or stranger
has been analyzed by the social group
d depend upon how rationally the threat from the new entrant or stranger
has been analyzed by the social group
d depend upon how rationally the threat from the new entrant or stranger
has been analyzed by the social group
Impression management is a conscious or subconsciousprocess in which people attempt
to influence the perceptionsof other people about a person, object or event by regulating and
controlling information in social interaction. It was first conceptualized by Erving Goffman in
1959 in The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, and then was expanded upon in 1967.
Impression management behaviors include accounts (providing "explanations for a negative
event to escape disapproval"), excuses (denying "responsibility for negative outcomes"), and
opinion conformity ("speak(ing) or behav(ing) in ways consistent with the target"), along with
many others. By utilizing such behaviors, those who partake in impression management are able
to control others' perception of them or events pertaining to them. Impression management is
possible in nearly any situation, such as in sports (wearing flashy clothes or trying to impress
fans with their skills), or on social media (only sharing positive posts). Additionally, impression
management theory can be utilized with both benevolent and malicious intent.
Another example of impression management theory in play is present in today's world of social
media. Users are able to create a profile and share whatever they like with their friends, family,
or the world. Users can choose to omit negative life events and highlight positive events if they
so please.
Impression management is usually used synonymously with self-presentation, in which a person
tries to influence the perception of their image. The notion of impression management was first
applied to face-to-face communication, but then was expanded to apply to computer-mediated
communication. The concept of impression management is applicable to academic fields of
study such as psychology and sociology as well as practical fields such as corporate
communication and media.

People have been pursuing socialization since their birth. They do develop relationships
with others and maintain them in order to meet their own physiological and psychological
needs in effective and efficient manner. While building relationships people must go
through the important process of socialization, which must be managed carefully. The
socialization requires them to interact with many people related to diverse backgrounds,
personalities, professions etc. The dissimilarities among people results into problems
while pursuing the process of socialization. Each stranger who is encountered by the
others is seen as a potential threat to the social group or organizations. The new
relationship would depend upon how rationally the threat from the new entrant or stranger
has been analyzed by the social group or organization. Hence, an entrant would be
examined according its physical appearance firstly, then its character would be brought
into play. Every individual needs to behave and act in such a manner that he is accepted by
people in a positive manner and then there comes the concept of impression
management.
Impression management, the process whereby someone tries to influence the
observations and opinions of others about something. All kinds of organisations consist of
individuals with variety of personal characteristics; therefore, those are important to
People have been pursuing socialization since their birth. They do develop relationships
with others and maintain them in order to meet their own physiological and psychological
needs in effective and efficient manner. While building relationships people must go
through the important process of socialization, which must be managed carefully. The
socialization requires them to interact with many people related to diverse backgrounds,
personalities, professions etc. The dissimilarities among people results into problems
while pursuing the process of socialization. Each stranger who is encountered by the
others is seen as a potential threat to the social group or organizations. The new
relationship would depend upon how rationally the threat from the new entrant or stranger
has been analyzed by the social group or organization. Hence, an entrant would be
examined according its physical appearance firstly, then its character would be brought
into play. Every individual needs to behave and act in such a manner that he is accepted by
people in a positive manner and then there comes the concept of impression
management.
Impression management, the process whereby someone tries to influence the
observations and opinions of others about something. All kinds of organisations consist of
individuals with variety of personal characteristics; therefore, those are important to
People have been pursuing socialization since their birth. They do develop relationships
with others and maintain them in order to meet their own physiological and psychological
needs in effective and efficient manner. While building relationships people must go
through the important process of socialization, which must be managed carefully. The
socialization requires them to interact with many people related to diverse backgrounds,
personalities, professions etc. The dissimilarities among people results into problems
while pursuing the process of socialization. Each stranger who is encountered by the
others is seen as a potential threat to the social group or organizations. The new
relationship would depend upon how rationally the threat from the new entrant or stranger
has been analyzed by the social group or organization. Hence, an entrant would be
examined according its physical appearance firstly, then its character would be brought
into play. Every individual needs to behave and act in such a manner that he is accepted by
people in a positive manner and then there comes the concept of impression
management.
Impression management, the process whereby someone tries to influence the
observations and opinions of others about something. All kinds of organisations consist of
individuals with variety of personal characteristics; therefore, those are important to
People have been pursuing socialization since their birth. They do develop relationships
with others and maintain them in order to meet their own physiological and psychological
needs in effective and efficient manner. While building relationships people must go
through the important process of socialization, which must be managed carefully. The
socialization requires them to interact with many people related to diverse backgrounds,
personalities, professions etc. The dissimilarities among people results into problems
while pursuing the process of socialization. Each stranger who is encountered by the
others is seen as a potential threat to the social group or organizations. The new
relationship would depend upon how rationally the threat from the new entrant or stranger
has been analyzed by the social group or organization. Hence, an entrant would be
examined according its physical appearance firstly, then its character would be brought
into play. Every individual needs to behave and act in such a manner that he is accepted by
people in a positive manner and then there comes the concept of impression
management.
Impression management, the process whereby someone tries to influence the
observations and opinions of others about something. All kinds of organisations consist of
individuals with variety of personal characteristics; therefore, those are important to
Motives
A range of factors that govern impression management can be identified. It can be stated that
impression management becomes necessary whenever there exists a kind of social situation,
whether real or imaginary. Logically, the awareness of being a potential subject of monitoring is
also crucial. Furthermore, the characteristics of a given social situation are important.
Specifically, the surrounding cultural norms determine the appropriateness of particular
nonverbal behaviours. The actions have to be appropriate to the targets, and within that culture,
so that the kind of audience as well as the relation to the audience influences the way impression
management is realized. A person's goals are another factor governing the ways and strategies of
impression management. This refers to the content of an assertion, which also leads to distinct
ways of presentation of aspects of the self. The degree of self-efficacy describes whether a
person is convinced that it is possible to convey the intended impression.
A new study finds that, all other things being equal, people are more likely to pay attention to
faces that have been associated with negative gossip than those with neutral or positive
associations. The study contributes to a body of work showing that far from being objective,
human perceptions are shaped by unconscious brain processes that determine what they "choose"
to see or ignore—even before they become aware of it. The findings also add to the idea that the
brain evolved to be particularly sensitive to "bad guys" or cheaters—fellow humans who
undermine social life by deception, theft or other non-cooperative behavior.

Self-presentation
Self-presentation is conveying information about oneself – or an image of oneself – to others.
There are two types and motivations of self-presentation:

 presentation meant to match one's own self-image, and

 presentation meant to match audience expectations and preferences.
Self-presentation is expressive. Individuals construct an image of themselves to claim personal
identity, and present themselves in a manner that is consistent with that image. If they feel like it
is restricted, they often exhibit reactance or become defiant – try to assert their freedom against
those who would seek to curtail self-presentation expressiveness. An example of this dynamic is
someone who grew up with extremely strict or controlling parental figures. The child in this
situation may feel that their identity and emotions have been suppressed, which may cause them
to behave negatively towards others.

 Boasting – Millon notes that in self-presentation individuals are challenged to balance

boasting against discrediting themselves via excessive self-promotion or being caught and
being proven wrong. Individuals often have limited ability to perceive how their efforts
impact their acceptance and likeability by others.
 Flattery – flattery or praise to increase social attractiveness
 Intimidation – aggressively showing anger to get others to hear and obey one's demands.
Self-presentation can be either defensive or assertive strategies (also described as protective
versus acquisitive). Whereas defensive strategies include behaviours like avoidance of
threatening situations or means of self-handicapping, assertive strategies refer to more active
behaviour like the verbal idealisation of the self, the use of status symbols or similar practices.[13]
These strategies play important roles in one's maintenance of self-esteem. One's self-esteem is
affected by their evaluation of their own performance and their perception of how others react to
their performance.
Social interaction
Goffman argued in his 1967 book, Interaction ritual, that people participate in social interactions
by performing a "line", or "pattern of verbal and nonverbal acts", which is created and
maintained by both the performer and the audience. By enacting a line effectively, the person
gains positive social value, which is also called "face". The success of a social interaction will
depend on whether the performer has the ability to maintain face. As a result, a person is required
to display a kind of character by becoming "someone who can be relied upon to maintain himself
as an interactant, poised for communication, and to act so that others do not endanger themselves
by presenting themselves as interactants to him". Goffman analyses how a human being in
"ordinary work situations presents himself and his activity to others, the ways in which he guides
and controls the impression they form of him, and the kinds of things he may and may not do
while sustaining his performance before them”.
When Goffman turned to focus on people physically presented in a social interaction, the "social
dimension of impression management certainly extends beyond the specific place and time of
engagement in the organization". Impression management is "a social activity that has individual
and community implications". We call it "pride" when a person displays a good showing from
duty to himself, while we call it "honor" when he "does so because of duty to wider social units,
and receives support from these duties in doing so".
Another approach to moral standards that Goffman pursues is the notion of "rules of conduct",
which "can be partially understood as obligations or moral constraints". These rules may be
substantive (involving laws, morality, and ethics) or ceremonial (involving etiquette). Rules of
conduct play an important role when a relationship "is asymmetrical and the expectations of one
person toward another are hierarchical.”
Dramaturgical analogy
Goffman presented impression management dramaturgically, explaining the motivations behind
complex human performances within a social setting based on a play metaphor. Goffman's work
incorporates aspects of a symbolic interactionist perspective, emphasizing a qualitative analysis
of the interactive nature of the communication process. Impression management requires the
physical presence of others. Performers who seek certain ends in their interest, must "work to
adapt their behavior in such a way as to give off the correct impression to a particular audience"
and "implicitly ask that the audience take their performance seriously".Goffman proposed that
while among other people individual would always strive to control the impression that others
form of him or her so that to achieve individual or social goals.

Manipulation and ethics

In business, "managing impressions" normally "involves someone trying to control the image
that a significant stakeholder has of them". The ethics of impression management has been hotly
debated on whether we should see it as an effective self-revelation or as cynical manipulation.
Some people insist that impression management can reveal a truer version of the self by adopting
the strategy of being transparent, which is a kind of . Because transparency "can be provided so
easily and because it produces information of value to the audience, it changes the nature of
impression management from being cynically manipulative to being a kind of useful adaptation".
QUES 3: EXPLAIN THE CONCEPT OF SELF IMAGE IN DETAIL.

“Self-image is how you perceive yourself. It is a number of self-impressions that have built up

over time… These self-images can be very positive, giving a person confidence in their thoughts
and actions, or negative, making a person doubtful of their capabilities and ideas.”

Self-Image vs. Self-Concept

Self-image and self-concept are strongly associated, but they’re not quite the same thing.

Self-concept is a more overarching construct than self-image; it involves how you see yourself,
how you think about yourself, and how you feel about yourself. In a sense, self-image is one of
the components that make up self-concept.

Self-Image vs. Self-Esteem

Similarly, self-image has a lot to do with self-esteem. After all, how we see ourselves is a big
contributing factor to how we feel about ourselves.

However, self-esteem goes deeper than self-image. Self-esteem is the overall sense of respect for
ourselves and involves how favorably (or unfavorably) we feel about ourselves.

Having a negative self-image can certainly influence self-esteem, and having low self-esteem is
likely to be accompanied by a negative self-image, but they are at least somewhat independent
“self” aspects.

How Identity is Related

Identity is also a closely related concept but is also a larger and more comprehensive one than
self-image. Identity is our overall idea of who we are. As self-concept and self-esteem expert
Roy Baumeister puts it:

“The term ‘identity’ refers to the definitions that are created for and superimposed on the self”

The Elements and Dimensions of Self-Image

Although there is no widely agreed-upon framework for the aspects of self-image, there are some
proposed types and dimensions. These come from Suzaan Oltmann, an independent distributor at
one of South Africa’s FET Colleges.
The three elements of a person’s self-image are:

1. The way a person perceives or thinks of him/herself.

2. The way a person interprets others’ perceptions (or what he thinks others think) of
him/herself.
3. The way a person would like to be (his ideal self).

The six dimensions of a person’s self-image are:

1. Physical dimension: how a person evaluates his or her appearance.

2. Psychological dimension: how a person evaluates his or her personality.
3. Intellectual dimension: how a person evaluates his or her intelligence.
4. Skills dimension: how a person evaluates his or her social and technical skills.
5. Moral dimension: how a person evaluates his or her values and principles.
6. Sexual dimension: how a person feels he or she fits into society’s masculine/feminine
norms.

These elements and dimensions offer a framework through which to view self-image, but
remember that this is not a known and widely accepted framework; rather, it is one possible way
of thinking about self-image.

10 Examples of Positive and Negative Self-Image

It’s pretty easy to distinguish between positive and negative self-image.

A positive self-image is having a good view of yourself; for example:

 Seeing yourself as an attractive and desirable person.

 Having an image of yourself as a smart and intelligent person.
 Seeing a happy, healthy person when you look in the mirror.
 Believing that you are at least somewhat close to your ideal version of yourself.
 Thinking that others perceive you as all of the above as well as yourself.

On the other hand, negative self-image is the flipside of the above; it looks like:

 Seeing yourself as unattractive and undesirable.

 Having an image of yourself as a stupid or unintelligent person.
 Seeing an unhappy, unhealthy person when you look in the mirror.
 Believing that you are nowhere near your ideal version of yourself.
 Thinking that others perceive you as all of the above as well as yourself.

The Importance of a Positive Self-Image

Distorted Self-Image and Self-Image Disorder

Having a distorted self-image means that you have a view of yourself that is not based in reality.
We all have slight variations and detachments from reality—maybe we think we’re a bit thinner
or heavier than we really are, for example—but when your self-image is greatly detached from
reality, it can cause serious emotional and psychological problems.

In fact, there is a disorder that centers on this distortion; it’s called Body Dysmorphic Disorder
(BDD). Here’s a description of BDD from the Anxiety and Depression Association of America:

“BDD is a body-image disorder characterized by persistent and intrusive preoccupations with

an imagined or slight defect in one’s appearance.”

We all have things we don’t love about ourselves or things we wish we could change, and we
might even occasionally exaggerate our flaws, but people with BDD are stuck in a much more
negative and dramatic state of mind when it comes to their perceived flaw(s).

Low Self-Image and Depression

As you might expect, low self-image can also be a driving factor and/or a product of depression.
When we feel bad about ourselves, it’s natural that our perception of ourselves can suffer.
Similarly, when our self-image takes a hit, it follows that we start to feel pretty bad about
ourselves and our lives.

An effective depression treatment will likely include some work on building and maintaining a
better self-image and, since they’re so closely related, that better self-image can also reinforce
the treatment and help you feel happier and healthier.

1. Our perceiving ourselves as athletic, overweight, smart, or shy constitutes our

a. egocentric beliefs
b. interdependent self
c. self-schemas
d. self-references

2. According to Hazel Markus and her colleagues, our "possible selves".

a. include our vision of the self we dream of becoming and the self we fear becoming
b. include only our vision of the self we hope we will become
c. are the specific self-schemas that determine our self-esteem
d. are the ideal images that close friends and relatives have of us

3. The tendency to process efficiently and remember well information related to oneself is called
the __________________ effect.

a. self-aggrandizing
b. self-schematizing
c. self-processing
d. self-reference

4. Self-esteem refers to

a. the sum total of our possible selves

b. our overall self-evaluation
c. the sum total of all our thoughts about ourselves
d. our most central self-schemas

5. When people are asked whether they would comply with demands to deliver cruel shocks or
would be hesitant to help a victim if several other people were present,

a. they overwhelmingly deny their vulnerability to such influences

b. they admit they might be influenced but in their actual behavior are not
c. males deny they would be influenced, but females admit they would be
d. they accurately predict their future behavior on such significant matters

6. Research has indicated that when people are asked to record their daily mood and the factors
that might influence it,

a. there is little relationship between their perception of how important a factor was and
how well the factor predicted their moods
b. females have better insight into what affects their moods than do males
c. people have much better insight into what influences their own moods than what influences
the mood of a friend
d. adults have better insight into what affects their moods than do children
7. Timothy Wilson suggests that the mental processes that ______________ our social behavior
are distinct from the mental processes through which we __________________ our behavior.

a. control; explain
b. evaluate; inhibit
c. produce; control
d. form; change

8. In nine experiments, Timothy Wilson and his colleagues found that people's expressed
attitudes predicted their later behavior reasonably well unless

a. their attitudes were inconsistent with social norms

b. the experimenter had them under surveillance
c. they were asked to rationally analyze their feelings before indicating their attitudes
d. they had little opportunity to reflect on their feelings before indicating their attitudes

9. According to the text, research on self-knowledge suggests that

a. people tend to underestimate their own abilities

b. people who have an interdependent self show less self-insight than those with an independent
self
c. people are highly accurate in predicting their own future behavior
d. people's self-reports are often untrustworthy

10. In comparison to people in Western cultures, people in Asian cultures are more likely to
demonstrate

a. learned helplessness
b. self-handicapping
c. self-serving bias
d. an interdependent self

2-11. What motto best represents societies that nurture an independent self?

a. No one is an island
b. Birds of a feather flock together
c. To think own self be true
d. One who hesitates is lost
12. An internal locus of control is to ___________________________ as unrealistic optimism is
to ___________________________.

a. self-presentation; self-serving bias

b. self-serving bias; fundamental attribution error
c. self-efficacy; self-serving bias
d. self-handicapping; self-efficacy

13. Bandura is to ________________________ as Rotter is to ______________________.

a. learned helplessness; self-serving bias

b. interdependent self; independent self
c. self-efficacy; locus of control
d. self-serving bias; fundamental attribution error

14. People who believe themselves internally controlled are more likely to

a. take unnecessary risks

b. engage in self-handicapping
c. be tolerant of racial differences
d. do well in school

15. Dogs who learn a sense of helplessness by being taught they cannot escape shocks

a. tend to band together and as a group demonstrate collective efficacy

b. tend to become highly aggressive in other situations
c. more readily take the initiative to escape punishment when that becomes possible
d. later fail to take the initiative in another situation when they can escape punishment

16. The fact that students tend to have a higher academic self-concept if they attend a school with
few exceptionally capable students is best explained in terms of

a. locus of control
b. self-handicapping
c. social comparison
d. self-monitoring

17. Research findings challenge the notion that

a. most people suffer from unrealistically low self-esteem
b. we tend to blame others for their own misfortune
c. we strive to protect and enhance our self-esteem
d. true humility consists of self-forgetfulness

18. Charles H. Cooley's concept of the "looking-glass self" recognizes that our self-concept is
shaped by

a. the roles we play

b. social comparison
c. success and failure experiences
d. other people's judgments

19. University students perceive themselves as far more likely than their classmates to
___________________________ and as far less likely to ___________________________.

a. draw a good salary; develop a drinking problem

b. obtain a divorce; own a home
c. travel to Europe; be happy in their work
d. become a mental patient; have close friendships

20. We tend to ___________________________ the commonality of our unsuccessful behaviors

and ___________________________ the commonality of our successful behaviors.

a. overestimate; underestimate
b. underestimate; overestimate
c. underestimate; underestimate
d. overestimate; overestimate
 LEARNING
QUES 1: EXPLAIN THE CONCEPT OF LEARNING. ASLO DISCUSS THE CONCEPT
OF THEORIES UPON LEARNING.

Learning can be defined as the permanent change in behavior due to direct and indirect
experience. It means change in behavior, attitude due to education and training, practice and
experience. It is completed by acquisition of knowledge and skills, which are relatively
permanent.

Nature of Learning

Nature of learning means the characteristic features of learning. Learning involves change; it
may or may not guarantee improvement. It should be permanent in nature, that is learning is for
lifelong.
The change in behavior is the result of experience, practice and training. Learning is reflected
through behavior.

Factors Affecting Learning

Learning is based upon some key factors that decide what changes will be caused by this
experience. The key elements or the major factors that affect learning are motivation, practice,
environment, and mental group.
Coming back to these factors let us have a look on these factors −
 Motivation − The encouragement, the support one gets to complete a task, to achieve a
goal is known as motivation. It is a very important aspect of learning as it acts gives us a
positive energy to complete a task. Example − The coach motivated the players to win
the match.
 Practice − We all know that ”Practice makes us perfect”. In order to be a perfectionist or
at least complete the task, it is very important to practice what we have
learnt. Example − We can be a programmer only when we execute the codes we have
written.
 Environment − We learn from our surroundings, we learn from the people around us.
They are of two types of environment – internal and external. Example − A child when
at home learns from the family which is an internal environment, but when sent to
school it is an external environment.
 Mental group − It describes our thinking by the group of people we chose to hang out
with. In simple words, we make a group of those people with whom we connect. It can
be for a social cause where people with the same mentality work in the same
direction. Example − A group of readers, travelers, etc.
These are the main factors that influence what a person learns, these are the root level for our
behavior and everything we do is connected to what we learn.

How Learning Occurs?

Learning can be understood clearly with the help of some theories that will explain our
behavior. Some of the remarkable theories are −

 Classical Conditioning Theory

 Operant Conditioning Theory
 Social Learning Theory
 Cognitive Learning Theory

Classical Conditioning Theory

The classical conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus is coupled with an unconditioned
stimulus. Usually, the conditioned stimulus (CS) is an impartial stimulus like the sound of a
tuning fork, the unconditioned stimulus (US) is biologically effective like the taste of food and
the unconditioned response (UR) to the unconditioned stimulus is an unlearned reflex response
like salivation or sweating.
After this coupling process is repeated (for example, some learning may already occur after a
single coupling), an individual shows a conditioned response (CR) to the conditioned stimulus,
when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone. The conditioned response is mostly similar to
the unconditioned response, but unlike the unconditioned response, it must be acquired through
experience and is nearly impermanent.

Operant Conditioning Theory

Operant conditioning theory is also known as instrumental conditioning. This theory is a

learning process in which behavior is sensitive to, or controlled by its outcomes.
Let’s take an example of a child. A child may learn to open a box to get the candy inside, or
learn to avoid touching a hot stove. In comparison, the classical conditioning develops a
relationship between a stimulus and a behavior. The example can be further elaborated as the
child may learn to salivate at the sight of candy, or to tremble at the sight of an angry parent.
In the 20th century, the study of animal learning was commanded by the analysis of these two
sorts of learning, and they are still at the core of behavior analysis.
Social Learning Theory

The key assumptions of social learning theory are as follows −

 Learning is not exactly behavioral, instead it is a cognitive process that takes place in a
social context.
 Learning can occur by observing a behavior and by observing the outcomes of the
behavior (known as vicarious reinforcement).
 Learning includes observation, extraction of information from those observations, and
making decisions regarding the performance of the behavior (known as observational
learning or modeling). Thus, learning can occur beyond an observable change in
behavior.
 Reinforcement plays an important role in learning but is not completely responsible for
learning.
 The learner is not a passive receiver of information. Understanding, environment, and
behavior all mutually influence each other.
Cognitive Learning Theory

Cognition defines a person’s ideas, thoughts, knowledge, interpretation, understanding about

himself and environment.
This theory considers learning as the outcome of deliberate thinking on a problem or situation
based upon known facts and responding in an objective and more oriented manner. It perceives
that a person learns the meaning of various objects and events and also learns the response
depending upon the meaning assigned to the stimuli.
This theory debates that the learner forms a cognitive structure in memory which stores
organized information about the various events that occurs.
Learning & Organizational Behavior
An individual’s behavior in an organization is directly or indirectly affected by learning.
Example − Employee skill, manager’s attitude are all learned.
Behavior can be improved by following the listed tips −
 Reducing absenteeism by rewarding employees for their fair attendance.
 Improving employee discipline by dealing with employee’s undesirable behavior,
drinking at workplace, stealing, coming late, etc. by taking appropriate actions like oral
reprimands, written warnings and suspension.
 Developing training programs more often so as to grab the trainees’ attention, provide
required motivational properties etc.
QUES 2: MENTION THE REWARD SYSTEM OF AN ORGANISATION.

Employees are at the heart of the business. You hired them to help you gain and maintain
success, and they are, at least initially, inspired to perform the work necessary to achieve your
goals. Rewarding your staff when they effectively fulfill your directives is an often
overlooked yet critical management tool. When properly administered and communicated, a
reward program can create and maintain a highly motivated employee force working for the
prosperity of the business.

Employee rewards are incentives given to staff members based on individual performance, team
performance, or the overall performance of the organization. These rewards may come in the
form of commission payments, one-time bonuses, pay raises, stock options, and "swag" such as
corporate discounts, sporting event tickets, and extra time off.

Offering rewards to your employees is one of the most effective ways to boost team morale,
motivate staff to work harder, and retain your top performers. While a reward system can involve
cash, there are many other types of incentives that can help you build a positive, productive work
team.

Measurable Business Strategy

The reward program can promote optimal fulfillment in your business if it is designed so your
employees' successful job performance is in line with your business objectives. Start by stating
a chief goal; then list the specific steps required to achieve it. For example, if a main goal is to
increase widget sales by 20 percent for all successive years, you have the basis to direct your
employees to complete specific duties to make that goal a reality. One such duty might be to
inform every customer who visits your store about the benefits of your widgets. You can
measure the increase in widget sales based on this strategy and reward your employees
accordingly. Employee rewards provide compelling motivation to continue fruitful behavior on
your behalf.

Monetary Reward Systems

The most common type of monetary reward system is an annual or semi-annual bonus. These
mid-year and end-of-year incentives are great for encouraging healthy competition between
employees with respect to performance and productivity. Other examples of monetary rewards
include cash awards, profit sharing plans, and stock options. In many industries, monetary
incentives are enough to get maximum productivity your of employees. This type of reward
system works best with employees who are motivated by cold, hard cash. 

Non-Monetary Reward Systems

A non-monetary reward system could be something as simple as a "top performer" or "employee
of the month" certificate. This type of reward satisfies an employee's psychological desire to be
recognized for his or her efforts. Other types of non-monetary rewards to consider are extra time
off, flexible work hours, corporate discounts (such as a gym membership), and free parking.

Employee Assistance Programs

Employee assistance programs are designed to help workers achieve greater work-life balance by
supporting employees' physical and psychological health. Some employee programs offer health-
related corporate discounts, such as fitness memberships. Other employee assistance programs
provide help to employees coping with work stress, family problems, and grief. Employee
assistance programs are a great way to support your staff members with their home
responsibilities so they'll give their best performance at work.

Employee Recognition Programs

Research shows that employees who are recognized for their contributions and accomplishments
tend to work harder and have more positive workplace attitudes. Employee recognition could be
as simple as verbal praise or as formal as an award ceremony. Depending on the type of
employee recognition given rewards can be doled out daily, weekly, or at the end of the month.
As with the other types of reward systems, employee recognition benefits both the employer and
the employee by helping create a more productive, positive work environment.

Types of Rewards

A system of monetary rewards, such as bonuses, should not be treated as part of regular pay.
Equate financial rewards with specific achievements. Your reward system can apply to
individuals or groups of people. For example, for meeting your annual profit goal, you could
offer profit sharing to the employee who contributed the most to your success or to an entire
team. Employee rewards can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic rewards are those that provide
employees with a sense of accomplishment; they include giving your employees autonomy or
providing opportunities for growth. Extrinsic rewards are tangible, such as offering stock
options or demonstrating employee recognition by presenting plaques or certificates before an
audience of their peers.

Timing and Method

To be effective, employee rewards should be presented regularly. However, work to guard

against rewards becoming automatic and expected, which could decrease employee motivation.
You can present rewards privately, or you might have an annual awards ceremony. If rewarded
annually, be sure to acknowledge the employee at the time he accomplishes the task and
indicate that he will be a reward recipient. Your method of bestowing rewards should reflect
the employees' level of productivity, with the highest rewards going to the most productive
people. You can create an added level of employee motivation by publicly announcing the
reward, such as in a news release.
Communication

An employee reward program is most effective when all employees fully understand the
system and your business goals. Upon hire and at subsequent opportunities throughout
employment, communicate the symbiotic nature of your goals and the corresponding rewards.
Creating excitement among employees for the program keeps it in the forefront of their
workdays and enables your entire staff to function at higher levels toward achieving your
business goals.

QUES 3: HOW TO ADMINISTER REINFORCEMENT? WHAT IS THE IMPACT OF

PUNISHMENT?

Reinforcement plays a central role in the learning process. According to the law of effect,
reinforcement can be defined as anything that both increases the strength of the response and
tends to induce repetitions of the behaviour that preceded the reinforcement. Reinforcement is
defined functionally also: Something is reinforcing only if it strengthens the response preceding
it and induces repetitions of the response.

Reinforcement is an external explanation of behaviour as compared to motivation which is

internal explanation of behaviour (being concerned with inner needs). Though, the terms
reinforcement and rewards are sometimes used interchangeably, still there is technical difference
in these terms. A reward is simply something that the person who presents it deems to be
desirable, it may not always be reinforcing.

In very simple words, Reinforcement refers to the consequences of behaviour. There are four
basic types of reinforcements in organisations. Positive reinforcement negative reinforcement,
punishment and extinction. The first two reinforces namely positive and negative reinforcements
both seek to encourage desirable behaviour by different approaches. The remaining two
enforcers namely punishment and extinction both seek to discourage undesirable behaviour
through different approaches.

Types of Reinforcement:
1. Positive Reinforcement:
A positive reinforcement is a reward for a desired behaviour. The reward should be such which
stimulates desired behaviour and strengthens the probability of repeating such behaviour in
future. Positive reinforces can be primary or secondary. Those reinforcements which have direct
beneficial consequences are known as primary reinforcements e.g. food, clothing and shelter.

Secondary reinforces also bring benefits but have different meanings for different individuals.
Money is the most powerful positive reinforcement because it can be used to purchase primary
reinforcers like food etc. Some other secondary reinforcers can be participation in decision
making, promotion, recognition and praise. There are a few conditions for the positive
reinforcement to be effective.

These are as explained below:

(i) The reward should be matched with the needs of the employees because all individuals have
different motivations for performance. Managers must either develop a reward system that is
appropriate for all members of their organisation or tailor their awards to suit each individual.
For example, for one employee money would be an enforcer, while for another praise for his
performance would be a more effective enforcer.

(ii) The reward must be contingent upon the type of performance. So that “The greater the degree
of performance of the employee, the greater should be reward.” Or in other words, the reward
must be directly linked with behaviour.

(iii) The timing of the reward is also very important. This is known as the principle of immediate
reinforcement. The reinforcement will have a more profound effect, if it is administered soon
after the desired behaviour has occurred. The longer the delay in giving the reward for the
desired behaviour the less effective such a reward will be as a positive reinforcer.

2. Negative Reinforcement:
Negative reinforcement is also known as ‘Avoidance learning’ or ‘Escape conditioning.’ As is
clear from these names, negative reinforcement takes place when individuals learn to avoid or
escape from unpleasant circumstances. Thus, negative reinforcement strengthens and increases
behaviour by the termination or withdrawal of an undesirable consequence.

Just like positive reinforcement, it is also a method of strengthening desired behaviour. But under
positive reinforcement, the employee works hard to get financial and other awards, whereas
under negative reinforcement, employee works hard to avoid or escape from unpleasant
consequences like reprimand from the boss.
For example, the manager may like his subordinates to come in formal clothes to the work place
and he may criticize individuals who dress informally or casually. To avoid criticism, the
employees may dress well to keep the manager happy. Thus, they are engaging in desirable
behaviour to avoid an unpleasant consequence.

Much lawful behaviour in our society is based on avoidance learning. For example, we park our
vehicle at the right parking space even if it is inconvenient, in order to avoid getting a ticket.
Thus, negative reinforcement is really a form of social blackmail because the person will behave
in a certain way in order not to be reprimanded. However, punishment or threat of punishment is
not implied in any of these actions. In work places, training, safety, warnings, orientation
sessions and counselling help employees against negative consequences of undesirable
behaviour. When coupled with positive reinforcement for appropriate behaviour, the effect can
be extremely beneficial.

3. Extinction:
Whereas positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the frequency of desirable
behaviour, extinction decreases the frequency of undesirable behaviour, especially when such
behaviours were previously rewarded, it refers to non-enforcement. Eliminating any
reinforcement that is maintaining a behaviour is called extinction. In other words, if rewards are
withdrawn for behaviours that were previously reinforced, the behaviour will probably become
less frequent and eventually die out.

The method involved is a suitable form of punishment in the form of withholding the positive
enforcement or simply ignoring the undesirable behaviour. For example, a college teacher, who
wishes to discourage mischievous students from disturbing the class by asking unnecessary
questions, can eliminate this behaviour by ignoring those students who raise their hands to ask
questions. Hand rising will become extinct when it is invariably met with an absence of
reinforcement.

From organisational point of view also, an employee who, for example, picks fight with
everybody and who is apparently punished or reprimanded by the supervisor may continue the
disruptions because of the attentions they bring. By ignoring or isolating the disrupting
employee, attention is withheld and possibly also the motivation for fighting.

It needs to be emphasized that even desirable behaviour will become extinct if rewards are
stopped. For example, an employee, who is very punctual in office and he is praised by his
supervisor (because of this habit) on one pretext or the other, will become casual in his behaviour
if the supervisor starts ignoring this quality of his and stops praising him in front of the other
employees or does not recommend him for a pay rise.

4. Punishment:
Punishment is anything that weakens behaviour and tends to decrease its subsequent frequency.
Punishment is the most controversial method of behaviour modification and involves delivering
an unpleasant consequence contingent upon the occurrence of an undesirable behaviour. Both
punishment and extinction have the effect of decreasing and eliminating the undesirable
behaviour, but technically, there is a difference.

Extinction is used to reduce undesirable behaviour that has been previously rewarded. The
punishment process, on the other hand, consists of application of an undesirable consequence or
withdrawal of a desirable consequence for an undesirable behaviour which has never been
associated with the reward before. A few common forms of punishment are harsh criticism,
withholding the pay, denying privileges, demotion or taking away the freedom of the employee
to do his job in his own way.

Punishment is the historic method of reducing or eliminating undesirable behaviour. But

sometimes, punishment frustrates the punished and leads to antagonism towards the punishing
agent. As a result the effectiveness of publishing agent reduces over time. For example, if an
employee is reprimanded by his manager for taking unauthorized work breaks, the behaviour
may stop but only when the manager is around when the manager is not visible the breaks may
occur once again. Accordingly, the management usually discourages application of any form of
punishment and usually the positive reinforcement techniques are preferred.

However, there are situations where punishment becomes necessary in behaviour modification.
Certain undesirable behaviours must be punished otherwise they will have far reaching effects.
For example, an employee who sexually harasses a co-worker should not go unpunished. But
because of the possible dangers of punishment, it must be administered properly.

The following points may be noted in this regard:

The four reinforcement strategies are illustrated below:

(i) Firstly, an old rule of thumb should be followed which is “Praise in public, punish in private,”
A private reprimand can be constructive, while a reprimand of an employee in front of others
could be highly embarrassing and is likely to cause undesirable emotional effects and behaviour.
(ii) Punishment should quickly follow the undesirable behaviour. It is more effective when
applied immediately after the undesirable behaviour is produced. Further, punishment should
follow every occurrence of the undesirable behaviour.

(iii) Thirdly, the punishment should focus on the behaviour and not on the person. The employee
should be informed clearly as to what he did wrong and what was the desired alternative
behaviour and the punishment should be fair, proportional, impersonal, consistent over time and
impartial.

iv) Punishment is effective in modifying behaviour if it forces the person to select a desirable
behaviour that is reinforced. If this is not done, the undesirable behaviour tends to reappear
causing fear and anxiety in the person being punished.

(v) Punishment must be administered carefully so that it does not become a reward for
undesirable behaviour.

1. In Operant conditioning procedure, the role of reinforcement is:

(a) Strikingly significant
(b) Very insignificant
(c) Negligible
(d) Not necessary
(e) None of the above

2. According to Skinnerian Operant conditioning theory, a negative reinforcement is:

(a) Nothing but punishment
(b) A biofeedback
(c) A withdrawing or removal of a positive reinforcer
(d) An instinctive drift
(e) None of the above
3. Behaviour therapists believe that the respondent or classical conditioning is effective in
dealing with the non-voluntary automatic behaviour, whereas the operant one is successful
predominantly with motor and cognitive behaviours, Thus, unadaptive habits such as nail
biting, trichotillomania, enuresis encopresis, thumb sucking etc. are satisfactorily dealt
within the :
(a) Classical Method
(b) Operant Method
(c) Trial and Error Method
(d) Insightful learning procedure
(e) None of the above
4. Current positive reinforcement requires the individual to imagine performing a
particular task or behaviour followed by a:
(a) Negative consequence
(b) Zero consequence
(c) Positive Consequence
(d) Neutral consequence
(e) None of the above
5. Aversion is one of the conditioning procedures used in:
(a) Non-directive therapy
(b) Psychoanalytic therapy
(c) Behaviour therapy
(d) Chemotherapy
(e) None of the above
6. A very useful principle of learning is that a new response is strengthened by:
(a) Punishment
(b) Reinforcement
(c) Biofeedback
(d) Discriminative Stimulus
(e) None of the above
7. In continuous reinforcement schedule (CRF), every appropriate response:
(a) Is reinforced
(b) Is not reinforced
(c) Is sometimes reinforced
(d) Is an instinctive drift
(e) None of the above
8. The continuous reinforcement schedule is generally used:
(a) In the last part of training
(b) In early stages of training
(c) In the middle period of training
(d) In both last and first part of training
(e) None of the above
9. In real life, reinforcement of every response (CRF) is:
(a) Of the nature of an exception rather than the rule
(b) Impossible
(c) Necessary
(d) Not necessary
(e) None of the above
10. Which schedule of reinforcement is a ratio schedule stating a ratio of responses to rein-
forcements?
(a) Variable Ratio Schedule
(b) Fixed Interval Schedule
(c) Variable Interval Schedule
(d) Fixed Ratio Schedule
(e) None of the above
11. Respondents are elicited and operants are not elicited but they are:
(a) Emitted spontaneously
(b) Emitted voluntarily
(c) Permanent responses
(d) Temporary responses
(e) None of the above
12. In which schedule of reinforcement, appropriate movements are reinforced after
varying number of responses?
(a) Fixed Ratio Schedule
(b) Fixed Interval Schedule
(c) Variable ratio Schedule
(d) Variable Interval Schedule
(e) None of the above
13. Which schedule of reinforcement does not specify any fixed number, rather states the
requirement in terms of an average?
(a) Variable Ratio Schedule
(b) Fixed Ratio Schedule
(c) Fixed Interval Schedule
(d) Variable Interval Schedule
(e) None of the above
14. As a rule, variable ratio schedule (VR) arrangements sustain:
(a) Low rates of responding
(b) High rates of responding
(c) Zero responding
(d) 90% of responding
(e) None of the above
15. Under conditions of variable ratio schedule, the only sensible way to obtain more rein-
forcements is through emitting:
(a) 50% responses
(b) 90% responses
(c) Less number of responses
(d) Greater number of responses
(e) None of the above
16. In which schedule of reinforcement, the experimenter (E) reinforces the first correct
response after a given length of dine?
(a) Fixed Ratio Schedule
(b) Fixed Interval Schedule
(c) Variable Ratio Schedule
(d) Variable Interval Schedule
(e) None of the above
17. In our daily life, watching for the pot of milk to boil may be somewhat similar to the
behaviour pattern observed in:
(a) Fixed Interval Schedule
(b) Fixed Ratio Schedule
(c) Variable Ratio Schedule
(d) Variable Interval Schedule
(e) None of the above
18. In which schedule of reinforcement, the delay intervals vary as per a previously decided
plan?
(a) Fixed Ratio Schedule
(b) Variable Ratio Schedule
(c) Fixed Interval Schedule
(d) Variable Interval Schedule
(e) None of the above
19. In our daily life, any kind of looking for things which occur without any reference to
our behaviour may illustrate the application of:
(a) Variable Interval Schedule
(b) Fixed Ratio
(c) Variable Ratio Schedule
(d) Fixed interval Schedule
(e) None of the above
20. In case of continuous reinforcement, we get the least resistance to extinction and the:
(a) Highest response rate during training
(b) 50% response rate during training
(c) Smallest response rate during training
(d) 90% response rate during training
(e) None of the above
21. The expression “Contingencies of reinforcement” occurs frequently in:
(a) Operant Conditioning Literature
(b) Classical Conditioning Literature
(c) Trial and Error Learning Literature
(d) Latent Learning Literature
(e) None of the above
22. Who illucidates the contiguity theory of reinforcement in the most pronounced and con-
sistent manner?
(a) C. Hull
(b) Guthrie
(c) Tolman
(d) Mc Dougall
(e) J. B. Watson
23. In comparison with drive-reduction or need- reduction interpretation, stimulus
intensity reduction theory has an added advantage in that:
(a) It offers a unified account of primary and learned drives as also of primary and
conditioned reinforcement
(b) It is very precise and placed importance on Trial and Error Learning
(c) It has some mathematical derivations which are conducive for learning theorists
(d) All learning theories can be explained through this
(e) None of the above
 MOTIVATION
QUES 1: WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY THE TERM ‘MOTIVATION’? WHAT ARE ITS
COMPONENTS, CHARACTERISTICS, TYPES AND IMPORTANCE?

Motivation is defined as inner burning passion caused by need, wants and desire which propels
an individual to exert his physical and mental energy to achieve desired objectives. Motivation
is goal-directed behavior. People are motivated when they expect that a course of action is
likely to lead to the attainment of a goal and a valued reward – one that satisfies their needs and
wants.

Motivation is the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals,
conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual needs. -Stephen P Robbins

It is the desire within an individual that stimulates him or her to action. -George R. Terry

It is the way in which urges, drives, desires, aspirations, strivings or needs direct, control or
explains the behaviour of human beings. -D.E. McFarland

Three Components of Motivation

1. Direction: what a person is trying to do.

2. Effort: how hard a person is trying.
3. Persistence: how long a person keeps on trying.

Dynamics of Motivation

Motivation is triggered by the psychological tension comes due to the unfulfilled need and drive
consumers to buy. Consumers strive consciously and unconsciously to bring down their tension
by selecting goals in anticipation of fulfilling their needs.
Basic idea of marketing is to identify and fulfill the needs. Marketers tend to fulfill unfelt or
dormant needs. Basic needs of consumer do not change but the product fulfilling the need may
change.
A product-focused towards the consumer need ensures that companies remain in forefront of the
search for new and effective solutions. This helps companies to survive and grow even in tough
competition.

Level of motivation
The level of motivation would depend on the intensity and urgency of need. Consumer
motivational levels may vary from low to high depending on how important is that purchase.
Besides, various Influences affecting consumers’ buying include familiarity with the purchase,
status factors and overall expense & value.

Where fulfillment rewards are low, as with routine purchases like salt, sugar, tea, shampoo etc.,
motivation levels are also relatively low and involve little decision-making behavior.

On the other hand, with a complex, risky and emotionally-charged process such as buying a new
car, the drive to achieve the best result is high.

Motivational behavior
The behavioral aspect of consumer motivation concerns the actions we take before purchasing
and consuming goods or services. We might do a lot of research-evaluating alternatives, testing,
and sampling before making a purchase decision.

Marketers aim to gain the most impact and eventual sales by linking their products and services
to clearly defined consumer needs and by understanding what motivates people to buy.

Types of Motivation
The two types of motivation are:
1. Intrinsic motivation
2. Extrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation can arise from self-generated factors that influence people’s behaviour. It
is not created by external incentives.
It can take the form of motivation by the work itself when individuals feel that their work is
important, interesting and challenging and provides them with a reasonable degree of autonomy
(freedom to act), opportunities to achieve and advance, and scope to use and develop their skills
and abilities.

Extrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation occurs when things are done to or for people to motivate them.
These include rewards, such as incentives, increased pay, praise, or promotion; and punishments,
such as disciplinary action, withholding pay, or criticism. Extrinsic motivators can have an
immediate and powerful effect, but will not necessarily last long.

Characteristics of Motivation

Characteristics of motivation are briefly explained below:

1. Motivation is a psychological phenomenon
2. Motivation is a continuous process
3. Motivation is caused due to anticipated perceived value from an action
4. Motivation varies from person to person and time to time
5. An individual is motivated by positive or negative motivation
Motivation is a psychological phenomenon
It is the inner desire of an individual to achieve something more. More is the individual
motivated better performance and organization relations.

Motivation is a continuous process

Since need and desire are endless so the need is a continuous phenomenon if one need is satisfied
the other need emerges.

Motivation is caused due to anticipated perceived value from an action

Perceived value is the probability or expectancy. motivation= value × expectancy.

Motivation varies from person to person and time to time

Motivation is different for different persons and it also varied according to time and place
because wants are different for different people, according to time and places.

An individual is motivated by positive or negative motivation

Positive motivation is based on incentives or reward. Incentive can be monetary and non-
monetary.
Negative motivation is based on penalties, calling for explanation, threats, fear, etc. Fear of
losing the job or promotion

Importance of Motivation

Broadly, the importance of motivation is as follow:

1. High level of performance
2. Low employee turn over and absenteeism
3. Acceptance of organization change
4. Organizational image

High level of performance

Organization must ensure that the employees have a high degree of motivation. A highly
motivated employee put extra effort into work and have a sense of belonging for the
organization.

The efficiency of work will be improved, wastage will be minimum which will result in the
increased productivity, and performance level will be high.

Low employee turn over and absenteeism

Low level of motivation is a root cause of low turnover and absenteeism. High level of
absenteeism causes a low level of production, poor quality, wastages and disruption in
production schedules.
Increased turnover is disastrous for any organization as it puts a strain on the financial position of
the organization due to additional recruitment, selection, training and development.

Acceptance of organization change

Social change and technology evolution happens in the external environment have greater impact
on the motivation of the employee. Management must ensure that the changes are introduced in
the organization and its benefits explained to the employees so that there is no resistance to
change and organizational growth is achieved.

Re-engineering, empowerment, job enrichment, job rotation, the introduction of new technology
and processes will go a long way to boost employee morale and achieve a high degree of
motivation.

Organizational image
Employees are the mirrors of any organization. Regular training & development programmes
should be organized to keep employee updated with latest skills. It will have a positive impact on
the employees and the image of the organization will be improved.

High organizational image will contribute towards the brand image of the product and services
the organization is marketing.

QUES 2: DESCRIBE THE VARIOUS MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES.

The Hawthorne Effect

During the 1920s, a series of studies that marked a change in the direction of motivational and
managerial theory was conducted by Elton Mayo on workers at the Hawthorne plant of the
Western Electric Company in Illinois. Previous studies, in particular Frederick Taylor’s work,
took a “man as machine” view and focused on ways of improving individual performance.
Hawthorne, however, set the individual in a social context, arguing that employees’ performance
is influenced by work surroundings and coworkers as much as by employee ability and skill. The
Hawthorne studies are credited with focusing managerial strategy on the socio-psychological
aspects of human behavior in organizations.

The following video from the AT&T archives contains interviews with individuals who
participated in these studies. It provides insight into the way the studies were conducted and how
they changed employers’ views on worker motivation.
The studies originally looked into the effects of physical conditions on productivity and whether
workers were more responsive and worked more efficiently under certain environmental
conditions, such as improved lighting. The results were surprising: Mayo found that workers
were more responsive to social factors—such as their manager and coworkers—than the factors
(lighting, etc.) the researchers set out to investigate. In fact, worker productivity improved when
the lights were dimmed again and when everything had been returned to the way it was before
the experiment began, productivity at the factory was at its highest level and absenteeism had
plummeted.

What happened was Mayo discovered that workers were highly responsive to additional attention
from their managers and the feeling that their managers actually cared about and were interested
in their work. The studies also found that although financial incentives are important drivers of
worker productivity, social factors are equally important.

There were a number of other experiments conducted in the Hawthorne studies, including one in
which two women were chosen as test subjects and were then asked to choose four other workers
to join the test group. Together, the women worked assembling telephone relays in a separate
room over the course of five years (1927–1932). Their output was measured during this time—at
first, in secret. It started two weeks before moving the women to an experiment room and
continued throughout the study. In the experiment room, they were assigned to a supervisor who
discussed changes with them and, at times, used the women’s suggestions. The researchers then
spent five years measuring how different variables affected both the group’s and the individuals’
productivity. Some of the variables included giving two five-minute breaks (after a discussion
with the group on the best length of time), and then changing to two ten-minute breaks (not the
preference of the group).

Changing a variable usually increased productivity, even if the variable was just a change back to
the original condition. Researchers concluded that the employees worked harder because they
thought they were being monitored individually. Researchers hypothesized that choosing one’s
own coworkers, working as a group, being treated as special (as evidenced by working in a
separate room), and having a sympathetic supervisor were the real reasons for the productivity
increase.

The Hawthorne studies showed that people’s work performance is dependent on social issues
and job satisfaction. The studies concluded that tangible motivators such as monetary incentives
and good working conditions are generally less important in improving employee productivity
than intangible motivators such as meeting individuals’ desire to belong to a group and be
included in decision making and work.

Need-Based Theories
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Human motivation can be defined as the fulfillment of various needs. These needs can
encompass a range of human desires, from basic, tangible needs of survival to complex,
emotional needs surrounding an individual’s psychological well-being.

Abraham Maslow was a social psychologist who was interested in a broad spectrum of human
psychological needs rather than on individual psychological problems. He is best known
for his hierarchy-of-needs theory. Depicted in a pyramid (shown in Figure 1), the theory
organizes the different levels of human psychological and physical needs in order of importance.

Figure 1. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is illustrated here. In some versions of the pyramid,
cognitive and aesthetic needs are also included between esteem and self-actualization. Others
include another tier at the top of the pyramid for self-transcendence.

The needs in Maslow’s hierarchy include physiological needs (food and clothing), safety needs
(job security), social needs (friendship), self-esteem, and self-actualization. This hierarchy can be
used by managers to better understand employees’ needs and motivation and address them in
ways that lead to high productivity and job satisfaction.
At the bottom of the pyramid are the physiological (or basic) human needs that are required for
survival: food, shelter, water, sleep, etc. If these requirements are not met, the body cannot
continue to function. Faced with a lack of food, love, and safety, most people would probably
consider food to be their most urgent need.

Once physical needs are satisfied, security (sometimes referred to as individual safety) takes

precedence. Security and safety needs include personal security, financial security, and health
and well-being. These first two levels are important to the physical survival of the person. Once
individuals have basic nutrition, shelter, and safety, they seek to fulfill higher-level needs.

The third level of need is social, which includes love and belonging; when individuals have
taken care of themselves physically, they can address their need to share and connect with others.
Deficiencies at this level, on account of neglect, shunning, ostracism, etc., can impact an
individual’s ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships. Humans need to
feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group or a small
network of family and friends. Other sources of social connection may be professional
organizations, clubs, religious groups, social media sites, and so forth. Humans need to love and
be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. Without these attachments, people can
be vulnerable to psychological difficulties such as loneliness, social anxiety, and depression.
These conditions, when severe, can impair a person’s ability to address basic physiological needs
such as eating and sleeping.

The fourth level is esteem, which represents the normal human desire to be valued and validated
by others, through, for example, the recognition of success or status. This level also includes
self-esteem, which refers to the regard and acceptance one has for oneself. Imbalances at this
level can result in low self-esteem or an inferiority complex. People suffering from low self-
esteem may find that external validation by others—through fame, glory, accolades, etc.—only
partially or temporarily fulfills their needs at this level.

At the top of the pyramid is self-actualization. At this stage, people feel that they have reached
their full potential and are doing everything they’re capable of. Self-actualization is rarely a
permanent feeling or state. Rather, it refers to the ongoing need for personal growth and
discovery that people have throughout their lives. Self-actualization may occur after reaching an
important goal or overcoming a particular challenge, and it may be marked by a new sense
of self-confidence or contentment.

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Clayton Paul Alderfer is an American psychologist who developed Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
into a theory of his own. Alderfer’s ERG theory suggests that there are three groups of core
needs: existence (E), relatedness (R), and growth (G)—hence the acronym ERG. These groups
align with Maslow’s levels of physiological needs, social needs, and self-actualization needs,
respectively.

Existence needs concern our basic material requirements for living. These include what Maslow
categorized as physiological needs (such as air, food, water, and shelter) and safety-related needs
(such as health, secure employment, and property).
Relatedness needs have to do with the importance of maintaining interpersonal relationships.
These needs are based in social interactions with others and align with Maslow’s levels of
love/belonging-related needs (such as friendship, family, and sexual intimacy) and esteem-
related needs (gaining the respect of others).

Finally, growth needs to describe our intrinsic desire for personal development. These needs
align with the other portion of Maslow’s esteem-related needs (self-esteem, self-confidence, and
achievement) and self-actualization needs (such as morality, creativity, problem-solving, and
discovery).

Alderfer proposed that when a certain category of needs isn’t being met, people will redouble
their efforts to fulfill needs in a lower category. For example, if someone’s self-esteem is
suffering, he or she will invest more effort in the relatedness category of needs.

McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory

Psychologist David McClelland’s acquired-needs theory splits the needs of employees into

three categories rather than the two we discussed in Herzberg’s theory. These three categories
are achievement, affiliation, and power.

Employees who are strongly achievement-motivated are driven by the desire for mastery. They

prefer working on tasks of moderate difficulty in which outcomes are the result of their effort
rather than luck. They value receiving feedback on their work.

Employees who are strongly affiliation-motivated are driven by the desire to create and maintain
social relationships. They enjoy belonging to a group and want to feel loved and accepted. They
may not make effective managers because they may worry too much about how others will feel
about them.

Employees who are strongly power-motivated are driven by the desire to influence, teach, or

encourage others. They enjoy work and place a high value on discipline. However, they may take
a zero-sum approach to group work—for one person to win, or succeed, another must lose, or
fail. If channeled appropriately, though, this approach can positively support group goals and
help others in the group feel competent.

The acquired-needs theory doesn’t claim that people can be neatly categorized into one of three
types. Rather, it asserts that all people are motivated by all of these needs in varying degrees and
proportions. An individual’s balance of these needs forms a kind of profile that can be useful in
creating a tailored motivational paradigm for her. It is important to note that needs do not
necessarily correlate with competencies; it is possible for an employee to be strongly affiliation-
motivated, for example, but still be successful in a situation in which her affiliation needs are not
met.
 McClelland proposes that those in top management positions generally have a high need for
power and a low need for affiliation. He also believes that although individuals with a need for
achievement can make good managers, they are not generally suited to being in top management
positions.

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

The idea that a manager’s attitude has an impact on employee motivation was originally
proposed by Douglas McGregor, a management professor at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology during the 1950s and 1960s. In his 1960 book, The Human Side of Enterprise,
McGregor proposed two theories by which managers perceive and address employee motivation.
He referred to these opposing motivational methods as Theory X and Theory Y management.
Each assumes that the manager’s role is to organize resources, including people, to best benefit
the company. However, beyond this commonality, the attitudes and assumptions they embody
are quite different.

Theory X

According to McGregor, Theory X management assumes the following:

 Work is inherently distasteful to most people, and they will attempt to avoid work whenever
possible.
 Most people are not ambitious, have little desire for responsibility, and prefer to be directed.
 Most people have little aptitude for creativity in solving organizational problems.
 Motivation occurs only at the physiological and security levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
 Most people are self-centered. As a result, they must be closely controlled and often coerced to
achieve organizational objectives.
 Most people resist change.
 Most people are gullible and unintelligent.

Essentially, Theory X assumes that the primary source of employee motivation is monetary, with
security as a strong second. Under Theory X, one can take a hard or soft approach to getting
results.

The hard approach to motivation relies on coercion, implicit threats, micromanagement, and tight
controls— essentially an environment of command and control. The soft approach, however, is
to be permissive and seek harmony in the hopes that, in return, employees will cooperate when
asked. However, neither of these extremes is optimal. The hard approach results in hostility,
purposely low output, and extreme union demands. The soft approach results in a growing desire
for greater reward in exchange for diminished work output.
 It might seem that the optimal approach to human resource management would lie somewhere
between these extremes. However, McGregor asserts that neither approach is appropriate, since
the basic assumptions of Theory X are incorrect.

Drawing on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, McGregor argues that a need, once satisfied, no longer
motivates. The company uses monetary rewards and benefits to satisfy employees’ lower-level
needs. Once those needs have been satisfied, the motivation disappears. Theory X management
hinders the satisfaction of higher-level needs because it doesn’t acknowledge that those needs are
relevant in the workplace. As a result, the only way that employees can attempt to meet higher-
level needs at work is to seek more compensation, so, predictably, they focus on monetary
rewards. While money may not be the most effective way to self-fulfillment, it may be the only
way available. People will use work to satisfy their lower needs and seek to satisfy their higher
needs during their leisure time. However, employees can be most productive when their work
goals align with their higher-level needs.

McGregor makes the point that a command-and-control environment is not effective because it
relies on lower needs for motivation, but in modern society those needs are mostly satisfied and
thus are no longer motivating. In this situation, one would expect employees to dislike their
work, avoid responsibility, have no interest in organizational goals, resist change, etc.—creating,
in effect, a self-fulfilling prophecy. To McGregor, a steady supply of motivation seemed more
likely to occur under Theory Y management.

Theory Y

The higher-level needs of esteem and self-actualization are ongoing needs that, for most people,
are never completely satisfied. As such, it is these higher-level needs through which employees
can best be motivated.

In strong contrast to Theory X, Theory Y management makes the following assumptions:

 Work can be as natural as play if the conditions are favorable.

 People will be self-directed and creative to meet their work and organizational objectives if they
are committed to them.
 People will be committed to their quality and productivity objectives if rewards are in place that
address higher needs such as self-fulfillment.
 The capacity for creativity spreads throughout organizations.
 Most people can handle responsibility because creativity and ingenuity are common in the
population.
 Under these conditions, people will seek responsibility.

Under these assumptions, there is an opportunity to align personal goals with organizational
goals by using the employee’s own need for fulfillment as the motivator. McGregor stressed that
Theory Y management does not imply a soft approach.

McGregor recognized that some people may not have reached the level of maturity assumed by
Theory Y and may initially need tighter controls that can be relaxed as the employee develops.
 If Theory Y holds true, an organization can apply the following principles of scientific
management to improve employee motivation:

 Decentralization and delegation: If firms decentralize control and reduce the number of levels
of management, managers will have more subordinates and consequently need to delegate some
responsibility and decision making to them.
 Job enlargement: Broadening the scope of an employee’s job adds variety and opportunities to
satisfy ego needs.
 Participative management: Consulting employees in the decision-making process taps their
creative capacity and provides them with some control over their work environment.
 Performance appraisals: Having the employee set objectives and participate in the process of
self-evaluation increases engagement and dedication.

If properly implemented, such an environment can increase and continually fuel motivation as

employees work to satisfy their higher-level personal needs through their jobs.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

American psychologist Frederick Herzberg is regarded as one of the great original thinkers in

management and motivational theory. Herzberg set out to determine the effect of attitude on
motivation, by simply asking people to describe the times when they felt really good, and really
bad, about their jobs. What he found was that people who felt good about their jobs gave very
different responses from the people who felt bad.

The results from this inquiry form the basis of Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
(sometimes known as Herzberg’s “Two Factor Theory”). Published in his famous article, “One
More Time: How do You Motivate Employees,” the conclusions he drew were extraordinarily
influential, and still form the bedrock of good motivational practice nearly half a century later.
He’s especially recognized for his two-factor theory, which hypothesized that are two different
sets of factors governing job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction:  “hygiene factors,” or extrinsic
motivators and “motivation factors,” or intrinsic motivators.

Hygiene factors, or extrinsic motivators, tend to represent more tangible, basic needs—i.e., the
kinds of needs included in the existence category of needs in the ERG theory or in the lower
levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Extrinsic motivators include status, job security, salary,
and fringe benefits. It’s important for managers to realize that not providing the appropriate and
expected extrinsic motivators will sow dissatisfaction and decrease motivation among
employees.

Motivation factors, or intrinsic motivators, tend to represent less tangible, more emotional
needs—i.e., the kinds of needs identified in the “relatedness” and “growth” categories of needs
in the ERG theory and in the higher levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Intrinsic motivators
include challenging work, recognition, relationships, and growth potential. Managers need
to recognize that while these needs may fall outside the more traditional scope of what
a workplace ought to provide, they can be critical to strong individual and team performance.

The factor that differentiates two-factor theory from the others we’ve discussed is the role of
employee expectations. According to Herzberg, intrinsic motivators and extrinsic motivators
have an inverse relationship. That is, intrinsic motivators tend to increase motivation when they
are present, while extrinsic motivators tend to reduce motivation when they are absent. This is
due to employees’ expectations. Extrinsic motivators (e.g., salary, benefits) are expected, so they
won’t increase motivation when they are in place, but they will cause dissatisfaction when they
are missing. Intrinsic motivators (e.g., challenging work, growth potential), on the other hand,
can be a source of additional motivation when they are available.

If management wants to increase employees’ job satisfaction, they should be concerned with the
nature of the work itself—the opportunities it presents employees for gaining status, assuming
responsibility, and achieving self-realization. If, on the other hand, management wishes to reduce
dissatisfaction, then it must focus on the job environment—policies, procedures, supervision, and
working conditions. To ensure a satisfied and productive workforce, managers must pay
attention to both sets of job factors.
QUES 3: HOW MOTIVATION IS IMPORTANT IN ORGANISATIONS?

In all enterprises whether private or state owned, motivation plays a key role in driving employees
towards achieving their goals, organizational goals and to a certain extent the dreams of their
nations. There are many theories of motivation, and they mostly give a relation or influence the
outcomes of employee job satisfaction. There are three main theory categories, namely content
theories, process theories and contemporary theories.

Generally speaking, these theories include Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Herzberg’s motivator-
hygiene (or two-factor) theory, Alderfer’s Existence, Relatedness and Growth theory, and
McClelland’s needs theory. How motivation comes about and how it leads to satisfaction is
explained by process theories; theories that fall into this category include Porter-Lawler’s model
and expectancy theory by Vroom. Contemporary theories of motivation incorporate equity,
control and agency theory, as well as goal setting, reinforcement, and job design theory. The
theories of motivation maybe categorized according to their definitions and purpose but critical
analysis reveal that they are all linked, they lead to serving satisfaction in employees. The use of
both content and process theories must be put into practice to motivate employees effectively. In
extrinsic motivation, the factors (hygiene’s) that satisfy lower-level needs are different from those
(motivators) that satisfy or partially satisfy higher–level needs.

If hygiene factors (factors outside the job itself, such as working conditions, salary and incentive
pay) are inadequate, employees become dissatisfied. Instead of relying on hygiene’s, the manager
interested in creating a self-motivated workforce should emphasize job content or motivation
factors. Managers do this by enriching worker’s jobs so that the jobs are more challenging and by
providing feedback and recognition. Rewards as the main factor of motivation can also encourage
retention within the organization, and the broader employment relationship and social exchange
are significant. Motivation’s whole idea is to provide employees with sureties of job security, nice
working condition, loyalty and belonging to the enterprise, as well as the workforce given some
challenges.

Motivation can be understood as cognitive decision making in which the intension is to make the
behavior that is aimed at achieving a certain goal through initiation and monitoring. At work
places, reviews are done using appraisals and appraisals at work have predetermined standards, and
their outcome may provoke an emotional reaction in the employee, and this reaction will determine
how satisfied or dissatisfied an employee is. Good marks in reviews may reflect that an employee
is satisfied and bad marks may reflect the opposite. In every employee, motivation maybe because
outside factors (extrinsic) such as rewards or within an individual (intrinsic), desire to do better.

Motivation can emanate from with an employee with a passion and desire to work and produce
results. This kind of motivation is self-driven by an employee in order to elevate his feelings to
accomplish. However, in extrinsic motivation, an external factor such as a reward is used to boost
the employee’s moral and desire to work. As is a normal case, employees work in exchange for
compensation for their hard labour but how far they go depends on how motivated they are.

The individuals desire to perform, and provide services to customers; with the mandate to do good
is enough factor to motivate. Performance at work is related to the employees pay of which the
employee may not have control of that reward as it is external. Apart from rewards, there are other
factors that are external such as promotion at work, security of the job, salary increment that may
give meaning to employees motivation. Therefore, for organizations to continue existing and
retaining its workforce, they must keep on working on strategies that can help in motivating its
employees. Motivated employees have a sense of belonging and loyalty to the organization and
always work hard to be associated with the results of their labour.

Motivation have effect on employees as individuals to achieve and as well as ability to be

innovative because they believe in themselves which will benefit the organization to succeed. A
motivated worker is easy to be retained hence saving the organization finances of replacing
workers, also it encourages workers to always achieve more on daily productions as they are
having a sense of security of their work. Management will have time to attend to other important
issues because their motivated workforce can build teams that can help with the supervision and
production of work.

Motivation is very much needed for employees in an organisation to be productive, and

management or leadership style has an important role to play. Motivation is not always based on
financial rewards, but non-financial rewards methods can also be used to derive the best out of
employees. Although individuals have their expectations, it is the leadership’s responsibility to
develop and align with theories that are suitable to bring job satisfaction to their employees.
However, there is no single reliable theory to be used, a mixture of them can be utilized.

In terms of empowering workforce, employees should be encouraged and given a platform to voice
out their concerns on how they can be motivated. Rewards and promotions following performance
appraisals maybe used to boost employee’s moral as well as feedback. All employees should
understand the company’s vision and goals and work together towards those.

In some organizations, workers perform their duties in an assembly whereby if a certain section of
employees is affected it will affect the whole plant. Employees perform their duties diligently if
they are inspired and motivated as the results will always be positive with efficient production.
Organizations which are results oriented will go all the way to motivate their employees for them
to reach their goals.

1. Who has given the hierarchy of needs hierarchy theory of motivation?

A. Abraham Maslow
B. David McClelland
C. Victor Vroom
D. Frederick Herzberg
E. Douglas McGregor

Maslow first introduced his concept of a hierarchy of needs in his 1943 paper “A Theory of
Human Motivation”
Q2. How many levels are there in Needs Hierarchy theory of motivation?
A. 6
B. 5
C. 4
D. 3
E. 2

There are five different levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

3. Which among the following is not one of the needs of human being as Needs theory of
motivation?
2. Physiological need
3. Safety need
4. Social need
5. Esteem need

4. Which among the following is the highest level need under Need Hierarchy Theory of
Motivation?
A. Physiological Need
B. Safety and Security Needs
C. Social Needs
D. Self-esteem Needs
E. Self Actualization Needs

5. Which among the following is the lowest level need under Need Hierarchy Theory of
Motivation?
A. Physiological Need
B. Safety and Security Needs
C. Social Needs
D. Self-esteem Needs
E. Self Actualization Needs

6. Name the motivation theory that is based on Satisfaction-progression?

A. Alderfer – ERG theory
B. Maslow – hierarchy of needs theory
C. Herzberg – Two factor theory
D. Skinner’s reinforcement theory
E. Vroom’s expectancy theory
Satisfaction-progression stands for moving up to higher-level needs based on satisfied needs.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model
of human needs. The theory states that humans are motivated to fulfill their needs in a
hierarchical order. This order begins with the most basic needs before moving on to more
advanced needs. The ultimate goal, according to this theory, is to reach the fifth level of the
hierarchy: self-actualization.

7. According to Maslow’s need hierarchy theory motivation, the lower level of human
needs emanates from _____
A. Need of maintaining a given economic level
B. Needs like food, clothing, shelter, air, water
C. Need of individuals to associate, belong with others
D. Need for power, self respect, autonomy, self confidence,
E. Need of sense of achievement

8. Which among the following is not a deficiency need that arises due to deprivation?
A. Physiological Need
B. Safety and Security Needs
C. Social Needs
D. Self-esteem Needs
E. Self Actualization Needs

Physiological, security, social, and esteem needs are deficiency needs, which arise due to
deprivation. Satisfying these lower-level needs is important in order to avoid unpleasant feelings
or consequences

9. Which among the following is the correct order of Maslows’ Need Hierarchy Theory of
Motivation starting from lower to higher level need?
A. Safety and Security Needs, Physiological Need, Social Needs, Self-esteem Needs, Self
Actualization Needs
B. Social Needs, Physiological Need, Safety and Security Needs, Self-esteem Needs, Self
Actualization Needs
C. Physiological Need, Safety and Security Needs, Social Needs, Self-esteem Needs, Self
Actualization Needs
D. Self Actualization Needs , Physiological Need, Safety and Security Needs, Social Needs,
Self-esteem Needs
E. Safety and Security Needs, Physiological Need, Social Needs, Self Actualization Needs,
Self-esteem Needs

10. Which among the following theories can be considered as an extension of Maslows’
Need Hierarchy Theory of Motivation?
 A. Alderfer – ERG theory
B. Maslow – hierarchy of needs theory
C. Herzberg – Two factor theory
D. Skinner’s reinforcement theory
E. Vroom’s expectancy theory

Rearrange the six steps of motivation logically.

A. Engages in goal - directed behaviour

B. Reassess needs deficiencies
C. Performs
D. Identifies needs
E. Searches for ways to satisfy the needs
F. Receives either rewards or punishment

a. DFCAEB
b. BCDEAF
c. DEACFB
d. ABCDEF

12. ___________ is the name given to a philosophy and set of methods and techniques that
stressed the scientific study and organisation of work at the operational level.

a. Scientific Management
b. Human Relations Model
c. Two factor theory
d. Achievement motivation theory

13. Rearrange the steps of Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory.

A. Self - Actualisation Needs

B. Physiological needs
C. Belongingness and love needs
D. Self - esteem needs
E. Safety needs

a. ABCDE
b. ADCBE
c. DCBEA
d. ADCEB

14. Which of the following is a content theory?

a. Expectancy theory
b. ERG Theory
c. Equity theory
d. None of the above

15. State true or false

i. Needs reflect either physiological or psychological deficiencies.

a. True
b. False

16. Who propounded the Need's Theory

a. Frederick Herzberg
b. Alderfer
c. Abraham Harold Maslow
d. None of the above

17. The two factor theory is based on which factors?

a. Hygiene and behavioural

b. Safety and self - esteem
c. Self - actualisation and status quotient
d. None of the above

18. What does "E", "R" and "G" stand for in the ERG theory?
a. Export, Risk and Guarantee
b. Exponential, Reliability and Growth
c. Existence, Relatedness and Growth
d. None of the above

19. Which of the following is a need that motivates human behaviour as per the
achievement motivation theory?
a. Power
b. Affiliation
c. Achievement
d. All of the above

20. Which of the following is a process theory?

a. Achievement Motivation theory
b. Performance - satisfaction model
c. ERG theory
d. Two factor theory
 LEADERSHIP

QUES 1: DISCUSS ABOUT LEADERSHIP AND ITS STYLES.

Leadership can be defined as the ability of the management to make sound decisions and inspire
others to perform well. It is the process of directing the behavior of others towards achieving a
common goal. In short, leadership is getting things done through others.

Importance of Leadership

Leadership is very important in a firm as it leads to higher performance by the team members, it
improves motivation and morale within the members, and helps to respond to change.
Leadership facilitates organizational success by creating responsibility and accountability
among the members of the organization. In short, it increases value in an organization.

Leader Vs Manager

A leader is someone whom people follow or someone who guides or directs others. A manager
is someone who is responsible for directing and controlling the work and staff in an
organization, or of a department within it.
The main difference between the two is that a leader works by example, while a manager
dictates expectations. If a manager goes against the rules, that will tarnish his position as a
manager. If a leader goes against the example he or she is trying to set, that will be seen as a
setback. Following are a few subtle differences between the two −
 A leader is an innovator and creator whereas a manager is a commander.
 A leader can’t be a manager but the opposite is possible, a manager is more than a leader.
 A leader does what is right, while the manager makes things right.
 A leader deals with change whereas a manager plans for a change.
 A leader gives direction to do something whereas the manager plans for everything that
is to be done.
 A leader encourages people whereas the manager controls people.
 A leader handles communication, credibility, and empowerment whereas a manager
deals with organizing and staffing.

Leadership Styles
Different leadership styles exist in work environments. The culture and goal of an organization
determine which leadership style fits best. Some organizations offer different leadership styles
within an organization, depending on the necessary tasks to complete and departmental needs.

We find five different leadership styles in the corporate world. They are as follows –

Laissez-Faire

A laissez-faire leader does not directly supervise employees and fails to provide regular updates
to those under his supervision. Highly experienced and trained employees with minimal
requirement of supervision fall under the laissez-faire leadership style.
But, not all employees possess these features. This leadership style blocks the production of
employees needing supervision. The laissez-faire style implements no leadership or supervision
efforts from managers, which can lead to poor production, lack of control and increasing costs.

Autocratic

The autocratic leadership style permits managers to make decisions alone without the input of
others. Managers access total authority and impose their will on employees. No one opposes the
decisions of autocratic leaders. Countries like Cuba and North Korea operate under the
autocratic leadership style.
This leadership style benefits those who require direct supervision. Creative employees who
participate in group functions detest this leadership style.

Participative

This is also known as the democratic leadership style. It values the input of team members and
peers, but the responsibility of making the final decision rests with the participative leader.
Participative leadership motivates employee morale because employees make contributions to
the decision-making process. It accounts to a feeling that their opinions matter.
When an organization needs to make changes within itself, that is internally, the participative
leadership style helps employees accept changes easily as they play a role in the process. This
leadership style meets challenges when companies need to make a decision in a short period of
time.
Transactional
Transactional leadership style is formed by the concept of reward and punishment.
Transactional leaders believe that the employee's performance is completely dependent on these
two factors. When there is an encouragement, the workers put in their best effort and the bonus
is in monetary terms in most of the cases. In case they fail to achieve the set target they are
given a negative appraisal.
Transactional leaders pay more attention to physical and security requirements of the
employees.

Transformational

Transformational leadership has the ability to affect employee's perceptions through the returns
that organization gets in the form of human capital benefits. These leaders have the ability to
reap higher benefits by introducing knowledge management processes, encouraging
interpersonal communication among employees and creating healthy organizational culture.
It helps in flourishing organizational innovation by creating a participative environment or
culture. It promotes a culture where the employees have autonomy to speak about their
experiences and share knowledge.
It has been seen that transformational leaders are more innovative than transactional and laisse-
faire leaders.

Traditional Theory

Traditional theory is a theory based on different traits of a human beings. It assumes that leaders
are born and not made. According to this theory, leadership behavior is the sum total of all traits
that a leader possess.
Thus this theory gives the profile of a successful and complete leader. According to this theory,
there are five human traits. They are −
 Physical trait − it includes energy, activity, appearance, and height.
 Ability trait − it includes judgement, knowledge, and fluency in speech.
 Personal trait − it includes self-confidence, creativity, and enthusiasm.
 Work trait − it includes organization and achievement.
 Social trait − it includes interpersonal skill, cooperativeness, popularity and prestige.
Drawbacks

Following are the major drawbacks of this theory −

  Traits are not arranged according to their importance.
 There is no quantitative tool to judge the human traits.
 This trait can’t be used universally.
 This trait can be achieved and developed.
 Situational factors are avoided.

QUES 2: EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENT THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP.

A leader is someone who influences others to attain the goals of a group or organization. As a
small business owner, you are the leader of your organization and would probably like to know
what makes some leaders successful while others have less success. This is where theories of
leadership in organizational behavior come in.

The truth is that there is no magic formula. There is no fixed set of characteristics that make
one a better leader in all circumstances. However, that doesn’t mean you can’t be a successful
leader. When you have an understanding of leadership theories and concepts, then you
should be able to pick the approach that works for you, depending on your unique
circumstances.

Below are the most well-known organizational leadership models.

The Trait Theory of Leadership

According to trait theory, there are specific traits that  are shared by all successful leaders. In
fact, when the earliest forms of this theory were declared, leadership was considered to be an
innate quality; a trait in and of itself, that some people are born with. However, over time, the
theory was refined to show that many of these leadership traits can be acquired by those who
have not had the good fortune of being born with them.

Traits that are common to leaders include empathy, integrity, likeability, critical thinking,

decision making, assertiveness, and many others. All of these are traits that prove important
when helping others and can be developed.

No Guarantee

A disclaimer must be made here. Having any of these traits, in any  given combination, does
not guarantee that the owner of the traits is going tosucceed as a leader. It should be
understood that a trait isn’t an internal quality; a trait is an external manifestation of our
internal mental processes. It is the beliefs and perspectives we hold within ourselves that make
for our ability to be effective and successful leaders.
Certain traits will, therefore, manifest themselves as a result of these internal processes. To
work on the trait rather than the internal process that generates it is to put the cart before the
horse.

The Behavioral Theory of Leadership

According to behavioral theory, a leader is as a leader does, so the focus is on the common
behaviors of leaders. In that case, there are many types of behaviors exhibited by leaders all
around the world and throughout history. There are leaders whose word is law, and there are
those that prefer to allow the people to have a hand in the decision-making process.

Which are better? Again, it all depends, and there is no magic formula even here.

According to the framework developed by Kurt Lewin in the 1930s, there are 3 types of
leadership under behavioral leadership theory:

Autocratic Leadership: These are the leaders who do not consult their subordinates
when making decisions in the workplace. Once the decisions have been made the subordinates
are expected to cooperate with them with no objections. This  type of leadership certainly has
an environment where it is highly effective. When decisions have to  be made fast, and the
leader has extensive knowledge and experience, needing little input, then they can use
autocratic leadership to their advantage.

Autocratic leadership also works in situations where goals and outcomes are  quite clear, and
the agreement of the team with the leader’s decisions is not necessary for the outcome to be
successful.

Democratic Leadership: A democratic leader seeks the input of their subordinates

before making a decision. The exact degree of input that the leader wants from their team will
vary with the leader. Democratic leadership works in situations where the agreement of the
team is necessary for a successful outcome. It also works when the team is cohesive and well-
aligned with its goals.

There should also be a time for deliberations before decisions are made. This kind of
leadership can be difficult in situations where the team is so diverse as to have too  many
different ideas and perspectives.

Laissez-Faire Leadership: This type of leader does not involve themselves in the dealings of

their subordinates. They give their subordinates the leeway to make their own decisions and
direct their own work. To be sure, this type of leadership can work in certain situations, such as
where a team is composed of highly skilled and experienced individuals who are competent,
motivated, and capable of taking initiative, therefore not requiring any kind of supervision.

It doesn’t work very well outside of this very particular environment. In fact, most of the time,
laissez-faire leadership is the result of a lazy and distracted leader, and it fails more often than
not.
 The behavior of a leader will directly affect a team's performance. According to studies that
have been conducted over the years, each of these leadership styles is appropriate in different
situations. A good leader is one who can use the right style in the right circumstances.

The Functional Theory of Leadership

According to this theory, the leader has one main responsibility: to assess the needs of their
followers and then meet those needs. They are also tasked with other functions that relate to
this one main responsibility:

 To monitor the environment within which their subordinates work.

 To organize activities for their followers so that everyone always has something to do.
 _To train their subordinates and increase their knowledge and skill sets.
 To motivate and inspire their followers.
 To participate in the activities of the group. This is important as it forces them to have skin in
the game and builds trust in them among their followers.

The Transformational Theory of Leadership

According to this theory, the leader is tasked with seeing the bigger picture in every situation
and motivating their followers to attain greater goals and execute the group’s vision. This type
of leadership demands that the leader be clearly visible to followers and that they are
accessible at all times. They should constantly look for new ideas and ways to realize the goals
of the group.

The Transactional Theory of Leadership

According to this theory, a leader is defined by an ability to reward those who perform well
and to punish those who do not. A leader should have a specific goal for followers to work
toward. A leader should also have the ability to train followers to give them the ability to work
towards that goal. From there they should evaluate their followers’ performance and determine
whether it is satisfactory. They should also have the authority to reward those followers who
meet their objectives and punish those who do not.

The Environmental Theory of Leadership

According to this theory, it is the work of a leader to create the right kind of environment,

where their followers will flourish. By using psychological principles, they should be able to
build the right kind of environment for the motivation of their followers and then make that
environment self-sustaining.

According to this theory, a good leader will give the group the right kind of culture that
motivates followers to meet their objectives out of care for the benefit of the group, rather than
from coercion. Environmental leaders do not lead, as much as they create the right kind
of environment, in which workers work toward group goals, out of their own will.
Situational Contingency Theories

Situational contingency theories maintain that the situation is the ultimate factor in the
leadership style adopted by a leader. With that in mind, there is no single ultimate leadership
style. Autocratic leadership works in times of intense crisis, whereas democratic leadership
works in times of relaxation. Situations dictate the most appropriate type of leadership style
for other leadership styles, as well.

QUES 3: MENTION THE CURRENT ISSUES IN THE LEADERSHIP. ALSO EXPLAIN

THE TERM EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE.

Leadership is the process of influencing the behavior of others to work willingly and
enthusiastically for achieving predetermined goals. It may be seen in terms of relationship
between a leader and his followers (individuals / groups) which arises out of their functioning for
common goals. The followers work willingly to achieve goal, thus there is no coercive force
which induces the followers to work.

LEADERS AS Shapers of Meaning Framing Issues. Framing is a way to use language to manage
meaning. It’s a way for leaders to influence how events are seen and understood.

Contemporary roles relating to lead team as managing the conflicts; coaching to improve team
member performance; used to serve as troubleshooters. It seems to respond in a group in which
they have to participate with the leader. It involves mentor who is a senior employee who
sponsors and supports a less experienced employee. Leadership can be taught online as it builds
trust in the working environment of the organization.

Challenges facing to leadership can be on the basis of qualities attributed as leaders are
intelligent, ongoing, have strong verbal skills, understanding, are aggressive and industrious.
Actually they perceive or project the appearance of being a leader. Many people today are
seeking to understand — and many people are writing about — the concept and practices of
leadership.. The concept of leadership is relevant to any aspect of ensuring effectiveness in
organizations and in managing change.

There has been an explosion of literature about leadership lately. Leading is a very human
activity — we’re all human — so there are many people who consider themselves experts on
leadership. There are a great many reasons for the popularity of the topic, including that
organizations are faced with changes like never before. Understanding the concept of leadership
requires more than reading a few articles or fantasizing about what great leaders should be.

Contemporary issues includes

[1] Out of the box thinking;

[2] Leading by example;

[3] Globalization;

[4] Changing group dynamics;

[5] Technology;

[6] quick decision making;

[7] Dealing with change and uncertainty;

[8] Mentoring;

[9] Ethical behavior;

[10] Recruiting and retaining quality workers.

Now, managerial and leadership effectiveness depends on the ability to gain the trust of the
followers. A recent survey in U.S. employees found that only half trusted their senior manager.
Also the bad practices of corporations in the U.S. like the leaders of ENRON, WORLDCOM, etc
that were accused of engaging in activities like secret loans, insider trading, manipulating profit
figures, evading taxes all these has lost the confidence and trust of employees and investors,
supplier, customers in senior executives.

Unfortunately, many people make strong assertions about leadership without ever really
understanding a great deal about leadership. Leaders need basic intelligence and job related
knowledge but this is not enough. They are necessary but not sufficient. It is emotional
intelligence that makes him a star performer. These are:

 Self-awareness exhibited by self confidence, realistic self assessment and a sense of

humor.
 Self management. Exhibited by trustworthiness, integrity, and comfort with ambiguity,
openness to change.
 Self motivation: exhibited by strong drive to achieve, optimism, and high organizational
commitment.
 Empathy cross cultural sensitivity, expertise in building talents.

Emotional Intelligence

Leaders forge relationships with groups or individuals. The individual relationships tend to be
more intellectual but, in both cases, good leader’s exhibit highly developed “emotional” or
“social intelligence.” They are self-aware, socially skilled, disciplined and able to deal capably
with other people. People with emotional intelligence think before they act, focus on their goals,
understand other people’s emotions and have the skill to establish common grounds for
discussion.
In this instance, scholars concluded that even the most talented executive cannot succeed without
emotional intelligence. Some major corporations that wanted to encourage future leaders in their
ranks hired psychologists to sort out leadership characteristics. The psychologists found that
leaders are smart and have solid, long-term vision, but that their emotional intelligence is twice
as important as either intellect or vision. One study shows that companies where the employees
have high emotional intelligence earn higher profits. The reverse is also demonstrably true. A
workforce marked by a lack of emotional intelligence can mean lower profits.

Leaders can learn emotional intelligence. People who know their limitations can plan to avoid
stressful situations or to work around events that tug at their weaknesses. One-on-one training is
the best way to learn how to improve your emotional intelligence. Such training focuses on
correcting undesirable social habits, such as acting impulsively or being a bad listener. Because
this process requires people to correct brain-based emotional drives, it is time-consuming.

MCQs

1. ___________ is increasing Leadership rapidly:

A. Strategy
B. Command
C. Control
D. Getting others to follow

2. Regarding leadership, which statement is false?

A. Leadership does not necessarily take place within a hierarchical structure of an organisation
B. When people operate as leaders their role is always clearly established and defined
C. Not every leader is a manager
D. All of the above
3. __________ are the approaches to the study of leadership which emphasise the
personality of the leader:
A. Contingency theories
B. Group theories
C. Trait theories
D. Inspirational theories

4. The effectiveness of a leader is dependent upon meeting _______ areas of need within the
workgroup:
A. One
B. Three
C. Five
D. None of the above
5. Needs, setting standards and maintaining discipline, and appointing sub-leaders
according to Adair’s approach, called as:
A. Work functions
B. Task functions
C. Individual functions
D. Team functions

6. The Ohio State Leadership Studies revealed _____________ and initiating structure as
two major dimensions of leadership behaviour:
A. Control
B. Communication
C. Collaboration
D. Consideration

7. _________ used the terms “employee-centred” and “production-centred” to describe

leader behaviour:
A. Blake and McCanse
B. Fiedler
C. McGregor
D. Likert

8. Identify the four main styles of leadership displayed by the manager which identified in
Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s continuum of possible leadership behaviour:
A. Tells, help, joins and leads
B. Commands, sells, consults and resists
C. Tells, sells, consults and joins
D. Commands, help, joins and leads
9. Contingency theories of leadership based upon:
A. That there is no single style of leadership appropriate to all situations
B. That there is a single style of leadership appropriate to all managers
C. That there is a single style of leadership appropriate to all situations
D. None of the above

10. Leaders with a low LPC score gain satisfaction from _______________ according to
Fiedler’s LPC scale:
A. Developing team relationships
B. Achieving objectives
C. Both of these
D. None of the above
11. Model of leadership based on which aspects of a leader’s decision is Vroom and
Yetton’s contingency?
A. Decision acceptance
B. Decision quality
C. Both of these
D. None of the above

12. An individual’s motivation is dependent on:

A. Whether path-goal relationships are clarified
B. Expectations that increased effort to achieve an improved level of performance will be
successful
C. Their effective performance
D. The necessary direction, guidance, training and support is provided

13. What is one characteristic about the Authoritarian leadership style?

o A. Leader relies less on auhtority more on themselves
o B. Leader accepts power and knowledge of the members
o C. Leader tells others what to do

14. What is one characteristic of a Laissez-Faire leadership style?

A. Leader gives opinion only when asked

B. Leader takes charge

C. Everyone works together and particpates together

15. The leadership theories can be classified into:

1.
A. Trait Theory
B. Style theories
C. Contingency Theories
D. All of the above

16. Trait Theory –

A. is based on the basic assumption that people are born with special traits that make
them leaders.
B. focus on what leaders do and their behavior.
 C. are based on the view that the most effective leadership style in a given situation
is contingent upon the circumstances of the situation.
D. All of the above

17. Style theories –

A. is based on the basic assumption that people are born with special traits that make
them leaders.
B. focus on what leaders do and their behavior.
C. are based on the view that the most effective leadership style in a given situation
is contingent upon the circumstances of the situation.
D. All of the above

18. Contingency Theories –

A. is based on the basic assumption that people are born with special traits that make
them leaders.
B. focus on what leaders do and their behavior.
C. are based on the view that the most effective leadership style in a given situation
is contingent upon the circumstances of the situation.
D. All of the above

19. Style theories comprise of theories including:

I. Lippitt and White’s leadership styles
II. Blake and Mouton’s Managerial (Leadership) Grid
III. Tannenbaum and Schmidt Continuum of Leadership
IV. The Ashridge model
V. Likert’s leadership styles

A. All of the above

B. (I) and (III) only
C. (III) and (IV) only
D. None

20. Contingency theories of leadership have been developed by:

A. Fiedler
B. Hersey and Blanchard
C. Handy
D. All of the above
 GROUPS DYNAMICS & UNDERSTANDING
WORK GROUPS AND TEAMS

QUES 1: WHAT IS THE MEANING OF GROUP DYNAMICS? HOW IT IS FORMED

AND DEVELOPED IN PRGANISATIONS?

A group can be defined as several individuals who come together to accomplish a particular task
or goal. Group dynamics refers to the attitudinal and behavioral characteristics of a group. Group
dynamics concern how groups form, their structure and process, and how they function. Group
dynamics are relevant in both formal and informal groups of all types. In an organizational
setting, groups are a very common organizational entity and the study of groups and group
dynamics is an important area of study in organizational behavior.
The following sections provide information related to group dynamics. Specifically, the
formation and development of groups is first considered. Then some major types or
classifications of groups are discussed. Then the structure of groups is examined.

GROUP DEVELOPMENT
As applied to group development, group dynamics is concerned with why and how groups
develop. There are several theories as to why groups develop. A classic theory, developed by
George Homans, suggests that groups develop based on activities, interactions, and sentiments.
Basically, the theory means that when individuals share common activities, they will have more
interaction and will develop attitudes (positive or negative) toward each other. The major
element in this theory is the interaction of the individuals involved.
Social exchange theory offers an alternative explanation for group development. According to
this theory, individuals form relationships based on the implicit expectation of mutually
beneficial exchanges based on trust and felt obligation. Thus, a perception that exchange
relationships will be positive is essential if individuals are to be attracted to and affiliate with a
group.
Social identity theory offers another explanation for group formation. Simply put, this theory
suggests that individuals get a sense of identity and self-esteem based upon their membership in
salient groups. The nature of the group may be demographically based, culturally based, or
organizationally based. Individuals are motivated to belong to and contribute to identity groups
because of the sense of belongingness and self-worth membership in the group imparts.
Group dynamics as related to development concerns not only why groups form but also how.
The most common framework for examining the "how" of group formation was developed by
Bruce Tuckman in the 1960s. In essence, the steps in group formation imply that groups do not
usually perform at maximum effectiveness when they are first established. They encounter
several stages of development as they strive to become productive and effective. Most groups
experience the same developmental stages with similar conflicts and resolutions.
According to Tuckman's theory, there are five stages of group development: forming, storming,
norming, performing, and adjourning. During these stages group members must address several
issues and the way in which these issues are resolved determines whether the group will succeed
in accomplishing its tasks.

1. Forming. This stage is usually characterized by some confusion and uncertainty. The
major goals of the group have not been established. The nature of the task or leadership
of the group has not been determined (Luthans, 2005). Thus, forming is an orientation
period when members get to know one another and share expectations about the group.
Members learn the purpose of the group as well as the rules to be followed. The forming
stage should not be rushed because trust and openness must be developed. These feelings
strengthen in later stages of development. Individuals are often confused during this stage
because roles are not clear and there may not be a strong leader.

2. Storming. In this stage, the group is likely to see the highest level of disagreement and
conflict. Members often challenge group goals and struggle for power. Individuals often
vie for the leadership position during this stage of development. This can be a positive
experience for all groups if members can achieve cohesiveness through resolution.
Members often voice concern and criticism in this phase. If members are not able to
resolve the conflict, then the group will often disband or continue in existence but will
remain ineffective and never advance to the other stages.

3. Norming. This stage is characterized by the recognition of individual differences and

shared expectations. Hopefully, at this stage the group members will begin to develop a
feeling of group cohesion and identity. Cooperative effort should begin to yield results.
Responsibilities are divided among members and the group decides how it will evaluate
progress.
4. Performing. Performing, occurs when the group has matured and attains a feeling of
cohesiveness. During this stage of development, individuals accept one another and
conflict is resolved through group discussion. Members of the group make decisions
through a rational process that is focused on relevant goals rather than emotional issues.
5. Adjourning. Not all groups experience this stage of development because it is
characterized by the disbandment of the group. Some groups are relatively permanent
(Luthans, 2005). Reasons that groups disband vary, with common reasons being the
accomplishment of the task or individuals deciding to go their own ways. Members of the
group often experience feelings of closure and sadness as they prepare to leave.
QUES 2: DISCUSS THE TYPES AND STRUCTURE OF GROUPS PERVALENT IN
THE ORGANISATION.

GROUP TYPES

One common way to classify group is by whether they are formal or informal in nature. Formal
work groups are established by an organization to achieve organizational goals. Formal groups
may take the form of command groups, task groups, and functional groups.

COMMAND GROUPS.

Command groups are specified by the organizational chart and often consist of a supervisor and
the subordinates that report to that supervisor. An example of a command group is an academic
department chairman and the faculty members in that department.

TASK GROUPS.

Task groups consist of people who work together to achieve a common task. Members are
brought together to accomplish a narrow range of goals within a specified time period. Task
groups are also commonly referred to as task forces. The organization appoints members and
assigns the goals and tasks to be accomplished. Examples of assigned tasks are the development
of a new product, the improvement of a production process, or the proposal of a motivational
contest. Other common task groups are ad hoc committees, project groups, and standing
committees. Ad hoc committees are temporary groups created to resolve a specific complaint or
develop a process. Project groups are similar to ad hoc committees and normally disband after
the group completes the assigned task. Standing committees are more permanent than ad hoc
committees and project groups. They maintain longer life spans by rotating members into the
group.

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS.

A functional group is created by the organization to accomplish specific goals within an

unspecified time frame. Functional groups remain in existence after achievement of current goals
and objectives. Examples of functional groups would be a marketing department, a customer
service department, or an accounting department.
In contrast to formal groups, informal groups are formed naturally and in response to the
common interests and shared values of individuals. They are created for purposes other than the
accomplishment of organizational goals and do not have a specified time frame. Informal groups
are not appointed by the organization and members can invite others to join from time to time.
Informal groups can have a strong influence in organizations that can either be positive or
negative. For example, employees who form an informal group can either discuss how to
improve a production process or how to create shortcuts that jeopardize quality. Informal groups
can take the form of interest groups, friendship groups, or reference groups.
INTEREST GROUPS.

Interest groups usually continue over time and may last longer than general informal groups.
Members of interest groups may not be part of the same organizational department but they are
bound together by some other common interest. The goals and objectives of group interests are
specific to each group and may not be related to organizational goals and objectives. An example
of an interest group would be students who come together to form a study group for a specific
class.

FRIENDSHIP GROUPS.

Friendship groups are formed by members who enjoy similar social activities, political beliefs,
religious values, or other common bonds. Members enjoy each other's company and often meet
after work to participate in these activities. For example, a group of employees who form a
friendship group may have an exercise group, a softball team, or a potluck lunch once a month.

REFERENCE GROUPS.

A reference group is a type of group that people use to evaluate themselves. According to
Cherrington, the main purposes of reference groups are social validation and social comparison.
Social validation allows individuals to justify their attitudes and values while social comparison
helps individuals evaluate their own actions by comparing themselves to others. Reference
groups have a strong influence on members' behavior. By comparing themselves with other
members, individuals are able to assess whether their behavior is acceptable and whether their
attitudes and values are right or wrong. Reference groups are different from the previously
discussed groups because they may not actually meet or form voluntarily. For example, the
reference group for a new employee of an organization may be a group of employees that work
in a different department or even a different organization. Family, friends, and religious
affiliations are strong reference groups for most individuals.

GROUP STRUCTURE
Group structure is a pattern of relationships among members that hold the group together and
help it achieve assigned goals. Structure can be described in a variety of ways. Among the more
common considerations are group size, group roles, group norms, and group cohesiveness.

GROUP SIZE.

Group size can vary from 2 people to a very large number of people. Small groups of two to ten
are thought to be more effective because each member has ample opportunity to participate and
become actively involved in the group. Large groups may waste time by deciding on processes
and trying to decide who should participate next. Group size will affect not only participation but
satisfaction as well. Evidence supports the notion that as the size of the group increases,
satisfaction increases up to a certain point. In other words, a group of six members has twice as
many opportunities for interaction and participation as a group of three people. Beyond 10 or 12
members, increasing the size of the group results in decreased satisfaction. It is increasingly
difficult for members of large groups to identify with one another and experience cohesion.

QUES 3: MENTION THE ROLES OF A GROUP. DISCUSS THE ISSUES RELATED TO

GROUP.

GROUP ROLES
In formal groups, roles are usually predetermined and assigned to members. Each role will have
specific responsibilities and duties. There are, however, emergent roles that develop naturally to
meet the needs of the groups. These emergent roles will often replace the assigned roles as
individuals begin to express themselves and become more assertive. Group roles can then be
classified into work roles, maintenance roles, and blocking roles.
Work roles are task-oriented activities that involve accomplishing the group's goals. They
involve a variety of specific roles such as initiator, informer, clarifier, summarizer, and reality
tester. The initiator defines problems, proposes action, and suggests procedures.
The informer role involves finding facts and giving advice or opinions. Clarifiers will interpret
ideas, define terms, and clarify issues for the group. Summarizers restate suggestions, offer
decisions, and come to conclusions for the group. Finally, reality testers analyze ideas and test
the ideas in real situations.
Maintenance roles are social-emotional activities that help members maintain their involvement
in the group and raise their personal commitment to the group. The maintenance roles are
harmonizer, gatekeeper, consensus tester, encourager, and compromiser. The harmonizer will
reduce tension in the group, reconcile differences, and explore opportunities. Gatekeepers often
keep communication channels open and make suggestions that encourage participation. The
consensus tester will ask if the group is nearing a decision and test possible conclusions.
Encouragers are friendly, warm, and responsive to other group members. The last maintenance
role is the compromiser. This role involves modifying decisions, offering compromises, and
admitting errors.
Blocking roles are activities that disrupt the group. They make take the form of dominating
discussions, verbally attacking other group members, and distracting the group with trivial
information or unnecessary humor. Often times the blocking behavior may not be intended as
negative. Sometimes a member may share a joke in order to break the tension, or may question a
decision in order to force group members to rethink the issue. The blocking roles are aggressor,
blocker, dominator, comedian, and avoidance behavior. The aggressor criticizes members' values
and makes jokes in a sarcastic or semi-concealed manner.
Blockers will stubbornly resist the group's ideas, disagree with group members for personal
reasons, and will have hidden agendas. The dominator role attempts to control conversations by
patronizing others. They often interrupt others and assert authority in order to manipulate
members. Comedians often abandon the group even though they may physically still be a part.
They are attention-getters in ways that are not relevant to the accomplishment of the group's
objectives. The last blocking role, avoidance behavior, involves pursuing goals not related to the
group and changing the subject to avoid commitment to the group.
Role ambiguity concerns the discrepancy between the sent role and the received role, as shown
in Exhibit 1. Supervisors, directors, or other group leaders often send (assign) roles to group
members in formal groups. Group members receive roles by being ready and willing to
undertake the tasks associated with that role. Ambiguity results when members are confused
about the delegation of job responsibilities. This confusion may occur because the members do
not have specific job descriptions or because the instructions regarding the task were not clear.
Group members who experience ambiguity often have feelings of frustration and dissatisfaction,
which ultimately lead to turnover.
Role conflict occurs when there is inconsistency between the perceived role and role behavior.
There are several different forms of role conflict. Interrole conflict occurs when there is conflict
between the different roles that people have. For example, work roles and family roles often
compete with one another and cause conflict. Intrarole conflict occurs when individuals must
handle conflicting demands from different sources while performing the tasks associated with the
same role.

GROUP NORMS.

Norms are acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the members of the
group. Norms define the boundaries of acceptable and unacceptable behavior. They are typically
created in order to facilitate group survival, make behavior more predictable, avoid embarrassing
situations, and express the values of the group. Each group will establish its own set of norms
that might determine anything from the appropriate dress to how many comments to make in a
meeting. Groups exert pressure on members to force them to conform to the group's standards.
The norms often reflect the level of commitment, motivation, and performance of the group.
Performance norms determine how quickly members should work and how much they should
produce. They are created in an effort to determine levels of individual effort. They can be very
frustrating to managers because they are not always in line with the organization's goals.
Members of a group may have the skill and ability to perform at higher levels but they don't
because of the group's performance norms. For example, workers may stop working a production
machine at 20 minutes before quitting time in order to wash up, even though they produced
fewer items that day than management intended.
Reward-allocation norms determine how rewards are bestowed upon group members. For
example, the norm of equality dictates equal treatment of all members. Every member shares
equally so rewards are distributed equally to everyone. Equity norms suggest that rewards are
distributed according to the member's contribution. In other words, members who contribute the
most receive the largest share of the rewards. Members may contribute through effort, skill, or
ability. Social responsibility norms reward on the basis of need. Members who have special
needs therefore receive the largest share of the reward.
The majority of the group must agree that the norms are appropriate in order for the behavior to
be accepted. There must also be a shared understanding
Exhibit 1 
Role Ambiguity and Role Conflict

that the group supports the norms. It should be noted, however, that members might violate
group norms from time to time. If the majority of members do not adhere to the norms, then they
will eventually change and will no longer serve as a standard for evaluating behavior. Group
members who do not conform to the norms will be punished by being excluded, ignored, or
asked to leave the group.

GROUP COHESIVENESS.

Cohesiveness refers to the bonding of group members and their desire to remain part of the
group. Many factors influence the amount of group cohesiveness. Generally speaking, the more
difficult it is to obtain group membership the more cohesive the group. Groups also tend to
become cohesive when they are in intense competition with other groups or face a serious
external threat to survival. Smaller groups and those who spend considerable time together also
tend to be more cohesive.
Cohesiveness in work groups has many positive effects, including worker satisfaction, low
turnover and absenteeism, and higher productivity. However, highly cohesive groups may be
detrimental to organizational performance if their goals are misaligned with organizational goals.
Highly cohesive groups may also be more vulnerable to groupthink. Groupthink occurs when
members of a group exert pressure on each other to come to a consensus in decision making.
Groupthink results in careless judgments, unrealistic appraisals of alternative courses of action,
and a lack of reality testing. It can lead to a number of decision-making issues such as the
following:

1. Incomplete assessments of the problem,

2. Incomplete information search,
3. Bias in processing information,
4. Inadequate development of alternatives, and
5. Failure to examine the risks of the preferred choice.
Evidence suggests that groups typically outperform individuals when the tasks involved require a
variety of skills, experience, and decision making. Groups are often more flexible and can
quickly assemble, achieve goals, and disband or move on to another set of objectives. Many
organizations have found that groups have many motivational aspects as well. Group members
are more likely to participate in decision-making and problem-solving activities leading to
empowerment and increased productivity. Groups complete most of the work in an organization;
thus, the effectiveness of the organization is limited by the effectiveness of its groups.

1. The team leader has just made an impassioned plea to improve the level of cooperation
that exists within the group. As the discussion develops you note:
A. All team members really seem concerned with helping each other, and working as a
team
B. The majority of the team members are in favor of improving teamwork
C. The team members are split-half are in favor of improving teamwork; half would rather
operate independently
D. The majority of the team members want to continue to operate independently

2. Which of the following statements best describes the level of risk taking, innovation,
imagination, and initiative by members of the group:
A. Beware, we shoot the messenger
B. Nothing ventured, nothing gained-go for it
C. Don’t rock the boat, if it’s not broke don’t fix it
D. Some team members seem more comfortable with risk-taking and change than others

3. Describe the level of communication between team members:

A. In this team, people are afraid to speak up and we do not listen to each other
B. Everybody speaks up, but not all team members listen
C. Everybody accurately states their view and others listen and understand what is
being said-we talk together
D. Quite a few of the team members withhold their thoughts and don’t listen to others

4. Mary, a senior member of the team, and Jose, a junior member of the team, are on
opposite sides of an important issue. Both of their positions have merit. You notice that
as Mary and Jose present their arguments, other team members:
A. Seem to be harsher in the criticisms of Jose’s arguments
B. Are objective, and attentive to both arguments-the team values differences
C. Favor Mary slightly over Jose
D. Don’t pay much attention to either viewpoint
5. The team gathers for the monthly progress and problem report about reaching
individual and departmental objectives. Describe the meeting:
A. There is an open and realistic sharing of both progress and problems
B. Only a few team members seem to be concerned about the impact of their presentation;
they attempt to build allies within the team
C. Some team members seem to be playing the political game, while others do not
D. One clique exists within this team and their presentations sound about the same-politically
safe

6. Your team is involved in the annual planning, budgeting, and strategy setting meeting.
During the critique period:
A. The entire team restrains their remarks; we avoid “rocking the boat”
B. Most of the team members restrain and filter their critical remarks
C. About half of the team is unrestrained and the other half restrained
D. Conflicts and differences are openly discussed as an aid to problem-solving

7. Your team is faced with making a decision on a very controversial and emotionally
charged issue. The leader has asked for each individual to express his/her views. The first
thought that comes to your mind is:
A. It is safe to express your true feelings without fear of reprisal
B. A person would be a fool to be himself in this team-don’t be vulnerable
C. How open you are depending on the issue and people around you at the time
D. In the majority of cases, it is best not to let your true feelings or self show

8. One of your team members has asked for some time on the meeting agenda to seek the
help and cooperation of other team members on his/her assignment. During the ensuring
team discussion, you feel that:
A. Every team member is hiding their real motives and feelings
B. The majority of the team members are hiding their needs, expectations, and goals
C. Some team members are posturing to advance their hidden agendas
D. All team members are open about their real motives and feelings; we communicate
honestly

9. All the supervisors in your department meet annually to rank the employees for salary
treatment and promotional potential. You feel the discussion can best be described as:
A. Conducted in a supportive atmosphere where team members can openly express their
viewpoints and are listened to
B. The atmosphere and discussion is more supportive than not
C. About average in the level of supportiveness team members exhibit toward one another
D. The willingness to express opinions, venture new or different ideas and listening could be
improved

10. Which of the following is NOT a symptom of GroupThink?

A. Illusions of vulnerability
B. Belief in inherent group morality
C. Applying direct pressure to deviants
D. Self-censorship by members
E. Mind Guarding

11. Members of a(n) ______ team have been cross-trained so each person is able to perform
the duties of all the other team members.

A. functional
B. cross-functional
C. multifunctional
D. self-directed

12. The process of making an expectation a reality.

A. brainstorming
B. problem solving
C. criteria
D. goal

13. Which of the following is an example of a constraint to solving the problem of arriving
late to work?

A. not having a car

B. having dependable public transportation
C. having enough time to get to work from class
D. all the above

14. A pattern that is typical in the development of a social group.

A. consensus
B. criteria
C. conflict
D. norm

15. A group technique used to develop many ideas in a relatively short time.

A. brainstorming
B. compromise
C. conflict
D. consensus

16. Why is it important to know when to intervene in a conflict?

A. What seems important at the moment may seem unimportant later.

B. Sometimes intervening may make a situation worse.
C. Avoiding a serious disagreement only postpones the time when action will be required.
D. All the above.

17. What is NOT one of the Four important Manager roles?

A. Supervisor
B. Facilitator
C. Internal Coach
D. Participation
E. External Coach

18. Which of the following is not a stage of team development?

A. Forming
B. Deciding
C. Adjourning
D. Storming

19. The performance norm defines the level of…

A. Work Effort & Attitude
B. Attitude & Contribution Performance
C. Constructive Criticism
D. Contribution Performance & Work Effort
E. Performance Level
20. What pair are methods of making team decisions?
A. Lack of Response & Unanimity
B. Lack of Response & Minority Rule
C. All Votes are Equal & Recruitment
D. Feedback & Unanimity
 STRESS MANAGEMENT

QUES 1: WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY STRESS? HOW IT IS EXPERIENCED IN

ORGANISATIONS?

Stress means different things to different people. From a layperson’s perspective, stress can be
described as feeling tense, anxious, or worried. Scientifically, these feelings are all
manifestations of the stress experience, a complex programmed response to perceived threat that
can have both positive and negative results. The term stress itself has been defined in liter- ally
hundreds of ways in the literature. Virtually all of the definitions can be placed into one of two
categories, however; stress can be defined as either a stimulus or a response.

A stimulus definition treats stress as some characteristic or event that may result in a disruptive
consequence. It is in that respect an engineering definition of stress borrowed from the physical
sciences. In physics, stress refers to the external force applied to an object, for example, a bridge
girder. The response is strain, which is the impact the force has on the girder.

In a response definition, stress is seen partially as a response to some stimulus called a stressor .
A stressor is a potentially harmful or threatening external event or situation. Stress is more than
simply a response to a stressor, however. In a response definition, stress is the consequence of
the interaction between an environmental stimulus (a stressor) and the individual’s response.

That is, stress is the result of a unique interaction between stimulus conditions in the
environment and the individual’s predisposition to respond in a particular way. Using a response
definition, we will define stress as an adaptive response, mediated by individual differences, that
is a consequence of any action, situation, or event that places special demands on a person.

In the context of the definition of stress, it is important to understand that stress is the result of
dealing with something placing special demands on us. Special here means un- usual, physically
or psychologically threatening, or outside our usual set of experiences. Starting a new job
assignment in another country, changing bosses, missing a plane, having the computer system
fail in the middle of a crucial project, having a performance evaluation meeting with the boss—
all of these are actions, situations, or events that may place special demands on you. In that
sense, they are potential stressors. We say potential because not all stressors will always place
the same demands on people. For example, starting a new job assignment in Beijing or
Bangalore may be very stressful to one new expatriate manager and not be stressful at all to
another expatriate manager.
For an action, situation, or event to result in stress, it must be perceived by the individual to be a
source of threat, challenge, or harm. If there are no perceived consequences—good or bad—there
is no potential for stress. Three key factors determine whether an experience is likely to result in
stress. These factors are importance, uncertainty, and duration. Importance relates to how
significant the event is to the individual.

For example, let us sup- pose that you are facing a job layoff. The more significant that layoff is
to you, the more likely you are to find it stressful. If you expect the layoff to be followed by a
period of prolonged unemployment, you will probably view it as a more important event than if
immediate reemployment is assured. Uncertainty refers to a lack of clarity about what will
happen. Rumors of an impending layoff may be more stressful to some people than knowing for
certain they will be laid off. At least in the latter case, they can make plans for dealing with the
situation. Frequently, “not knowing” places more demands on people than does “knowing,” even
if the known result is perceived as negative. Finally, duration is a significant factor.

Generally speaking, the longer special demands are placed on us, the more stressful the situation.
Being given a distasteful job assignment that lasts only a day or two may be mildly upsetting,
while the same assignment lasting for six months may be excruciating. Most people can endure
short periods of strenuous physical activity without tiring; prolong the duration, however, and
even the most fit among us will become exhausted. The same holds true for stressors.

Stress of short duration is some- times referred to as acute stress. It may last for a few seconds, a
few hours, even a few days. Long-duration stress, on the other hand, is sometimes referred to as
chronic stress.

Chronic stress may last for months and years. It is the ongoing tension experienced by people of
the Middle East and by U.S. soldiers deployed for tours of duty in war-torn Iraq and
Afghanistan. It may also be the unrelenting pressure of a job one finds no satisfaction in
performing, the constant demands made by an unreasonable boss, or the never-ending struggle to
advance in one’s chosen career.
QUES 2: DICUSS THE WORK STRESS MODEL IN DETAIL.

For most employed people, work and work-related activities and preparation time represent
much more than a 40-hour-a-week commitment. Work is a major part of our lives, and work and
non-work activities are highly interdependent. The distinction between stress at work and stress
at home has always been an artificial one at best. With the explosive in- crease of dual-career
couples and individuals who work from home offices, even this artificial distinction has become
blurred. The primary concern here, however, is with direct, work- related stressors. This is due to
the emphasis in the book on work-related behavior and performance. Certainly, non-work
stressors are factors in the lives of employees that managers must tune into when and if workers
want to discuss them privately.

Stressors are those actions, situations, or events that place special demands on a person. In the
right circumstances, virtually any occurrence can place special demands on a person; thus, the
list of potential stressors is almost infinite. We will examine a sample of the numerous stressors
that are relatively common in each of the model’s three work-specific categories (e.g.,
individual, group, organizational). Individual Stressors at the individual level have been studied
more than any other category presented in Figure above i.e. Role conflict is perhaps the most
widely examined individual stressor.

Role conflict is present whenever compliance by an individual with one set of expectations about
the job is in conflict with compliance with another set of expectations. Facets of role conflict
include being torn by conflicting demands from a supervisor about the job and be- ing pressured
to get along with people with whom you are not compatible. Regardless of whether role conflict
results from organizational policies or from other persons, it can be a significant stressor for
some individuals.

An increasingly prevalent type of role conflict occurs when work and non-work roles interfere
with one another. The most common non-work roles involved in this form of conflict are those
of spouse and parent. Balancing the demands of work and family roles is a significant daily task
for a growing number of employed adults. Pressure to work late, to take work home, to spend
more time traveling, and to frequently relocate in order to advance are a few examples of
potential sources of conflict between work and family. When both spouses are employed, added
conflict potentially exists when one partner’s career progress may be negatively affected by the
career progression of the other.

Virtually everyone has experienced work overload at one time or another, and the incident rate is
increasing. Overload may be of two types: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative overload
occurs when people feel they lack the ability needed to complete their jobs or that performance
standards have been set too high. Quantitative overload, on the other hand, results from having
too many things to do or insufficient time to complete a job. As organizations attempt to increase
productivity, while decreasing work-force size, quantitative overload increases (as does stress).

Group and Organizational Stressors

The list of potential group and organizational stressors is a long one. Chapter 8 discusses a
number of group characteristics. These include group norms, leadership, and the status hierarchy.
Each of these can be a stressor for some group members, as can the different types of group
conflict discussed in Chapter 9. One problem in discussing group and organizational stressors is
identifying which are the most important ones. In the paragraphs that follow, we briefly highlight
what we feel are the more significant stressors.

Participation
Participation refers to the extent that a person’s knowledge, opinions, and ideas are included in
the decision-making process. It is an important part of working in organizations for some people.
Groups and organizations that do not encourage or allow participation will be a source of
frustration to those who value it. Likewise, others will be frustrated by the delays often
associated with participative decision making. Others may view shared decision making as a
threat to the traditional right of a manager to have the final say. Participation will act as a stressor
for those people.

Intra- and Intergroup Relationships

Poor relationships within and between groups can be a source of stress. For example, several
members of the customer service team may not get along, or a firm’s salespeople may make
commitments that the installation team can’t honor, which can lead to friction between these two
groups. Poor relationships may include low trust, lack of cohesion, low supportiveness, and lack
of interest in listening to and dealing with the problems that confront a group or group member.
Problem relationships can lead to communication breakdowns and low job satisfaction, further
increasing the likelihood of stress.

Organizational Politics

High levels of political behavior in organizations can be a source of stress for many employees.
Office politics are consistently cited as a primary stressor in organizations. Political activity,
game playing, and power struggles can create friction, heighten dysfunctional competition
between individuals and groups, and increase stress.

Organizational Culture

Like individuals, organizations have distinct personalities. The personality of an organization is

shaped largely by its top executives.

Lack of Performance Feedback

Most people want to know how they are doing and how management views their work. All too
often, however, meaningful performance evaluation information is lacking, or the in- formation
is provided in a highly authoritarian or critical manner. Performance feedback information must
be provided, and if it is to be provided in a way that minimizes stress, it must take place in an
open two-way communication system.
Inadequate Career Development Opportunities

Career development opportunity stressors are those aspects of the organizational environment
that influence a person’s perception of the quality of his or her career progress.

Career variables may serve as stressors when they become sources of concern, anxiety, or
frustration. This can happen if an employee is concerned about real or imagined obsolescence,
feels that promotion progress is inadequate, or is generally dissatisfied with the match between
career aspirations and the current position.

Downsizing

Downsizing is primarily associated with the reduction of human resources, layoffs, attrition,
redeployment, or early retirement. As some organizations strive to become “lean and mean,”
increasing numbers of employees are either downsized or fear being downsized

Nonwork Stressors

Nonwork stressors are those caused by factors outside the organization. Although the emphasis
in the chapter is on work, nonwork stressors should not be ignored. Raising children, caring for
elders, volunteering in the community, taking college courses, and balancing family and work
life are stressful situations for numerous people. 23 The stress produced outside work is likely to
affect a person’s work performance and work behavior in general. The distinction between work
and nonwork is blurred, overlaps, and is significant in any discussion or analysis of stress.

QUES 3: HOW THE ORGANISATIONS CAN MANAGE THE STRESS IN

ORGANISATION AND AMONG EMPLOYEES?

An astute manager never ignores a turnover or absenteeism problem, workplace drug abuse, a
decline in performance, hostile and belligerent employees, reduced quality of production, or any
other sign that the organization’s performance goals are not being met. The effective manager, in
fact, views these occurrences as symptoms and looks beyond them to identify and correct the
underlying causes. Yet most managers likely will search for traditional causes such as poor
training, defective equipment, or inadequate instructions regarding what needs to be done. In all
likelihood, stress will not be on the list of possible problems. Thus, the very first step in any
attempt to deal with stress so that it remains within tolerable limits is recognition that it exists.
Once that is accomplished, a variety of approaches and programs for preventing and managing
organizational stress are available.

The above diagram presents how organizational stress management programs can be targeted.
Programs are targeted to

(1) identify and modify work stressors,

(2) engage employees in understanding and modifying stress and its effect, and

(3) provide employees with support to cope with the negative effect of stress. In a rapidly
changing work environment, this type of targeting is difficult to accomplish. However, a trained,
educated, and knowledgeable workforce can make modifications with the help of management in
how work is performed.

Some of the targeted, corrective programs include the following:

• Training programs for managing and coping with stress.

• Redesigning work to minimize stressors.

• Changes in management style to one of more support and coaching to help workers achieve
their goals.
• Creating more flexible work hours and paying more attention to work/life balance with regard
to child and elder care.

• Better communication and team-building practices.

• Better feedback on worker performance and management expectations. These and other efforts
are targeted to prevent and manage stress.

The potential for success of any prevention or management of stress program is good if there is a
true commitment to understanding how stressors, stress, and outcomes are interrelated. The
distinction between preventing stress and managing it is very important. Stress prevention
focuses on controlling or eliminating stressors that might provoke the stress response. Stress
management suggests procedures for helping people cope effectively with or reduce stress that is
already being experienced. In this concluding section of the chapter, we examine organizational
programs for and individual approaches to stress prevention and management, with the emphasis
on management. First, however, we will look at a way of thinking about organizational stress
prevention. Maximizing Person–Environment Fit In defining stress earlier in the chapter, we
emphasized that stress is the consequence of the interaction between an environmental stimulus
(a stressor) and the individual’s response.

From this perspective, stress may be viewed as a consequence of the relationship between the
individual and the work environment. While there are many ways of thinking about individual–
organizational relationships and stress, the concept of person–environment fit is the most widely
used.

A person–environment (P–E) fit approach generally focuses on two dimensions of fit. 44 One is
the extent to which work provides formal and informal rewards to meet or match (fit) the
person’s needs. Misfit on this dimension results in stress. For example, a job may provide too
little job security, insufficient compensation and reward for the effort ex- pended, or inadequate
recognition to meet the individual’s needs or preferences. The second type of fit deals with the
extent to which the employee’s skills, abilities, and experience match the demands and
requirements of the employer. To the extent that the individual’s talents are insufficient for or
underutilized by job requirements, stress results. By improving the quality of or maximizing the
fit between the employee and the organizational environment, potential stressors are eliminated
and stress is prevented

There are numerous strategies for maximizing P–E fit. Ideally, the process begins be- fore an
individual even joins the organization. Employee recruitment programs that pro- vide realistic
job previews help potential employees to determine whether the reality of the job matches their
needs and expectations. Selection programs that are effective in ensuring that potential
employees possess the requisite skills, knowledge, experience, and abilities for the job are key
elements in maximizing fit. Job skills and knowledge are not the only important factors to
consider in employee selection, however. Fit can be maximized by closely linking personal
predispositions to relevant aspects of the work environment as well. For example, as suggested
earlier, individuals with a low tolerance for ambiguity and who find themselves in jobs or
organizational environments in which there is little structure will very likely experience stress.
There are many other examples: an individual who is by nature authoritarian will experience
stress in a participative organization; those wishing autonomy will be distressed by tight controls
and managers who micromanage; and individuals with a high need for performance feedback
will be stressed by supervisors who never communicate performance information.

Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs)

Originally conceived as alcohol abuse programs, most current employee assistance programs
(EAPs) are designed to deal with a wide range of stress-related problems, both work and
nonwork related, including behavioral and emotional difficulties, substance abuse, excessive
debt, family and marital discord, and other personal problems. IBM, Blue Cross and Blue Shield
of North Carolina, Alcoa in Evansville, Indiana, and Telemundo Network in Miami, Florida, are
examples of companies with such programs. As a result of the recent recession, demand for EAP
services has increased. For example, EAP Corporate Counseling Associates of New York City
has reported a 21 percent increase in calls to its counselors.

EAPs tend to be based on the traditional medical approach to treatment. General program
elements include the following:

• Diagnosis: An employee with a problem asks for help; EAP staff attempts to diagnose the
problem.

• Treatment: Counseling or supportive therapy is provided. If in-house EAP staff is unable to

help, the employee may be referred to appropriate community-based professionals.

• Screening: Periodic examination of employees in highly stressful jobs is provided to detect

early indications of problems.

• Prevention: Education and persuasion are used to convince employees at high risk that
something must be done to assist them in effectively coping with stress.

Wellness Programs

Wellness programs , sometimes called health promotion programs, focus on the employ- ee’s
overall physical and mental health. Simply stated, any activity an organization engages in that is
designed to identify and assist in preventing or correcting specific health problems, health
hazards, or negative health habits can be thought of as wellness related. This includes not only
disease identification but lifestyle modification as well. Among the most prevalent examples of
such programs are those emphasizing hypertension identification and control, smoking cessation,
physical fitness and exercise, nutrition and diet control, and job and personal stress management.
As the following OB at Work feature suggests, many managers believe that organizations have a
responsibility to provide wellness programs to their most important asset, employees. It might
appear strange that we would include wellness programs in a discussion of stress management.
There are several reasons we do.

First, stress prevention and management is a vital part of wellness, and, as we have already
noted, it is frequently a component of wellness programs.

Second, many of the concerns of wellness programs are at least partially stress related. Stress has
been cited as the greatest cause of poor health habits, and poor health habits are what wellness
programs attempt to change.

Third, a major reason organizations are interested in stress management is that it contributes to
healthier, more productive, and more effective organizations. Corporate wellness programs
simply extend these payoffs.

Fourth, it is impossible to divorce the topic of stress from health. In a sense, wellness programs
represent a broad-based, contemporary extension of stress pro- grams; their focus is concern for
employee health and quality-of-life issues.

Well Workplace University is a learning center where organizational leaders, health care
professionals, and wellness professionals meet to discuss, analyze, and work to build world-class
wellness programs. The central benchmarks used to build wellness programs are to

(1) build senior-level support,

(2) create wellness teams,

(3) collect data to drive programs,

(4) craft an operating plan,

(5) choose best interventions,

(6) create supportive culture, and

(7) evaluate outcomes.

Sustaining a Wellness Strategy Whether you own a company or serve as a manager, it is

advisable to work on creating a healthier workplace. Investing in human assets through a
concerned effort and strategy is a long-term investment. There is no perfect or “one best”
approach to managing stress and burnout. However, there is a general step-by-step approach that
appears to be worth consideration. Briefly, it is recommended that:
1. The health and well-being of employees should be a part of the organization’s mission and
strategic plans.

2. A written policy statement about health, the promotion of health, and the importance of well-
being should be produced.

3. A wellness plan should be developed that has executive commitment, union commitment, and
employee commitment. Improving the wellness of employees should be a goal.

4. The “improving wellness” goal should be used as a vehicle for executives, union
representatives, and employees to create specific and actionable plans.

5. Organizational resources (e.g., funds, space, time) should be committed to accomplish the
wellness plan.

6. A best-practice case file should be created to circulate around the organization. Report
successes and celebrate them publicly.

7. Managers should be encouraged and rewarded for their involvement in wellness pro- grams,
successes, and working to bring about better work/life balance.

These are general steps that will call attention to and encourage wellness. The effort should start
at the managerial level. When managers display through their behaviors a commitment to
employee wellness, there is a message being communicated to non man-agers that the
organization cares.

Individual Approaches to Stress Prevention and Management

Organization members do not have to—nor should they—rely on formal organizational

programs to assist in stress prevention and management. There are many individual approaches
to dealing with stressors and stress.

Cognitive Techniques The basic rationale for some individual approaches to stress management,
known collectively as cognitive techniques, is that a person’s response to stressors is mediated
by cognitive processes or thoughts. The underlying assumption of these techniques is that
people’s thoughts, in the form of expectations, beliefs, and assumptions, are labels they apply to
situations, and these labels elicit emotional responses to the situation.

Relaxation Training
The purpose of this approach is to reduce a person’s arousal level and bring about a calmer state,
both psychologically and physiologically. Psychologically, successful relaxation results in
enhanced feelings of well-being, peacefulness and calm, a clear sense of being in control, and a
reduction in tension and anxiety. Physiologically, decreases in blood pressure, respiration, and
heart rate should take place.

Relaxation techniques include breathing exercises; muscle relaxation; autogenic training, which
combines elements of muscle relaxation and meditation; and a wide variety of mental relaxation
strategies, including imagery and visualization.

Conditions conducive to achieving relaxed states include a quiet environment, a comfortable

physical position, and closed eyes. Simply taking a few moments of “mental rest” from job
activities can be effective relaxation activity. Short, more frequent breaks of this sort are more
relaxing than fewer, longer breaks.

MCQs

1. Which of the following statements is true

1. In small quantities, stress is good
2. Too much stress is harmful
3. All stress is bad
4. Only ‘1’ & ‘2’ are right

Q2. Stress management is about learning

1. How to avoid the pressures of life
2. How to develop skills that would enhance our body’s adjustment when we are
subjected to the pressures of life
3. Both ‘1’ & ‘2’ are true
4. None of the above

Q3. Which of the following statements is true about stress management

1. Stress management is learning about the connection between mind and body
2. Stress management helps us control our health in a positive sense
3. Stress management teaches us to avoid all kinds of stress
4. Only ‘1’ & ‘2’ are right

Q4. Which of the following are the basic sources of stress

1. The Environment
2. Social Stressors
3. Physiological
4. Thoughts
5. All of the above

Q5. Examples of environmental stressors are

1. Weather
2. Traffic
3. Financial problems
4. Substandard housing
5. Only ‘1’ , ‘2’ & ‘4’ are right

Q6. Examples of social stressors are

1. Financial problems
2. Divorce
3. Loss of a loved one
4. Job interviews
5. All of the above

Q7. Examples of physiological stressors are

1. Menopause
2. Giving birth
3. Sleep disturbances
4. Relationship problems
5. Only ‘1’, ‘2’, & ‘3’ are true

Q8. The following are the characteristics of Positive Stress

1. It improves performance
2. It feels exciting
3. It motivates
4. All of the above

Q9. The following are the characteristics of Negative Stress

1. It causes anxiety
2. It feels unpleasant
3. It decreases performance
4. All of the above

Q10. Which of the following statements is true

1. Positive stress is short-term
2. Negative stress can be short or long-term
3. Negative stress can lead to mental as well as physical problems
4. Negative stress is perceived within our coping abilities
5. All of the above
6. All except ‘4’ is true

Q11. The following are the examples of negative stressors

1. Unemployment
2. Legal problems
3. Divorce
4. All of the above
Q12. The following are the examples of positive stressors
1. New job
2. Having a child
3. Buying a home
4. All of the above

Q13. Which of the following statements is true

1. Habitual behaviour patterns like over scheduling, procrastination, etc. Can cause negative
stress
2. Thoughts like fear, worrying about future etc. can cause negative stress
3. Both ‘1’ & ‘2’ are true
4. None of the above

Q14. Which of the following are the physical symptoms of anxiety

1. Racing heart
2. Sweaty palms
3. Flushed cheeks
4. All of the above

Q15. What are the behavioural reactions to anxiety

1. Avoiding situation where there are chances of experiencing anxiety
2. Escaping situations when feelings of anxiety begin
3. Both ‘1’ and ‘2’ are true
4. None of the above

Q16. Anxiety can cause the following moods

1. Irritable
2. Nervous
3. Panicky
4. Anxious
5. All of the above

Q17. What thoughts come to the mind when you’re under negative stress
1. You think that you can cope with the situation
2. You think that you cannot cope with the situation
3. You think that everything will get fine eventually
4. You think that you will get hep immediately

Q18. The symptoms of stress can be divided in to the following categories

1. Cognitive
2. Emotional
3. Physical
4. Behavioural
5. All of the above

Q19. Which of the following statements is true

1. Moodiness is a cognitive symptom of stress
2. Moodiness is an emotional symptom of stress
3. Poor judgement is an emotional symptom of stress
4. Agitation is cognitive symptom of stress

Q20. The following are true about the behavioural symptoms of stress
1. The subject’s starts eating more or less
2. The subject starts sleeping more or less
3. The subject isolates himself/herself from others
4. All of the above

Q21. Aches, shallow breathing and sweating, frequent colds are

1. Physical symptoms of stress
2. Behavioural symptoms of stress
3. Emotional symptoms of stress
4. Cognitive symptoms of stress
 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
QUES 1:DISCUSS THE TERM CONFLICT AND ITS TYPES.

Conflict is inevitable in organizations. However, because it can be both a positive and a negative
force, management should not strive to eliminate all conflict, only that which has disruptive
effects on the organization’s efforts to achieve its goals. Some type or degree of conflict may
prove beneficial if it is used as an instrument for change or innovation. Thus, the critical issue
appears to be not conflict itself but rather how it’s managed. Using this approach, we can define
conflict in terms of the effect it has on the organization. In this respect, we discuss both
functional and dysfunctional conflict

Functional Conflict

A functional conflict is a confrontation between groups that enhances and benefits the
organization’s performance. When conflict focuses on tasks, constructive debate can im- prove
decision making and work outcomes. For example, two departments in a hospital may conflict
over the most efficient method of delivering health care to low-income rural families. The two
departments agree on the goal but not on the means to achieve it. Whatever the outcome, low-
income rural families will probably end up with better medical care once the conflict is settled.
Without such conflict in organizations, there would be little commitment to change; most groups
would probably become stagnant. Thus, functional conflict can be thought of as a type of
creative tension.

Dysfunctional Conflict

A dysfunctional conflict is any confrontation or interaction between groups that harms the
organization or hinders the achievement of organizational goals. Management must seek to
eliminate dysfunctional conflicts because such conflict can negatively influence performance by
shifting group members’ attention away from important tasks. Beneficial conflicts can often turn
into harmful ones. The very same level of stress and conflict that creates a healthy and positive
movement toward goals in one group may prove extremely disruptive and dysfunctional in
another group (or at a different time for the same group).

A group’s tolerance for stress and conflict can also depend on the type of organization it serves.
Auto manufacturers, professional sports teams, and crisis organizations such as police and fire
departments have points at which functional conflict becomes dysfunctional that differ from
those of universities, research and development firms, and movie production firms. After
reviewing the research literature on workplace conflict, one author suggests there are three
hidden costs associated with dysfunctional workplace conflict:

1. Conflict resolution diverts managers’ time away from business opportunities. As managers
spend time resolving conflicts among their employees, between departments, and so forth, they
are not working on new products, helping customers, or engaging in other important business-
related activities.

2. Someone ends up paying for the solution. When two parties negotiate a compromise, some
other party may end up paying for it. For example, if a union gains significant concessions from
management in terms of pay raises and enhanced benefits coverage for its members, then it’s
possible that customers could end up paying for part of these concessions in the form of higher
prices.

3. Employee health and well-being. Conflict in organizations is stressful and employees are not
immune to such reactions. Employee stress can lead to a wide variety of negative behavioral
(e.g., absenteeism), cognitive (e.g., frustration), and/or physiological outcomes (e.g., increased
blood pressure). It is reasonable to assume that some of the emergency response teams of British
Petroleum and the U.S. government experienced high levels of stress related to figuring out how
to stop the flow of crude oil from the broken well 5,000 feet below the surface in the Gulf of
Mexico.

Conflict and Organizational

Performance Conflict may have either a positive or a negative effect on organizational

performance, de- pending on the nature of the conflict and how it is managed. 8 For every
organization, an optimal level of conflict exists that can be considered highly functional; it helps
generate positive performance. On one hand, when the conflict level is too low, performance can
suffer. Innovation and change are difficult, and the organization may have difficulty in adapting
to change in its environment. If this low conflict level continues, the organization’s very survival
can be threatened. On the other hand, if the conflict level becomes too high, the resulting chaos
can also threaten its survival. An example is dissension among two strong and competing
departments in an organization and its effect on performance. Fighting between departmental
rivals (e.g., marketing and finance) that becomes too great can render the organization less
effective in pursuing its mission of furthering its stakeholders’ interests.

Views on Intergroup Conflict in Practice

Some organizational researchers contend that dysfunctional conflict should be eliminated and
functional conflict encouraged. But this isn’t what actually happens in most organizations. In
practice, most managers attempt to eliminate all types of conflict, whether dysfunctional or
functional. But why? Some reasons include the following:

1. Anticonflict values have historically been reinforced in the home, school, and place or
worship. Traditionally, conflict between children or between children and parents has been
discouraged. In school systems, too, conflict was discouraged; teachers had all the answers, and
both teachers and children were rewarded for orderly classrooms. Finally, most religious
doctrines stress peace, tranquility, and acceptance without questioning.

2. Managers are often evaluated on and rewarded for the lack of conflict in their areas of
responsibility. Anticonflict values, in fact, become part of the culture of the organization.
Harmony and satisfaction are viewed positively, while conflicts and dissatisfaction are viewed
negatively. Under such conditions, managers seek to avoid conflicts—functional or
dysfunctional—that could disturb the status quo.

QUES 2: WHAT IS INTER GROUP CONFLICT?

As teams become more and more popular in the workplace, the productivity both of the overall
group and individual group members is receiving considerable attention from managers and
researchers alike. Although not universally accepted, one factor that may influence the overall
functioning of teams is conflict between team members. Some have argued that intragroup
conflict can lead to improvements in overall group performance, decision quality, strategic
planning, financial performance, and organizational growth.

In contrast, other researchers have found that certain types of intragroup conflict have an overall
negative effect on teams in that it contributes to lower levels of productivity and satisfaction in
groups. Taken as a whole, our assumption is that some types of intragroup conflict are beneficial
at certain times throughout the life cycle of a group or team. Researchers have identified three
types of conflict that can influence group functioning.

The first, task conflict, refers to members having differences in viewpoints and opinions
pertaining to what the group’s task is. For example, two members of a strategic planning task
force of a company may have very different opinions regarding what the group needs to
accomplish. These differences may originate from a variety of areas including differences in
work values, functional area experience, years in the industry, and the like.

The second type of intragroup conflict is known as relationship conflict. This concept has been
defined as being aware of interpersonal incompatibilities between group members that can lead
to feelings of dislike, tension, irritation and frustration. The third and more recent type of
intragroup conflict to be researched, process conflict, is defined as an awareness of controversies
regarding how tasks will be accomplished. Process conflict deals with the delegation of tasks and
responsibilities to different team members.

Every group comes into at least partial conflict with every other group with which it interacts. In
this section, we examine four factors that contribute to group conflict: work interdependence,
differences in goals, differences in perceptions, and the increased demand for specialists.

Work Interdependence

Work interdependence occurs when two or more organizational groups depend on one an- other
to complete their tasks. Conflict potential in such situations is high. Three distinct types of
interdependence among groups have been identified.

Pooled Interdependence

Pooled interdependence requires no interaction among groups because each group, in effect,
performs separately. However, the pooled performances of all the groups determine how
successful the organization is. For example, the staff of an Apple sales office in one region may
have no interaction with their peers in another region; similarly, two Bank of America branches
may have little or no interaction. In both cases, however, the groups are interdependent because
the performance of each must be adequate if the total organization is to thrive. The conflict
potential in pooled interdependence is relatively low, and management can rely on standard rules
and procedures developed at the main office for coordination. Sequential Interdependence
Sequential interdependence requires one group to complete its task before another group can
complete its task. Tasks are performed in a sequential fashion. For example, Chrysler Group
LLC is considering a plan to assemble the Fiat 500 subcompact in Mexico. 16 Parts will first be
made in the U.S. and other countries and then shipped to Mexico for final assembly. Under
circumstances in which one group’s output serves as the input for another, conflict between
groups is more likely to occur. Coordinating sequential interdependence involves effective
planning by management.

Reciprocal Interdependence

Reciprocal interdependence requires each group’s output to serve as input to other groups in the
organization. Consider the relationships among the anesthesiology staff, nursing staff,
technicians, and surgeons in a hospital operating room; such relationships create a high de- gree
of reciprocal interdependence. The same interdependence exists among groups in- volved in
space launchings. Another example is the interdependence between airport control towers, flight
crews, ground operations, and maintenance crews. Clearly, the potential for conflict is great in
any of these situations.

Effective coordination involves management’s skillful use of the organizational processes of

communication and decision making. All organizations have pooled interdependence among
groups. Complex organizations also have sequential interdependence. The most complicated
organizations experience pooled, sequential, and reciprocal interdependence among groups. The
more complex the organization, the greater is the potential for conflict and the more difficult is
the task facing management. The accompanying OB at Work feature illustrates the concept of
interdependence in team sports.

Differences in Goals

As the subunits of organization become specialized, they often develop dissimilar goals. A goal
of a production unit may include low production costs and few defective products. A goal of the
research and development unit may be innovative ideas that can be converted into commercially
successful new products. These different goals can lead to different expectations among the
members of each unit: Production engineers may expect close supervision, while research
scientists may expect a great deal of participation in decision making. Because of the different
goals, conflict can result when these two groups interact.
Finally, marketing departments usually have a goal of maximum gross income; in contrast, credit
departments seek to minimize credit losses. Depending on which department prevails, different
customers might be selected. Here again, conflict can occur because each department has a
different goal. Because of differences in goals, certain conditions (such as resource availability
and reward structures) foster intergroup conflict.

Limited Resources

When limited resources must be allocated, mutual dependencies increase, and any differences in
group goals become more apparent. If money, space, labor, and materials were unlimited, each
group could pursue (at least to a relative degree) its own goals. But re- sources must be allocated
and shared. Groups seek to lower pressure on themselves by gaining control over critical
resource supplies, thus reducing the uncertainty of gaining these supplies.

QUES 3: WHAT IS CONFLICT MANAGEMENT? MENTION STRATEGIES TO

MANAGE CONFLICTS.

Managers spend more than 20 percent of their time in conflict management. Because managers
must live with intergroup conflict, they need to confront the problem of man- aging it. Failure to
do so can lead to disastrous results. Conflict can rip an organization apart by creating walls
between co-workers, leading to poor performance and even resignations.

Managers must realize that because causes of conflict differ, the means of resolving conflict will
also differ, depending on circumstances. Choice of an appropriate conflict resolution method
depends on many factors, including reasons why the conflict occurred and the specific
relationship between the manager and the conflicting groups. This section presents techniques
for resolving intergroup conflict that has reached levels dysfunctional to the organization.

Problem Solving

The confrontation method of problem solving seeks to reduce tensions through face-to-face
meetings of the conflicting groups. The purpose of the meetings is to identify conflicts and
resolve them. The conflicting groups openly debate various issues and bring together all relevant
information until a decision is reached. For conflicts resulting from misunderstandings or
language barriers, the confrontation method has proved effective. For solving more complex
problems (e.g., conflicts where groups have different value systems), the method has been less
successful.
Superordinate Goals

In the resolution of conflicts between groups, the superordinate goals technique involves
developing a common set of goals and objectives that can’t be attained without the cooperation
of the groups involved. In fact, they are unattainable by one group singly and supersede all other
goals of any of the individual groups involved in the conflict. For example, in recent years
several unions in the auto and airline industries have agreed to forgo pay increases, and in some
cases to accept pay reductions, because the survival of their firm or industry was threatened.
When the crisis was over, demands for higher wages were again made.

Expansion of Resources

As noted earlier, a major cause of intergroup conflict is limited resources. Whatever one group
succeeds in obtaining is gained at the expense of another group. The scarce Expansion of
resources may be one way of solving such problems. For example, when one major publishing
firm decided to expand by establishing a subsidiary firm, most observers believed that the major
reason for the expansion was to allow the firm to be- come involved in other segments of the
market. While this was partially correct, a stronger reason was to enable the firm to stem the exit
of valued personnel. By establishing the subsidiary, the firm was able to double its executive
positions because the subsidiary needed a president, various vice presidents, and other
executives. Expanding resources is potentially a successful technique for solving conflicts in
many cases, because this technique may enable almost everyone to be satisfied. But in many
cases, resources usually aren’t expanded.

Avoidance

Frequently, managers can find some way to avoid conflict. While avoidance may not bring any
long-term benefit, it can certainly work as a short-run solution. However, avoiding a conflict
could be misinterpreted as agreement with group actions or lack of fortitude on the manager’s
part. 30 Avoiding a conflict neither effectively resolves it nor eliminates it. Eventually, the
conflict has to be faced. But in some circumstances, avoidance may be the best temporary
alternative.

Smoothing

The technique known as smoothing emphasizes the common interests of the conflicting groups
and deemphasizes their differences. The basic belief behind smoothing is that stressing shared
viewpoints on certain issues facilitates movement toward a common goal. The manager must
explain to the conflicting groups that the organization’s work will be jeopardized if the groups
won’t cooperate with each other. As long as both groups see that the manager isn’t taking sides,
they may rise to the occasion and agree, at least, to a limited truce. But if differences between
groups are serious, smoothing—like avoidance— is at best a short-run solution.

Compromise

Compromise is a traditional method for resolving intergroup conflicts. With compromise, there’s
no distinct winner or loser, and the decision reached is probably not ideal for either group.
Compromise can be used effectively when the goal sought (e.g., money) can be divided
equitably.

Authoritative Command

The use of authority may be the oldest, most frequently used method for resolving inter- group
conflict. Using this method, management simply resolves the conflict as it sees fit and
communicates its desires to the groups involved. Subordinates usually abide by a superior’s
decision, whether or not they agree with it. Thus, authoritative command usually works in the
short run. As with avoidance, smoothing, and compromise, however, it doesn’t focus on the
cause of the conflict but rather on its results. If the causes remain, conflict will probably recur.
Also, if employees feel they were forced to do something with which they disagreed, then it’s
only a matter of time before this approach backfires and the employees find alternative ways of
doing things (or, stop doing the activity altogether), quit, or reduce effort on the job.

Altering the Human Variable

Altering the human variable involves trying to change group members’ behavior. This method
focuses on the cause or causes of the conflict and on the attitudes of the people involved. While
the method is certainly difficult, it does center on the cause of the conflict.

Altering the Structural

Variables Another way to resolve intergroup disputes is to alter the structural variables. This
involves changing the formal structure of the organization. Structure refers to the fixed
relationships among the jobs of the organization and includes the design of jobs and departments.
Altering the structure of the organization to resolve intergroup conflict involves such things as
transferring, exchanging, or rotating members of the groups or having a coordinator, liaison, or
go-between who keeps groups communicating with one another.
Identifying a Common Enemy

In some respects, identifying a common enemy is the negative side of superordinate goals.
Groups in conflict may temporarily resolve their differences and unite to combat a common
enemy. The common enemy may be a competitor that has just introduced a clearly superior
product. Conflicting groups in a bank may suddenly work in close harmony when government
bank examiners make a visit. The common-enemy phenomenon is very evi- dent in domestic
conflicts. Most police officers prefer not to become involved in heated domestic conflicts
because, in far too many cases, combatants close ranks and turn on the police officer.

The most commonly used methods for managing intergroup conflict each have strengths and
weaknesses and are effective or ineffective in different situations. What this chapter has said thus
far about intergroup conflict is summarized in Figure below. The figure illustrates the
relationship between causes and types of intergroup conflict, the consequences of intergroup
conflict, and techniques for resolution. Whatever the techniques utilized to deal with intergroup
conflict (and there undoubtedly are others not in the figure), managers must learn how to
recognize the existence and causes of intergroup conflict. They must also develop skills to
effectively deal with it.

1. In dual concern model the style which represents a low level of concern for both self
and other known as__________.
Avoiding
Dominating
Obliging
Compromising

2. NThird party usually helps, clarifies and grounds each disputing party’s alternatives to
agreement in___________.
Reality testing
Litigation
Negotiation
Dispute

3. A person holds_____ power when he influences others by coercing, threatening,

harming and irritating.
Reward
Coercive
Normative
Expert

4. Research and investigation can be examples of sources of _________power.

Expert
Reward
Normative
Democratic

5. A dispute between two neighbors can be example of _________power.

Expert
Reward
Ecological
Social

6. Formal power is exercised in a ________manner.

Bottom-up
Top-down
Horizontal
Vertical

7. The influence which is deliberate or purposive in nature may be called_____.

Motivation
Power
Integration
None of the given options

8. When one disputant is forced to litigation then __________style is not possible.

Compromising
Integration
Authoritative
Avoiding

9. Dual concern model assumes that no disputant has ________orientation.

Positive
Negative
Neutral
Zero-Sum

10. In dual concern model the style which represents a moderate level of concern for self
and other known as__________.
Avoiding
Dominating
Obliging
Compromising

11. Negotiation in which the disputants are the only participants is called________.
Adjudication
Mediation
Simple negotiation
Facilitated negotiation

12. An interpersonal conflict in which no participant is aware of the divergence of goals,

needs, or interests is known as__________.
Latent conflict
False conflict
Cause of action
None of the given options

13. A conflict situation in which the disputants believe that when one disputant helps
him/herself, the other disputant is also helped is_______________.
Constructive conflict
Competitive conflict
Destructive conflict
Cooperative conflict

14. A situation involving actual incompatibility of needs, interests or goals is defined

as__________.
False conflict
True conflict
Veridical conflict
Both true and veridical conflict

15. Conflict causes predictable and destructive changes in the disputant’s attitudes,
perceptions and interactions is called____________.
Perceived conflict
Real conflict
Escalating conflict
Data type conflict

16. Meeting one party’s goals is just like promoting other party’s goals known as:
Promotive Interdependence
Contrient Interdependence
Positive Interdependence
None of the given options

17. The first step in conflict diagnosis is to describe the______________.

Conflict
Disputant
Motives
Position

18. In interpersonal conflict the reality understood by each participant is

highly__________.
Objective
Personal
Subjective
Biased

19. There is/are usually ___________ source /sources of any given conflict.
Single
Multiple
Sole
Distinct

20. One can infer attitudes and make judgments about people and things through
_____________.
Perception
General attribution theory
Stimuli
Cognitive Structure

21. High levels of trust between disputants makes:

Negotiation more efficient
Disputants less responsive
Decrease disputant’s willingness to try to find additional ways to trust each other
A competitive conflict cycle more likely

22. Which type of trust is founded on control?

Calculus-based trust
Knowledge-based trust
Identification-based trust
Productive based trust

23. There is a contest among all employees of organization about valuable suggestions for
improving policies for employees. What type of conflict it may be?
Constructive
Destructive
Competitive but constructive
Cooperative but destructive

24. All of the following are advantages of understanding the other disputant's interests
except:
It helps user visualize and recognize alternate ways to meet goals
It creates greater inflexibility in coming to settlement
It ensures user doesn’t miss an optimal resolution
It enables user to evaluate whether some interests could be met outside the conflict

25. Focusing only on resource aspects of a conflict leads to

Zero-sum thinking
A competitive approach to resolution
A cooperative approach to resolution
Zero-sum thinking and a competitive approach to resolution
 POWER & POLITICS IN ORGANISATION

QUES 1: WHAT IS THE NEED OF POWER IN TH EORGANISATIONS? DISCUSS

THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF POWERS USED IN ORGANISATIONS.

Power is a pervasive part of the fabric of organizational life. Getting things done requires power.
Every day, managers in public and private organizations acquire and use power to accomplish
goals and, in many cases, to strengthen their own position. A person’s success or failure at using
or reacting to power is largely determined by understanding power, knowing how and when to
use it, and being able to anticipate its probable effects.

The study of power and its effects is important to understanding how organizations operate.
Every interaction and every social relationship in an organization involves an exercise of power.
How organizational subunits and individuals are controlled is related to the issue of power. In an
organizational setting, power is simply the ability to get others to do what one wants them to do.

When used for the good of the organization, power can be a positive force for higher levels of
organizational effectiveness. However, when power is used in selfish or destructive ways, it can
dramatically decrease the morale and productivity of employees in an organization. Power
involves a relationship between two or more people. Robert Dahl, a political scientist, captures
this important relational focus when he defines power as “A has power over B to the extent that
he can get B to do something B would not otherwise do.”

A person or group cannot have power in isolation; power has to be exercised or have the
potential for being exercised in relation to some other person or group. Some feel that power is
best used in isolation by one person over other people. Conversely, the power-sharing argument
asserts that unless some power is shared, productivity, quality, and customer satisfaction will
never reach their highest potential levels. However, this raises the problem of determining how
to implement power sharing. Power sharing requires time to develop within an organization’s
culture. It cannot be forced on people, and proper leadership and vision are needed to implement
the process.

Time is needed to develop (1) better lines of communication, (2) more trust, and (3) openness
between the power sharers—managers and subordinates or subunits. Because organizations have
for many years relied on authority hierarchies to accomplish goals, it is unreasonable to expect
managers simply to begin sharing their power with others without some resistance.

Authority is the formal power that a person has because of the position in the organization.
Directives or orders from a manager in an authoritative position are followed because they must
be followed. That is, persons in higher positions have legal authority over subordinates in lower
positions. In the authority hierarchy, the chief executive officer (CEO) is above the district
manager, who is above the salesperson. Authority has the following characteristics:

1. It is vested in a person’s position. An individual has authority because of the position that he
holds, not because of any specific personal characteristics.

2. It is accepted by subordinates. The individual in an official authority position exercises

authority and can gain compliance because she has a legitimate right.

3. Authority is used vertically and flows from the top down in the hierarchy of an organization.
Influence is a word we often come across when studying power. We agree with Henry Mintzberg
and others that making a distinction between influence and power adds little to understanding.

Power can be derived from many sources. How it’s obtained in an organization depends to a
large extent on the type of power being sought. Power can be derived from interpersonal,
structural, and situational bases. John French and Bertram Raven suggested five interpersonal
bases of power: legitimate, reward, coercive, expert, and referent.

Legitimate Power

Legitimate power is a person’s ability to influence because of position. For example, a vice
president at a company has more power than middle managers, first-line supervisors, and entry-
level employees. In theory, organizational equals (e.g., all first-line supervisors) have the same
amount of legitimate power. However, each person with legitimate power uses it with a personal
flair. Legitimate power is similar to the concept of authority. Subordinates play a major role in
the exercise of legitimate power. If subordinates view the use of power as legitimate, they
comply. However, the culture, customs, and value systems of an organization determine the
limits of legitimate power. 10 Some boards of directors at publically traded corporations like
AIG, Hewlett-Packard, Disney, and Fannie Mae removed CEO in the past for “not delivering
promised shareholder value, committing ethical or accounting lapses, or a combination of both.
Reward Power A person derives power from the ability to reward compliance. Reward power is
often used to back up the use of legitimate power. If followers value the rewards or potential re-
wards that the person can provide (recognition, a good job assignment, a pay raise, or a
promotion), they are more likely to respond to orders, requests, and directions. For example, a
sales manager who can reward salespeople with large cash bonuses, expanded client lists, or
additional entertainment funds can exert reward power. Reward power works best when
employees understand how they can achieve rewards and are kept abreast of their status toward
earning the reward. A type of reward becoming more prevalent is granting owner- ship through
issuing stock shares to employees when they reach certain milestones. In this way, employees are
further encouraged to work harder and smarter as the value of their ultimate reward is dependent
on organizational results.

Coercive Power

The opposite of reward power is coercive power , the power to punish subordinates. Followers
may comply because they fear the individual who has power over them. A manager may block a
promotion or fire a subordinate for poor performance. These practices, and the fear that they’ll
be used, constitute coercive power. Although punishment may result in some unexpected side
effects, it’s a form of coercive power that’s still used to bring about compliance or to correct
nonproductive behavior in organizations.

Expert Power

A person with special expertise that’s highly valued has expert power . Experts have power even
when their rank is low. An individual may possess expertise on technical, administrative, or
personal matters. The more difficult it is to replace the expert, the greater the expert power she
possesses. Expert power is a personal characteristic, while legitimate, reward, and coercive
power are largely prescribed by the organization. An administrative assistant who has a relatively
low-level organizational position may have high expert power because she knows the de- tails of
operating the business—where everything is or how to handle difficult situations. Another
example of someone with expert power would be a co-worker who’s exceptionally skilled at
making high-impact presentations. Her co-workers might ask her to help whenever they have to
make a major presentation for clients.
Referent Power

Many individuals identify with and are influenced by a person because of the latter’s personality
or behavioral style. The charisma of the person is the basis of referent power. A person with
charisma is admired because of her personality, vision, and the means she uses to speak from her
heart. 17 The strength of a person’s charisma is an indication of her referent power. Charisma is
a term often used to describe the magnetic personalities of some politicians, entertainers, or
sports figures. Some managers are also regarded by their subordinates as charismatic.

The five bases of interpersonal power can be divided into two major categories: organizational
and personal. Legitimate, reward, and coercive power are primarily prescribed by the
organization, the position, formal groups, or specific interaction patterns. A person’s legitimate
power can be changed by transferring the person, rewriting the job description, or reducing the
person’s power by restructuring the organization. In contrast, expert and referent power are very
personal. A person has expertise, or he develops a set of credentials or the image characteristics
of an expert. A person has or does not have charisma. It can’t be tampered with, modified, or
developed through training programs. It’s a personal style that’s quite individualized.

QUES 2: WHAT IS THE ROLE POLITICS IN AN ORGANISATION? HOW IT IS

IMPLEMENTED?

Individuals and subunits continually engage in political behavior . By political behavior, we

mean

1. Behavior that is usually outside the legitimate, recognized power system.

2. Behavior that is designed to benefit an individual or subunit, often at the expense of the
organization in general.

3. Behavior that is intentional and is designed to acquire and maintain power.

As a result of political behavior, the formal power that exists in an organization is often
sidetracked or blocked. The accompanying OB at Work feature outlines some of the negative
effects of political behavior.

Research on Politics
A number of studies have explored political behavior and perceptions in organizations. An early
study of 142 purchasing agents examined their political behavior. Their job objective was to
negotiate and fill orders in a timely manner. However, the purchasing agents also viewed their
jobs as being a crucial link with the environment—competition, price changes, and market shifts.
Thus, they considered themselves information processors. This vital link between each
purchasing agent and the external environment placed them in conflict with the engineering
department. As a result of the conflict, attempts to influence the engineering subunit were a
regular occurrence.

This study found a variety of political tactics used by purchasing agents:

1. Rule evasion —evading the organization’s formal purchasing procedures.

2. Personal-political —using friendships to facilitate or inhibit the processing of an order

3. Educational —attempting to persuade engineering to think in purchasing terms.

4. Organizational —attempting to change the formal or informal interaction patterns between

engineering and purchasing.

These four political tactics were outside the legitimate power system, occasionally benefited the
purchasing agent at the expense of the rest of the organization, and were intentionally developed
so that more power was acquired by the purchasing agent.

PLAYING POLITICS

If anything, the available research indicates that politics exists in organizations and that some
individuals are very adept at political behavior. Mintzberg and others describe these adept
politicians as playing games. The games that managers and non managers engage in are intended
to resist authority (e.g., the insurgency game); counter the resistance to authority (e.g., the
counterinsurgency game); build power bases (e.g., the sponsorship game and coalition-building
game); defeat rivals (e.g., the line versus staff game); and affect organizational change (e.g., the
whistle-blowing game). In all, Mintzberg describes and discusses political games.

Insurgency Game

This game is played to resist authority. For example, suppose that a plant supervisor is in-
structed to reprimand a particular worker for violating company policies. The reprimand can be
delivered according to the supervisor’s feelings and opinions about its worth and legiti- macy. A
reprimand delivered in a halfhearted manner will probably have no noticeable effect. However, if
delivered aggressively, it may be effective. Insurgency in the form of not deliver- ing the
reprimand as expected by a higher-level authority would be difficult to detect and correct.
Insurgency as a game to resist authority is practiced in organizations at all levels.

Counterinsurgency Game

Often, a person in an authority position fights back when faced with insurgency. The super-
visor’s superior may have to carefully monitor whether policies concerning the reprimand are
being followed. One tactic is to occasionally follow up requests given to subordinates with a
detailed checking system. For example, the person with ultimate authority could ask the
supervisor on occasion whether the reprimand had been given, when it was given, what the
person’s reaction was, and how the supervisor would make presentation improvements in the
future. The superior could also check with the person reprimanded to determine when and how
the reprimand was given. The purpose of periodic monitoring is to encourage the supervisor to
deliver the reprimand according to company procedures.

Sponsorship Game

In this rather straightforward game, a person attaches herself to someone with power. The
sponsor is typically the person’s boss or someone else with higher power and status. Typically,
individuals attach themselves to someone who is on the move up in the organization. A few rules
are involved in playing this game. First, the person must be able to show commitment and
loyalty to the sponsor. Second, the person must follow each sponsor-initiated request or order.
Third, the person must stay in the background and give the sponsor credit for everything. Finally,
the person must be thankful and display gratitude to the sponsor. The sponsor is not only a
teacher and trainer but also a power base. Some of the sponsor’s power tends to rub off on the
person through association.

Coalition-Building Game
A subunit such as a personnel/human resources department or a research and development
department may be able to increase its power by forming an alliance, or coalition, with other
subunits. The strength-in-numbers idea is encouraged by coalition building. When such alliances
are formed within the organization, common goals and common interests are emphasized.
However, forming coalitions with groups outside the organization can also enhance the power of
a subunit.

Line versus Staff Game

The line manager versus the staff advisor game has existed for years in organizations. In essence,
this game pits line authority to make operating decisions against staff advisors’ expertise. There
are also value differences and personality clashes. On the one hand, line managers are typically
more experienced, more oriented to the bottom line, and more intuitive in reaching decisions.
Conversely, staff advisors tend to be younger, better educated, and more analytical decision
makers. These differences result in the two groups viewing the organizational world from
different perspectives.

Whistle-Blowing Game

An action is taken to bring about organizational change. It takes place when a person in an
organization identifies a behavior that violates his sense of fairness, morals, ethics, or law and
then blows the whistle. Whistle-blowing means that the person informs someone—a newspaper
reporter, a government representative, a competitor—about an assumed injustice, irresponsible
action, or violation of the law. The whistle-blower, who may come from any level in the
organization, attempts to correct the behavior or practice by bypassing the authority system
within the organization. This is viewed in a negative light by managers with position power

QUES 3: WHAT ARE THE ANTECEDENTS INFLUENCING POLITICS IN THE

ORGANISATIONS?
Organizational politics are informal, unofficial, and sometimes behind-the-scenes efforts to sell
ideas, influence an organization, increase power, or achieve other targeted objectives. Politics
has been around for millennia. Aristotle wrote that politics stems from a diversity of interests,
and those competing interests must be resolved in some way. “Rational” decision making alone
may not work when interests are fundamentally incongruent, so political behaviors and influence
tactics arise.

Today, work in organizations requires skill in handling conflicting agendas and shifting power
bases. Effective politics isn’t about winning at all costs but about maintaining relationships while
achieving results. Although often portrayed negatively, organizational politics are not inherently
bad. Instead, it’s important to be aware of the potentially destructive aspects of organizational
politics in order to minimize their negative effect. Of course, individuals within organizations
can waste time overly engaging in political behavior. Research reported in HR Magazine found
that managers waste 20% of their time managing politics. However, as John Kotter wrote
in Power and Influence, “Without political awareness and skill, we face the inevitable prospect
of becoming immersed in bureaucratic infighting, parochial politics and destructive power
struggles, which greatly retard organizational initiative, innovation, morale, and performance.”

In our discussion about power, we saw that power issues often arise around scarce resources.
Organizations typically have limited resources that must be allocated in some way. Individuals
and groups within the organization may disagree about how those resources should be allocated,
so they may naturally seek to gain those resources for themselves or for their interest groups,
which gives rise to organizational politics. Simply put, with organizational politics, individuals
ally themselves with like-minded others in an attempt to win the scarce resources. They’ll
engage in behavior typically seen in government organizations, such as bargaining, negotiating,
alliance building, and resolving conflicting interests.

Politics are a part of organizational life, because organizations are made up of different interests
that need to be aligned. In fact, 93% of managers surveyed reported that workplace politics exist
in their organization, and 70% felt that in order to be successful, a person has to engage in
politics. In the negative light, saying that someone is “political” generally stirs up images of
back-room dealing, manipulation, or hidden agendas for personal gain. A person engaging in
these types of political behaviors is said to be engaging in self-serving behavior that is not
sanctioned by the organization.
Examples of these self-serving behaviors include bypassing the chain of command to get
approval for a special project, going through improper channels to obtain special favors, or
lobbying high-level managers just before they make a promotion decision. These types of actions
undermine fairness in the organization, because not everyone engages in politicking to meet their
own objectives. Those who follow proper procedures often feel jealous and resentful because
they perceive unfair distributions of the organization’s resources, including rewards and
recognition.
Researchers have found that if employees think their organization is overly driven by politics,
the employees are less committed to the organization, perform worse on the job, have higher
levels of job anxiety, and have a higher incidence of depressed mood.
The negative side of organizational politics is more likely to flare up in times of organizational
change or when there are difficult decisions to be made and a scarcity of resources that breeds
competition among organizational groups. To minimize overly political behavior, company
leaders can provide equal access to information, model collaborative behavior, and demonstrate
that political maneuvering will not be rewarded or tolerated. Furthermore, leaders should
encourage managers throughout the organization to provide high levels of feedback to employees
about their performance. High levels of feedback reduce the perception of organizational politics
and improve employee morale and work performance. Remember that politics can be a healthy
way to get things done within organizations.

Antecedents of Political Behavior

Individual Antecedents

There are a number of potential individual antecedents of political behavior. We will start off by
understanding the role that personality has in shaping whether someone will engage in political
behavior.

Political skill refers to peoples’ interpersonal style, including their ability to relate well to others,
self-monitor, alter their reactions depending upon the situation they are in, and inspire
confidence and trust. Researchers have found that individuals who are high on political skill are
more effective at their jobs or at least in influencing their supervisors’ performance ratings of
them. Individuals who are high in internal locus of control believe that they can make a
difference in organizational outcomes. They do not leave things to fate. Therefore, we would
expect those high in internal locus of control to engage in more political behavior. Research
shows that these individuals perceive politics around them to a greater degree. Investment in the
organization is also related to political behavior. If a person is highly invested in an organization
either financially or emotionally, they will be more likely to engage in political behavior because
they care deeply about the fate of the organization. Finally, expectations of success also matter.
When a person expects that they will be successful in changing an outcome, they are more likely
to engage in political behavior. Think about it: If you know there is no chance that you can
influence an outcome, why would you spend your valuable time and resources working to effect
change? You wouldn’t. Over time you’d learn to live with the outcomes rather than trying to
change them.

Figure Individual and organizational antecedents can both lead to political behavior.
Organizational Antecedents
Scarcity of resources breeds politics. When resources such as monetary incentives or promotions
are limited, people see the organization as more political. Any type of ambiguity can relate to
greater organizational politics.
For example, role ambiguity allows individuals to negotiate and redefine their roles. This
freedom can become a political process. Research shows that when people do not feel clear about
their job responsibilities, they perceive the organization as more political. Ambiguity also exists
around performance evaluations and promotions. These human resource practices can lead to
greater political behavior, such as impression management, throughout the organization. As you
might imagine, democratic decision making leads to more political behavior. Since many people
have a say in the process of making decisions, there are more people available to be influenced.

1. For the most part, ______ research emphasises style; whereas research on ________ focuses
on tactics for gaining compliance.
 
            politics; leadership
            power; persuasion
            leadership; power
            communication; politics
 
2. Person A has ____ power over person B if A can dismiss, suspend, or demote B, assuming
that B values his or her job.
 
            reward
            referent
            legitimate
            coercive
 
3. Avoidance of ______ is why most organisations develop multiple suppliers rather than give
their business to only one.
 
            power
            independence
            dependency
            knowledge
 
4. The most popular power tactic used by managers to influence subordinates is
_____________.
 
            higher authority
            reason
            sanctions
            friendliness
5. Most studies confirm that the concept of ________ is central to understanding sexual
harassment.
 
            sex
            power
            politics
            locus of control
 
6. _____ occurs when people use whatever influence they can to taint the facts to support their
goals and interests.
 
            politicking
            playing hardball
            facilitating teamwork
            forming coalitions
 
7. Which of the following is not an individual factor related to political behaviour?
 
            internal locus of control
            high self-monitoring
            reallocation of resources
            expectations of success
This is an organisational factor influencing political behaviour.
 
8. The process by which individuals attempt to control the impressions others form of them is
called______.
 
            misdirection
            perception management
            defensive behaviour
            impression management
 
9. Behaviours that are reactive and protective to avoid action, blame or change are known as
__________.
 
            misrepresentation
            defensive behaviours
            stalling behaviours
            bluffing
 
10. Each of the following is a question the text suggests to analyse ethical questions except:
 
            Does the action violate rights of other parties?
            Is the action profitable?
            Is the action consistent with the organisation's goal?
            Does the action conform to standards of equity and justice?
 
11.______ refers to a capacity that "A" has to influence the behavior of "B" so that "B" does
something he or she would not otherwise do.
 
            Dependence
            Power
            Politics
            Scarcity
 
11. ______ refers to the power that one receives because of position within the formal hierarchy.
 
            Reward power
            Coercive power
            Legitimate power
            Referent power
 
12. Identify the base of power in the following situation: A person can make things difficult for
other people, and you want to avoid getting his or her angry.
 
            Referent power
            Coercive power
            Legitimate power
            Reward power
 
13. Which of the following is not true about the relationship between dependency and power?
 
            Dependency is decreased when the resource you control is important.
            Reducing uncertainty increases a group's importance and its power.
            A resource needs to be perceived as scarce to create dependency.
            To create dependency, you must control things that are perceived as important.
 
 
14. Which of the following is not true about sexual harassment?
 
 Persons in positions of power can be the subjects of sexual harassment from persons in less
powerful positions within the firm.
 The definition about what specifically constitutes sexual harassment is published in the law and
not a subject of disagreement.
 The concept of power is central to understanding sexual harassment.
 Co-workers can sexually harass peers.

 
15. _____ are the most frequent perpetrators of sexual harassment in organizations.
 
            Subordinates
            Coworkers
            Bosses
            Women
 
16. When employees in organizations convert their power into action, they are engaged in:
 
            Expert power.
            Dependency.
            Personal power.
            Politics.
 
17. Political activity is probably more a function of _____ than of _____.
 
            Organizational characteristics; individual differences
            Individual differences; organizational culture
            Organizational structure; organizational culture
            National culture; organizational culture
 
18. Which of the following is not an impression management techniques?
 
            Acclaiming
            Apologies
            Assessing
            Self-description

19. Which of the IM techniques is demonstrated by the job applicant who says, "I got my
Harvard M.B.A. even though I suffer from dyslexia."
 
            Accounts
            Self-descriptions
            Conformity
            Apologies
20. Power is a function of dependence.
            True
            False
INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION BEHAVIOUR

QUES 1: DISCUSS THE CURRENT TRENDS IN INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS.

As the economy grows slowly at home, your business may have to look at selling
internationally to remain profitable. Before examining foreign markets, you have to be aware
of the major trends in international business so you can take advantage of those that might
favor your company. International markets are evolving rapidly, and you can take advantage of
the changing environment to create a niche for your company.

Growing Emerging Markets

Developing countries will see the highest economic growth as they come closer to the
standards of living of the developed world. If you want your business to grow rapidly, consider
selling into one of these emerging markets. Language, financial stability, economic system and
local cultural factors can influence which markets you should favor.

Population and Demographic Shifts

The population of the industrialized world is aging while many developing countries still have
very youthful populations. Businesses catering to well-off pensioners can profit from a focus
on developed countries, while those targeting young families, mothers and children can look in
Latin America, Africa and the Far East for growth.

Speed of Innovation

The pace of innovation is increasing as many new companies develop new products and
improved versions of traditional items. Western companies no longer can expect to be
automatically at the forefront of technical development, and this trend will intensify as more
businesses in developing countries acquire the expertise to innovate successfully.

More Informed Buyers

More intense and more rapid communications allow customers everywhere to purchase
products made anywhere around the globe and to access information about what to buy. As
pricing and quality information become available across all markets, businesses will lose
pricing power, especially the power to set different prices in different markets.

Increased Business Competition

As more businesses enter international markets, Western companies will see increased
competition. Because companies based in developing markets often have lower labor costs, the
challenge for Western firms is to keep ahead with faster and more effective innovation as well
as a high degree of automation.

Slower Economic Growth

The motor of rapid growth has been the Western economies and the largest of the emerging
markets, such as China and Brazil. Western economies are stagnating, and emerging market
growth has slowed, so economic growth over the next several years will be slower.
International businesses must plan for profitability in the face of more slowly growing demand.

Emergence of Clean Technology

Environmental factors are already a major influence in the West and will become more so
worldwide. Businesses must take into account the environmental impact of their normal
operations. They can try to market environmentally friendly technologies internationally. The
advantage of this market is that it is expected to grow more rapidly than the overall economy.

Since the International Business Environment is extremely competitive, it becomes utmost

essential to update oneself with the current trends to survive in the market. Consider dealing in
one of these emerging domains:

Crowd Funding
One major trend that seems to have a bright future in international business is Crowd funding. It
is the best way to finance new business ventures by collecting a small sum of capital from a large
group of individuals. 

It employs a vast network of people via social media and creates Crowd funding websites to
form a direct link between the investor and the entrepreneur.  Currently, there are several online
portals available which are providing the service of project funding.

Remote Employment
Another prevailing global trend in international business is the remote workforce. The
progressive modes of communication like webinars, video calls have increased connectivity that
facilitates companies to hire employees remotely.  

This mode of employment is much faster than the traditional hiring methods and helps employers
to hire resources from any part of the world. It is greatly beneficial for startups because they get
a wider pool of talent to choose from without needing to pay tax returns. Remote employment
builds a win-win situation for both the employer and the employee as the employees get online
jobs on their convenience and employers have access to an efficient workforce.

Advertise via Live Video 

Social media platforms like Instagram have added a new feature called live video stream, which
created a lot of buzz among people as it is very engaging. Companies can use the feature of live
video for advertising their services and providing real-time experience to the users. Moreover,
one can also do a Q/A session through live video streaming, which raises the participation of
viewers and helps Entrepreneurs to strengthen their bond with their client base.

Augmented Reality Marketing

The world embraces the experience of augmented reality, which was perceived with the success
of a video game called Pokemon Go in the year 2016. It opens more doors for implementing
creative approaches to marketing. The users crave for such type of immersive techniques so its
companies should gear up their marketing methods by using current technologies.

QUES 2: EXPLAIN THE HOFSTEDE’S CULTURAL DIMENSIONS THEORY.

Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory, developed by Geert Hofstede, is a framework used to

understand the differences in culture across countries and to discern the ways that business is
done across different cultures. In other words, the framework is used to distinguish between
different national cultures, the dimensions of culture, and assess their impact on a business
setting.

Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory was created in 1980 by Dutch management

researcher, Geert Hofstede. The aim of the study was to determine the dimensions in which
cultures vary.

Hofstede identified six categories that define culture:

1. Power Distance Index

 2. Collectivism vs. Individualism
3. Uncertainty Avoidance Index
4. Femininity vs. Masculinity
5. Short-Term vs. Long-Term Orientation
6. Restraint vs. Indulgence

Power Distance Index

The power distance index considers the extent to which inequality and power are tolerated. In
this dimension, inequality and power are viewed from the viewpoint of the followers – the lower
level.

 High power distance index indicates that a culture accepts inequity and power
differences, encourages bureaucracy, and shows high respect for rank and authority.
 Low power distance index indicates that a culture encourages organizational
structures that are flat and feature decentralized decision-making responsibility,
participative style of management, and place emphasis on power distribution.

Individualism vs. Collectivism

The individualism vs. collectivism dimension considers the degree to which societies are
integrated into groups and their perceived obligations and dependence on groups.

 Individualism indicates that there is a greater importance placed on attaining personal

goals. A person’s self-image in this category is defined as “I.”
 Collectivism indicates that there is a greater importance placed on the goals and well-
being of the group. A person’s self-image in this category is defined as “We”.

Uncertainty Avoidance Index

The uncertainty avoidance index considers the extent to which uncertainty and ambiguity are
tolerated. This dimension considers how unknown situations and unexpected events are dealt
with.

 A high uncertainty avoidance index indicates a low tolerance for uncertainty, ambiguity,
and risk-taking. The unknown is minimized through strict rules, regulations, etc.
 A low uncertainty avoidance index indicates a high tolerance for uncertainty, ambiguity,
and risk-taking. The unknown is more openly accepted, and there are lax rules,
regulations, etc.
 

Masculinity vs. Femininity

The masculinity vs. femininity dimension is also referred to as “tough vs. tender,” and considers
the preference of society for achievement, attitude towards sexuality equality, behavior, etc.

 Masculinity comes with the following characteristics: distinct gender roles, assertive, and
concentrated on material achievements and wealth-building.
 Femininity comes with the following characteristics: fluid gender roles, modest,
nurturing, and concerned with the quality of life.

Long-Term Orientation vs. Short-Term Orientation

The long-term orientation vs. short-term orientation dimension considers the extent to which
society views its time horizon.

 Long-term orientation shows focus on the future and involves delaying short-term
success or gratification in order to achieve long-term success. Long-term orientation
emphasizes persistence, perseverance, and long-term growth.
 Short-term orientation shows focus on the near future, involves delivering short-term
success or gratification, and places a stronger emphasis on the present than the future.
Short-term orientation emphasizes quick results and respect for tradition.

Indulgence vs. Restraint

The indulgence vs. restraint dimension considers the extent and tendency for a society to fulfill
its desires. In other words, this dimension revolves around how societies can control their
impulses and desires.

 Indulgence indicates that a society allows relatively free gratification related to enjoying
life and having fun.
 Restraint indicates that a society suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it through
social norms.

Hofstede Insights is a great resource to understand the impact of culture on work and life. It can
be accessed here to understand how the different dimensions differ among countries under the
Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory.
 QUES 3: DESCRIBE THE MULTICULTURE TEAM. MENTION THE WAYS TO
MANAGE THE MULTICULTURE TEAM.

Your native language and your cultural customs are among the main aspects that make you part
of a particular culture. Due to cultural differences, there might be some obstacles to overcome
when working in a multicultural team. A multicultural team is a team whose members originate
from various countries and cultures. Naturally, these people speak different languages as well. 

To be a successful team leader in an environment like this one, do your best to make all your
colleagues feel comfortable. This article will help you manage a multicultural team, regardless of
whether you work in the same office or remotely.

How to Manage a Multicultural Team

1. Overcome Language and Cultural Barriers

When working in a multicultural team, one of the most common challenges is handling language
barriers between employees. If each team member speaks a different language, you’ll want to
find a common language you can all use so every member can communicate with ease. 

Once you’ve selected your preferred language of choice, break down any remaining language
obstacles. Here are four useful tips:

1. Encourage your employees to learn at least a few key phrases in other languages to make your
workplace more inclusive.

Encourage your team to learn a few key sentences (or phrases) in each language. 

2. Normalize that asking someone to repeat themselves is fine. Your team members shouldn’t feel
embarrassed doing so, especially when working remotely. If employees have heavy accents,
others might have to ask to hear the same sentence twice, and both parties should feel
comfortable with this. 
3. Choose the language that the majority feels comfortable with. This should be the language used
in all meetings and formal events.
4. If some of your coworkers aren’t fluent in a specific language, avoid using that language in the
workplace.

You might run into additional challenges due to cultural differences. Here’s how to deal with
them:

 Organize informal gatherings for your team members. This is an ideal way to learn more about
other cultures. For example, you can talk about what makes a certain culture unique: their food,
holidays, customs, and more. 
 Delegate work assignments according to the cultural customs of your team members. Keep in
mind that every culture has its own work schedule, vacation rules, and list of holidays. This is
truly important if you’re managing your multicultural team remotely.

3. Consider Different Cultural Communication Styles

Every culture nurtures its own communication style, like speaking patterns and nonverbal
communication. Nonverbal communication includes everything beyond words — gestures, facial
expressions, and body language. It’s crucial to understand diverse communication styles between
cultures and speak to your colleagues according to these rules. 

Each culture has a unique understanding of nonverbal communication. Keep in mind that you
might have to take a different approach when talking to your German colleague as opposed to
your team member from Peru.

4. Plan Projects Around Different Time Zones

This tip applies to you only if you’re managing the virtual multicultural team. Supervising
a virtual team can be difficult because you’re not at the same place or time zone as your
colleagues.

Make sure employees across the world can participate in meetings and work on projects no
matter where they’re located.

Let’s say that you live and work in Phoenix, AZ, and your team members are all located in
London, UK. By the time your workday starts at 9am, your colleagues would have only an hour
left before they head home around 5pm. 

You need to organize your work properly and make plans according to these different time
zones. Also, keep this in mind when you’re setting deadlines for your team members.
To avoid any time-related confusion, try using time management apps. They will help you track
project progress and examine productivity levels by week so you can see the current activity
level of your employees regardless of time zone.

5. Allow Prep Time Whenever Your Team Needs It

Most of us can smoothly and eloquently express our thoughts when speaking our native
language, but, this isn’t always the case when speaking in foreign languages.

If employees aren’t familiar with the language you have chosen to use to communicate, give the
ample time to prep for meetings.

Some team members might feel uneasy in a meeting where the established speaking is not native
to them. They may feel restrained in these situations, causing a communication barrier.

Remember to give your team — especially those speaking a different language than what they
were raised on — enough time to prepare themselves when speaking a foreign language. If they
need to gather their thoughts or take time to make a point, don’t interrupt or talk over them. Be
patient and give them the time and space they need to communicate effectively. This not only
improves communication, but it helps your team members become more confident speaking
foreign languages as well.

6. Be Open to All Cultures and Their Differences

The best way to show your colleagues that you respect and appreciate them is by being open to
the traditions and values of all cultures. This means avoiding promoting or embracing only one
culture in the workplace. For instance, during the holiday season, it’s important to vary your
decorations so all cultures are included. This way, your multicultural team will know you respect
and embrace whatever they celebrate during the holidays.

Diversity brings new ideas to the table. Be open to understanding the cultural differences
between your employees and celebrate them in a respectful way.

Additionally, you can make an effort to learn more about a particular culture and its
characteristics. For example, start by exploring the cuisine or by watching popular movies from
other countries. 

7. Organize a Cross-Cultural Training

 To improve workplace happiness and morale, organize cross-cultural training. The purpose of
this training is to overcome cultural challenges at the office. That way, people will get to know
each other and educate themselves about various cultural beliefs.

This training should highlight:

 How to minimize the culture barriers

 How to avoid stereotypes and prejudices
 How to appreciate your own and the skills of other cultures
 How to improve your social skills
 How to become a better listener
 How to aim your attention on common principles rather than differences

8. Avoid Stereotypes

“There’s a fine line between being aware of culture differences and stereotyping. When you
paint groups of people with a broad brush, such as thinking that all people from a certain region
behave a certain way, you’ve likely crossed it.” — David Livermore, founder of the Cultural
Intelligence Center

There’s a difference between being mindful of cultural differences and relying on stereotypes to
make people management decisions.

When working in a multicultural team, be extra careful with the language you use. There’s a
balance between being mindful of cultural differences and relying on stereotypes to make
assumptions about your employees’ behaviors.. The fact that your colleague is from Japan or
France does not dictate every decision your employees make, and leaning on this logic will likely
offend them. Everyone, regardless of their cultural upbringing, is an autonomous individual, so
treat your coworkers in such manner. 

To avoid stereotypes, take time to become acquainted with every team member. Feel free to
encourage your colleagues to do so as well. 

You need to remind yourself frequently that:

 Each team member has a unique way of working and communicating with others
 Everyone is an individual and has specific preferences
 Culture shapes behavior but does not dictate it
 9. Practice Empathy

A good leader will always find time to check in with their team members. This is an effective
way to build trust with employees and promote mutual respect. 

Good leaders are empathetic to employees’ thoughts and feelings on the job.

While talking with your colleagues, practice empathy. Empathy is defined as the ability to
understand and share the feelings of someone else. Empathy takes practice, and it’s important to
continually grow your listening skills when in a leadership role. Making an attempt to understand
what your coworker is experiencing helps your relationship with them thrive.  

Practicing empathy has additional benefits, too:

 It provides support for multicultural employees so they’ll continue providing quality work
 It helps them solve issues standing in their way to reach desired goals   
 It helps resolve conflicts quickly and effectively.

10. Deliver Honest Feedback

Providing your team with honest and constructive feedback is a significant part of your
leadership and management duties. Your colleagues deserve to know the truth about the quality
of their work, be it positive or negative. 

Honest feedback for a multicultural team is essential.

As a leader of a multicultural team, you have to be cautious about evaluating someone’s work.
Each culture, and even each country, has a unique way of giving feedback, especially when it’s
constructive and can be easily viewed as negative.

MCQs
1. Because Singapore is a highly collectivist culture, you can deduce from Hofsetede's
research that Singapore is also
 a. a low-power-distance culture 
 b. a high-context communication culture 
 c. a high-power-distance culture 
 d. both b & c 
2. Cultures listed as highly masculine cultures based on Hofstede's research include
  a. Norway 
 b. Finland 
 c. Japan 
 d. none of the above 
3. As a student, you feel free to disagree with your professor in class. You are most likely
living in _________ cultural environment.
 a. an individualist 
 b. a collectivist 
 c. a feminine 
 d. all of the above 
4. A collectivist culture is more likely than an individualist culture to highly value
 a. an orderly society 
 b. personal freedom 
 c. individual rights 
 d. all of the above 
5. According to Hofstede, high femininity cultures

A) emphasize equality between men and women.

B) favor achievement and power.
C) emphasize feminine roles.
D) have increased anxiety about ambiguity.
E) are rule-oriented

6. Which of the following cultural dimensions identified by GLOBE does not have an
equivalent in Hofstede?

A) future orientation
B) power distance
C) performance orientation
D) individualism/collectivism
E) gender differentiation
7. Which of the following is not one of Hofstede's five dimensions of national culture?

A) power distance
B) flexibility versus rigidity
C) individualism versus collectivism:
D) long-term versus short-term orientation:
E) uncertainty avoidance

8. All of the following are weaknesses of Hofstede's cultural dimensions pointed out by
critics EXCEPT:

A) The original data are from 30 years ago.

B) The original data were based on only four companies: IBM, Disney, Coca-Cola, and
McDonald's.
C) Most researchers are unaware of the judgment calls Hofstede had to make.
D) Some of the Hofstede results are unexpected.
E) Few researchers have read the details of Hofstede's methodology closely.

9. According to Hofstede, the Unites States scores high in ________ and low in
________.

A) power distance; uncertainty avoidance

B) individualism; power distance
C) uncertainty avoidance; individualism
D) uncertainty avoidance; masculinity
E) femininity; masculinity

10. Which of Hofstede's dimensions is the degree to which people in a country prefer
structured to unstructured situations?

A) collectivism
B) power distance
C) long-term orientation
D) uncertainty avoidance
E) idiocentricity

11. Which dimension of Hofstede's framework is the degree to which people prefer to
act as individuals rather than as members of groups?

A) power distance
B) individualism vs. collectivism
C) masculinity vs. femininity
D) uncertainty avoidance
E) long-term vs. short-term orientation

12. Which of the following IS TRUE about the study of personality across cultures?
A. the Five Factor Model is relevant in all cultural communities
B. there are only five personality factors in the human experience
C. indigenous models and the Five Factor Model are identical
D. indigenous studies support the importance of using culturally relevant measures
to study personality

13. In their cross-cultural studies on personality McCrae and colleagues found:

A. culturally diverse participants organized their responses around seven factors the same
way Americans did
B. among American samples the five factors remained stable across the lifespan
C. culturally diverse participants organized their responses around six factors the same
way Americans did
D. among American samples the five factors increase and decrease across the
lifespan
14. Globalization is a factor that may also shape a person’s identity development. Which the
following IS NOT true regarding Chang’s work, Factory Girls?
A. many young women leave rural villages to find work in the cities
B. many of these young women do not adopt values such as autonomy and self-
expression that connect to global cultures
C. many young women come to realize traditional values will not help them to become
successful in global cultures
D. many of these women become bicultural existing into worlds, the global culture and
that of their local communities
15. Richard Shweder’s view of cultural psychology has emphasized that culture creates
minds and mind creates culture. Which of the following statements supports this view as
it relates to personality?
A. individual personalities are culture specific
B. an individual may have more than one personality
C. individual personalities shape culture and culture shapes the personality traits
we express
D. personalities are not able to adjust and change with each situation
16. Subsidiaries consider the regional environment for policy / Strategy formulation is known as
a. Polycentric Approach
b. Regiocentric Approach
c. Ethnocentric Approach
d. Geocentric Approach Answer: b 6. According to this theory,

17. . ……………is the application of knowledge which redefines the boundaries of global
business
a. Cultural Values
b. Society
c. Technology
d. Economy

ultural similarities provide a good basis for making relatively standardized marketing
strategies.
Answer: TRU
ultural similarities provide a good basis for making relatively standardized marketing
strategies.
Answer: TRU
ultural similarities provide a good basis for making relatively standardized marketing
strategies.
Answer: TRU
18. ______ involves the representation of the world as a single place, the intersecting of the
interests of business, and society or an increase in the impact of forces that span national
boundaries.
A. Culture
B. Environment
C. Globalization
D. Interconnections
19. A stable, honest and efficient political system is a primary factor for the growth of
______________
a) Business
b) General environment
c) Economic conditions
d) Natural environment

20. ____________ is environment covers those factors which give shape and form to the dept. of
economic activities.
a) Technological
b) Demographic
c) Social and cultural
d) Economic