Load & Stress Analysis of Horizontal Axis

Wind Turbine and Comparison between

Fiberglass & Carbon Fiber Blades

Project Advisor:

Mr. Rashid Sajid

Project Members:

Waqas Khalil 2011-ME-93

M. Arslan 2011-ME-32

M. Imaad Ayub 2011-ME-41

Mian M. Usman 2008-GE/2011-ME-257

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 Load & Stress Analysis of Horizontal Axis Wind
Turbine and Comparison between Fiberglass &
Carbon Fiber Blades
The project is submitted by 2011-Session students of Department of Mechanical Engineering, University
of Engineering and Technology Lahore with the partial fulfillment required for the award of

Bachelor’s Degree
In
Mechanical Engineering

Internal Examiner:

Mr. Rashid Sajid

sign:

External Examiner:

Name:

Sign:

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 Acknowledgment

All thanks are duly to almighty ALLAH, the most gracious and the most merciful who
enabled us to complete this project.

We express our cordial gratitude and thanks to our project advisor ―Mr. Rashid Sajid‖ for
his continuous and praise worthy guidance and help throughout the project.

(Authors)

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 Preface
We feel particularly good about what is going on in the world today. It is true that we are rapidly
running out of oil upon which our whole economic structure depends, but that is no longer a
worry for there is something much more important quietly developing behind the scenes. This
―something‖ is difficult to define but its momentum and enthusiasm is unmistakable and
distinctive. One aspect of this movement is the urge to work closely with nature, to endeavor to
tap the abundance of ambient energy, whether it is solar, water or wind power.

It is nice feeling to know that your source of power is in your own hands and not in the hands of
some impersonal monopoly whose only concern is self-interest. Apart from being beautiful in
themselves, wind turbine uses a renewable and non-polluting source of power. They are fun to
work with and it is a great pleasure to watch a wind turbine as it spins in response to a gust of
wind.

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 Dedications

… To Our Parents, and

Respectable Teachers
Who Always Encouraged us.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 8

1.1 WIND: ..................................................................................................................................................................8

1.2.1 Advantages of Wind power: .........................................................................................................................8
1.2.2 Disadvantages of wind power: .....................................................................................................................8
1.3 HISTORY OF WINDMILLS: ...................................................................................................................................9
1.4 HISTORY OF WIND TURBINE: ...........................................................................................................................10
1.5 WIND POWER IN ASIA: ...........................................................................................................................................11
1.6 THE VIABILITY OF WIND POWER IN PAKISTAN: .............................................................................................11

CHAPTER 2 : WIND TURBINE ................................................................................................................................ 13

2.1 WIND TURBINE: ................................................................................................................................................13

2.2 TYPES OF WIND TURBINE:................................................................................................................................13
2.2.1 HORIZONTAL AXIS WIND TURBINES (HAWT): ...........................................................................................13
2.3 HAWT ADVANTAGES: ......................................................................................................................................15
2.4 HAWT DISADVANTAGES: .................................................................................................................................15
2.5 VERTICAL AXIS WIND TURBINES (VAWT): ....................................................................................................16
2.5.1 VAWT advantages: ....................................................................................................................................17
2.5.2 VAWT disadvantages:................................................................................................................................18
2.6 WIND TURBINE COMPONENTS: ........................................................................................................................18

CHAPTER 3 : POWER & TORQUE CALCULATION ................................................................................................... 21

3.1 POWER AND TORQUE OF WIND TURBINE ........................................................................................................21

3.2 BETZ EQUATION AND CRITERION, PERFORMANCE COEFFICIENT CP: .............................................................21
3.3 APPLICATION OF CONSERVATION OF MASS (CONTINUITY EQUATION): ..........................................................22
3.4 POWER AND WORK:...........................................................................................................................................23
3.5 BETZ' LAW AND COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE: ..........................................................................................24
3.6 TORQUE:............................................................................................................................................................25

CHAPTER 4 : ANALYSIS OF HAWT ......................................................................................................................... 26

4.1 LOAD AND STRESS ANALYSIS OF HAWT (NACA 4415): ............................................................................26

4.2 BLADE SHAPE: ..................................................................................................................................................26
4.4 THRUST ON THE ROTOR: ..................................................................................................................................28
4.5 SELECTION OF BLADE MATERIAL ....................................................................................................................28
4.6 CALACULATION OF STRESSES ...........................................................................................................................29
4.6.1 Bending of Blade Due to Weight and Tangential Force : ........................................................................29
4.6.2 Bending of Blade Due to Thrust Force : ..................................................................................................29
4.6.3 Stress on Blade Due to Centrifugal Force ................................................................................................30
4.7 SOLID WORKS MODELING................................................................................................................................31
4.7.1 Naca (4415) airfoil Coordinates: ...............................................................................................................31
4.7.2 Formation of Airfoil (NACA 4415) : .........................................................................................................33
4.8 IMPORTING MODEL TO ANSYS FOR LOAD/ STRESS ANALYSIS .........................................................................34

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 4.9 NORMAL STRESSES: ..........................................................................................................................................34
4.9.1 Normal Stress (X –Axis) ............................................................................................................................34
4.9.2 Normal Stress (Y-Axis) ..............................................................................................................................35
4.9.3 Normal Stress (Z-Axis) ..............................................................................................................................35
4.9.4 Equivalent Stress (von-Mises) : .................................................................................................................36
4.9.5 Total Deformation: .....................................................................................................................................36
4.10 CARBON FIBER REINFORCED PLASTIC: .........................................................................................................37
4.10.1 Total Deformation: ..................................................................................................................................37
4.10.2 Equivalent stress: ...................................................................................................................................38
4.10.3 Normal Stress(Y-Axis) ............................................................................................................................38

CHAPTER 5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................ 39

5.1 SOLUTION FOR FIBERGALSS BLADES: ..............................................................................................................39

5.2 SOLUTION FOR CARBONFIBER REINFORCED POLYMER BLADES: .................................................................41

REFERENCES......................................................................................................................................................... 44

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 Chapter 1 : Introduction
1.1 Wind:
Wind is moving air and is caused by differences in air pressure within our atmosphere.
Air under high pressure moves toward areas of low pressure. The greater the difference in
pressure, the faster the air flows. Wind is described with direction and speed. The direction of the
wind is expressed as the direction from which the wind is blowing. For example, easterly winds
blow from east to west, while westerly winds blow from west to east. Winds have different levels
of speed, such as ―breeze‖ and ―gale‖, depending on how fast they blow. Wind speeds are based
on the descriptions of winds in a scale called the Beaufort Scale, which divides wind speeds into
12 different categories, from less than 1 mph to more than 73mph.
1.2 Wind energy:
Owing to its speed, Kinetic energy is possessed by the wind.some time its energy level is
very high as in case wind storm. There is a need of utilization of this energy for our energy
requirements. Conversion of kinetic energy of wind into mechanical energy so that can be used
to generate electricity. For this purpose, commonly used devices are Wind Turbines.

1.2.1 Advantages of Wind power:

1. Renewable Energy : Wind energy in itself is a source of renewable energy which means
it can be produced again and again since it is available in plenty.
2. Reduces Fossil Fuels Consumption : Dependence on the fossil fuels could be reduced to
much extent if it is adopted on the much wider scale by all the countries across the globe.
It could be answer to the ever increasing demand for petroleum and gas products
3. Initial Cost : The cost of producing wind energy has come down steadily over the last few
years. The main cost is the installation of wind turbines. Moreover the land used to install
wind turbines can also be used for agriculture purpose.
4. The wind is free and with modern technology it can be captured efficiently.
5. Remote areas that are not connected to the electricity power grid can use wind turbines to
produce their own supply.
6. Wind turbines have a role to play in both the developed and third world.
7. Wind turbines are available in a range of sizes which means a vast range of people and
businesses can use them. Single households to small towns and villages can make good
use of range of wind turbines available today.

1.2.2 Disadvantages of wind power:

1. Noise Disturbances : Though wind energy is non-polluting, the turbines may create a lot
of noise. This alone is the reason that wind farms are not built near residential areas.
People who live near-by often complaint of huge noise that comes from wind turbines.

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 2. Threat to Wildlife : Due to large scale construction of wind turbines on remote location, it
could be a threat to wild life near by. Few studies have been done by wind turbines to
determine the effect of wind turbines on birds and animals and the evidence is clear that
animals see wind turbines as a threat to their life.
3. Wind Can Never Be Predicted : The main disadvantage of wind energy is that wind can
never be predicted. In areas where large amount of wind is needed or winds strength is
too low to support wind turbine, there solar or geothermal energy could prove to be great
alternatives.
4. Suited To Particular Region : Wind turbines are suited to the coastal regions which
receive wind throughout the year to generate power. So, countries that do not have any
coastal or hilly areas may not be able to take any advantage of wind power. The location
of a wind power system is crucial.

1.3 History of windmills:

A windmill is a mill that converts the energy of wind into rotational energy by means of
vanes called sails or blades. Centuries ago, windmills usually were used to mill grain, pump
water, or both. Thus they often were gristmills, wind pumps, or both. The majority of modern
windmills take the form of wind turbines used to generate electricity, or wind pumps used to
pump water, either for land drainage or to extract groundwater.

The first practical windmills were in use in Sistan, a region in Iran and bordering
Afghanistan, at least by the 9th century and possibly as early as the 7th century. These
"Panemone windmills" were horizontal windmills .which had long vertical drive shafts with six
to twelve rectangular sails covered in reed matting or cloth.

These windmills were used to grind corn and pump water, and in the gristmilling and
sugarcane industries. The use of windmills became widespread use across the Middle East and
Central Asia, and later spread to China and India. Vertical windmills were later used extensively
in Northwestern Europe to grind flour beginning in the 1180s, and many examples still exist.By
1000 AD, windmills were used to pump seawater for salt-making in China and Sicily.

The first windmills in Europe appear in sources dating to the twelfth century. These early
European windmills were sunk post mills. The earliest certain reference to a windmill dates from
1185, in Weedley, Yorkshire, although a number of earlier but less certainly dated twelfth-
century. By the 14th century Dutch windmills were in use to drain areas of the Rhine River delta.

By 18th century, Windmills were used to pump water for salt making on the island of
Bermuda, and on Cape Cod during the American revolution. In Mykonos and in other islands of
Greece windmills were used to mill flour and remained in use until the early 20th century. Many
of them are now refurbished to be inhabited.

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In 19th century, The first windmill used for the production of electricity was built in Scotland in
July 1887 by Prof James Blyth of Anderson's College, Glasgow (the precursor of Strathclyde
University).

1.4 History of Wind Turbine:

The first electricity generating wind turbine was a battery charging machine installed in
july 1887 by Scottish academic James Blyth to light his holiday room in Marykirk ,scoland.
Winter 1887 – Ohio, US .Professor Charles F. Brush builds a 12kW wind turbine to charge 408
batteries stored in the cellar of his mansion. The turbine, which ran for 20 years, had a rotor
diameter of 50m and 144 rotor blades.

1890s – Askov, Denmark Scientist Poul la Cour begins his wind turbine tests in a bid
to bring electricity to the rural population of Denmark. In 1903, Poul la Cour founded the Society
of Wind Electricians and in 1904 the society held the first course in wind electricity. La Cour
was the first to discover that fast rotating wind turbines with fewer rotor blades were most
efficient in generating electricity production. 1927 – Minneapolis, US ,Joe and Marcellus
Jacobs open the Jacobs Wind factory, producing wind turbine generators. The generators are
used on farms to charge batteries and power lighting. 1920s The first vertical axis wind turbine,
the Darrieus turbine, is invented by Frenchman George Darrieus who in 1931 has it patented in
the US. The design, often referred to as the "eggbeater windmill", due to the appearance of its
two or three blades, is still used today.

1931 – Yalta, former USSR A precursor to the modern horizontal wind generator is
used in Yalta, generating 100kW. The turbine has a 30m tower and a 32% load factor, meaning it
provides 32% of its potential energy output, pretty good even by today's standards. 1941 –
Vermont, US ,The world's first megawatt wind turbine is built and connected to the power grid
in Castleton, Vermont. The turbine has 75-foot blades and weighs 240 tons. 1956 – Gedser,
Denmark ,The Gedser wind turbine is built by Johannes Juul, a former student of Poul la Cour.
The 200kW, three-bladed turbine inspired many later turbine designs, and Juul's invention -
emergency aerodynamic tip breaks – is still used in turbines today. The turbine operated until
1967 and was refurbished in the mid 1970s at the request of Nasa. 1980 – New Hampshire, US
The world's first windfarm consisting of 20 turbines is built in New Hampshire. The windfarm
however, is a failure as the turbines break down and the developers overestimate the wind
resource.

1981 – Washington and Hawaii, US ,In 1981 the 7.5mW Mod-2 is build by Nasa,
followed in 1987 by the 3.2mW, two-blade wind turbine Mod-5B. Both turbines break records
for diameter and energy output. 1991 – Vindeby, Denmark, The first offshore windfarm is
created in Vindeby, in the southern part of Denmark. The windfarm consists of 11 450kW
turbines.

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 2003 – north Wales, UK The UK's first offshore windfarm is opened. North Hoyle
offshore windfarm is located 7-8km off the north Wales coast between Prestatyn and Rhyl and
consists of 30 2mW turbines. 2007 - Stirling, UK Installed capacity of wind power in the UK
reaches 2gW, with the opening of the Braes O'Doune windfarm, in Scotland, which produces
72mW of power.The UK announced plans for thousands of new offshore wind turbines which
could power every home in Britain by 2020.

2008 – UK, The EU sets the UK government a target to increase the contribution of
renewables to UK electricity to 20% by 2020 as part of efforts to dramatically reduce greenhouse
gas emissions and enhance energy security.

1.5 Wind Power in Asia:

Many people do not realize that wind energy first came about in Asia. Between 500 and
900 AD, a vertical axis turbine was developed in Persia to grind grain and pump water. These
wind turbines were made from bundles of reeds or wood. During the 11th century, the Crusaders
brought back the concept of the windmill to Europe where it was first used by the Dutch to grind
corn and to drain wetlands in order for people to settle and build homes. In recent years, Europe
and North America have led in terms of installed wind capacity.

Asia is now -again- making its presence felt. India and China currently have the fourth
and fifth largest number of wind turbines installed, respectively.It is interesting to note however,
that while India has 45,000 megawatts (MW) of wind energy potential and a much larger surface
area, Pakistan has at least 50,000 MW of potential.

1.6 The Viability of Wind Power in Pakistan:

Pakistan is fortunate to have something many other countries do not, which are high wind
speeds near major centres. Near Islamabad, the wind speed is anywhere from 6.2 to 7.4 metres
per second (between 13.8 and 16.5 miles per hour). Near Karachi, the range is between 6.2 and
6.9 (between 13.8 and 15.4 miles per hour). Pakistan is also fortunate that in neighboring India,
the company Suzlon manufactures wind turbines, thus decreasing transportation costs. Its
turbines start to turn at a speed of 3 metres per second. Vestas, which is one of the world’s
largest wind turbine manufacturers, has wind turbines that start turning at a speed of 4 metres per
second. In addition to Karachi and Islamabad, there are other areas in Pakistan that receive a
significant amount of wind.

In only the Balochistan and Sindh provinces, sufficient wind exists to power every
coastal village in the country. There also exists a corridor between Gharo and Keti Bandar that
alone could produce between 40,000 and 50,000 megawatts of electricity. Given this surplus
potential, Pakistan has much to offer Asia with regards to wind energy. In recent years, the
government has completed several projects to demonstrate that wind energy is viable in the
country. In Mirpur Sakro, 85 micro turbines have been installed to power 356 homes. In Kund

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Malir, 40 turbines have been installed, which power 111 homes. The Alternative Energy
Development Board (AEDB) has also acquired 18,000 acres for the installation of more wind
turbines.

In addition to high wind speeds near major centres as well as the Gharo and Keti Bandar
corridor, Pakistan is also very fortunate to have many rivers and lakes. Wind turbines that are
situated in or near water enjoy an uninterrupted flow of wind, which virtually guarantees that
power will be available all the time. Within towns and cities, wind speeds can often change
quickly due to the presence of buildings and other structures, which can damage wind turbines.
In addition, many people do not wish for turbines to be sited near cities because of noise, though
these problems are often exaggerated. Wind turbines make less noise than an office and people
comfortably carry on conversations while standing near them.

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 Chapter 2 : Wind Turbine
2.1 Wind Turbine:
A wind turbine is a device that converts kinetic energy from the wind into electrical
power. Historical they were more frequently used as a mechanical device to turn machinery.
Wind turbines can be used to generate large amounts of electricity in wind farms both onshore
and offshore. The result of over a millennium of windmill development and modern engineering,
today's wind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of vertical and horizontal axis types. The
smallest turbines are used for applications such as battery charging for auxiliary power for boats
or caravans or to power traffic warning signs. Slightly larger turbines can be used for making
contributions to a domestic power supply while selling unused power back to the utility supplier
via the electrical grid.

2.2 Types of Wind Turbine:

Wind turbines can be separated into two basic types determined by which way the turbine
spins. Wind turbines that rotate around a horizontal axis are more common (like a wind mill),
while vertical axis wind turbines are less frequently used (Savonius and Darrieus are the most
common in the group).

2.2.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT):

Horizontal axis wind turbines, also shortened to HAWT, are the common style that most
of us think of when we think of a wind turbine. A HAWT has a similar design to a windmill, it
has blades that look like a propeller that spin on the horizontal axis.

Horizontal axis wind turbines have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top
of a tower, and they must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind
vane placed square with the rotor (blades), while large turbines generally use a wind sensor
coupled with a servo motor to turn the turbine into the wind. Most large wind turbines have a
gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the rotor into a faster rotation that is more suitable to
drive an electrical generator.

Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually pointed upwind of the
tower. Wind turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from being pushed into the tower
by high winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a considerable distance in front of the tower
and are sometimes tilted up a small amount.

Downwind machines have been built, despite the problem of turbulence, because they
don't need an additional mechanism for keeping them in line with the wind. Additionally, in high
winds the blades can be allowed to bend which reduces their swept area and thus their wind
resistance. Since turbulence leads to fatigue failures, and reliability is so important, most
HAWTs are upwind machines.

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 The Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines require a ―yaw‖ mechanism to turn the turbine
against the wind direction in order to harvest the wind energy. They are usually installed high up
above ground level on a tower in order to harvest the ample wind energy up in the sky. There are
2 types of blades that are used on these turbines. They are the Drag type and Lifting type.

The Drag type blades are typically what you see on an old Dutch wind mill. The blades
are generally flat which are hit by the wind to cause the rotation. This type of design is great for
operation at very low wind speed and can develop a lot of torque to perform operation. However,
they cannot operate at medium to high wind speed.

The Lift type blades are used in most modern wind turbines and on airplanes. The design
uses the aerodynamic properties of the blade profile to provide lift force to turn the blades such
that the wind turbines can harvest the wind energy at high wind speed. With this design, the rich
energy in high wind speed area can then be harvested efficiently.

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2.3 HAWT advantages:
1. The tall tower base allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear. In some wind
shear sites, every ten meters up the wind speed can increase by 20% and the power output
by 34%.

2. High efficiency, since the blades always move perpendicularly to the wind, receiving
power through the whole rotation. In contrast, all vertical axis wind turbines, and most
proposed airborne wind turbine designs, involve various types of reciprocating actions,
requiring airfoil surfaces to backtrack against the wind for part of the cycle. Backtracking
against the wind leads to inherently lower efficiency.

3. Variable blade pitch, which gives the turbine blades the optimum angle of attack.
Allowing the angle of attack to be remotely adjusted gives greater control, so the turbine
collects the maximum amount of wind energy for the time of day and season.

4. Blades are to the side of the turbines center of gravity, helping stability.

5. Most are self-starting.

2.4 HAWT disadvantages:

1. Massive tower construction is required to support the heavy blades, gearbox, and
generator.

2. Components of a horizontal axis wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly)
being lifted into position.

3. Their height makes them obtrusively visible across large areas, disrupting the appearance
of the landscape and sometimes creating local opposition.

4. Downwind variants suffer from fatigue and structural failure caused by turbulence when
a blade passes through the tower's wind shadow (for this reason, the majority of HAWTs
use an upwind design, with the rotor facing the wind in front of the tower).

5. HAWTs require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the blades toward the wind.

6. HAWTs generally require a braking or yawing device in high winds to stop the turbine
from spinning and destroying or damaging itself.

7. Difficulty operating in near ground winds.

8. Difficult to transport (20% of equipment costs).

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2.5 Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT):
Vertical axis wind turbines, as shortened to VAWTs, have the main rotor shaft arranged
vertically. The main advantage of this arrangement is that the wind turbine does not need to be
pointed into the wind. This is an advantage on sites where the wind direction is highly variable or
has turbulent winds.

With a vertical axis, the generator and other primary components can be placed near the
ground, so the tower does not need to support it, also makes maintenance easier. The main
drawback of a VAWT generally creates drag when rotating into the wind.

It is difficult to mount vertical-axis turbines on towers, meaning they are often installed
nearer to the base on which they rest, such as the ground or a building rooftop. The wind speed is
slower at a lower altitude, so less wind energy is available for a given size turbine. Air flow near
the ground and other objects can create turbulent flow, which can introduce issues of vibration,
including noise and bearing wear which may increase the maintenance or shorten its service life.
However, when a turbine is mounted on a rooftop, the building generally redirects wind over the
roof and this can double the wind speed at the turbine. If the height of the rooftop mounted
turbine tower is approximately 50% of the building height, this is near the optimum for
maximum wind energy and minimum wind turbulence.

The Vertical Axis Wind Turbines do not require a ―yaw‖ mechanism to harvest the wind
energy. Since the blades rotate 360 degree on the vertical shaft of the wind turbines, wind of any
direction can turn the turbine. The turbines are usually installed on or close to the ground level.
However, the wind speed is always lower than that in the upper sky. There are also 2 types of
blades that are used on these turbines. They are the Drag type and Lift type.

The Drag type blades are used on the Savonius wind turbine. The blades are generally of
flat type with large area. They are hit by the wind to cause the rotation. This type of design is
good for operation at low to medium wind speed to generate electricity. However, the capacity of
this type of wind turbines is limited to small scale because it is difficult to make the large area of
blades required.

The Lift type of blades is used on the Darrius or ―egg beater‖ wind turbine. The design
uses the aerodynamic properties of the blade profile to provide lift force to turn the blades such
that the wind turbines can harvest the wind energy at high wind speed. The blade shapes are
different than the lift type used on the Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines.

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2.5.1 VAWT advantages:
1. No yaw mechanism is needed.

2. A VAWT can be located nearer the ground, making it easier to maintain the moving
parts.

3. VAWTs have lower wind startup speeds than the typical the HAWTs.

4. VAWTs may be built at locations where taller structures are prohibited.

5. VAWTs situated close to the ground can take advantage of locations where rooftops,
mesas, hilltops, ridgelines, and passes funnel the wind and increase wind velocity.

6. Have greater surface area for energy capture – can be many times greater.

7. Are more efficient in gusty winds – already facing the gust.

8. Can be significantly less expensive to build – are inherently simpler.

9. Produce less noise – low speed means less noise.

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2.5.2 VAWT disadvantages:
1. Most VAWTs have an average decreased efficiency from a common HAWT, mainly
because of the additional drag that they have as their blades rotate into the wind. Versions
that reduce drag produce more energy, especially those that funnel wind into the collector
area.

2. Having rotors located close to the ground where wind speeds are lower and do not take
advantage of higher wind speeds above.

3. Because VAWTs are not commonly deployed due mainly to the serious disadvantages
mentioned above, they appear novel to those not familiar with the wind industry. This has
often made them the subject of wild claims and investment scams over the last 50 years.

4. Operate in lower, more turbulent wind.

5. Low starting torque and may require energy to start turning.

2.6 Wind Turbine Components:

Anemometer:

Measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the controller.

Blades:

Lifts and rotates when wind is blown over them, causing the rotor to spin. Most turbines have
either two or three blades.

Brake:

Stops the rotor mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically, in emergencies.

Controller:

Starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per hour (mph) and shuts off
the machine at about 55 mph. Turbines do not operate at wind speeds above about 55 mph
because they may be damaged by the high winds.

Gear box:

Connects the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increases the rotational speeds
from about 30-60 rotations per minute (rpm), to about 1,000-1,800 rpm; this is the rotational
speed required by most generators to produce electricity. The gear box is a costly (and heavy)
part of the wind turbine and engineers are exploring "direct-drive" generators that operate at
lower rotational speeds and don't need gear boxes.

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Generator:

Produces 60-cycle AC electricity; it is usually an off-the-shelf induction generator.

High-speed shaft:

Drives the generator.

Low-speed shaft:

Turns the low-speed shaft at about 30-60 rpm.

Nacelle:

Sits atop the tower and contains the gear box, low- and high-speed shafts, generator,
controller, and brake. Some nacelles are large enough for a helicopter to land on.

Pitch:

Turns (or pitches) blades out of the wind to control the rotor speed, and to keep the rotor
from turning in winds that are too high or too low to produce electricity.

Rotor:

Blades and hub together form the rotor.

Tower:

Made from tubular steel (shown here), concrete, or steel lattice. Supports the structure of
the turbine. Because wind speed increases with height, taller towers enable turbines to capture
more energy and generate more electricity.

Wind direction:

Determines the design of the turbine. Upwind turbines—like the one shown here—face
into the wind while downwind turbines face away.

Wind vane:

Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to orient the turbine
properly with respect to the wind.

Yaw drive:

Orients upwind turbines to keep them facing the wind when the direction changes.
Downwind turbines don't require a yaw drive because the wind manually blows the rotor away
from it.

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Yaw motor:

Powers the yaw drive.

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 Chapter 3 : Power & Torque Calculation
3.1 Power and Torque of Wind Turbine
The fundamental theory of design and operation of wind turbines is derived based on a first
principles approach using conservation of mass and conservation of energy in a wind stream. A
detailed derivation of the ―Betz Equation‖ and the ―Betz Criterion‖ or ―Betz Limit‖ is presented,
and its subtleties, insights as well as the pitfalls in its derivation and application are discussed.
This fundamental equation was first introduced by the German engineer Albert Betz in 1919 and
published in his book ―Wind Energie und ihre Ausnutzung durch Windmühlen,‖ or ―Wind
Energy and its Extraction through Wind Mills‖ in 1926. The theory that is developed applies to
both horizontal and vertical axis wind turbines.

Betz's law calculates the maximum power that can be extracted from the wind,
independent of the design of a wind turbine in open flow. It was published in 1919, by the
German physicist Albert Betz. The law is derived from the principles of conservation of mass
and momentum of the air stream flowing through an idealized "actuator disk" that extracts
energy from the wind stream. According to Betz's law, no turbine can capture more than 16/27
(59.3%) of the kinetic energy in wind. The factor 16/27 (0.593) is known as Betz's coefficient.
Practical utility-scale wind turbines achieve at peak 75% to 80% of the Betz limit.

The Betz limit is based on an open disk actuator; if a diffuser is used to collect additional
wind flow and direct it through the turbine, more energy can be extracted. The limit still applies
to the cross-section of the entire structure.

3.2 Betz equation and criterion, performance coefficient Cp:

The Betz Equation is analogous to the Carnot cycle efficiency in thermodynamics
suggesting that a heat engine cannot extract all the energy from a given source of energy and
must reject part of its heat input back to the environment. Whereas the Carnot cycle efficiency
can be expressed in terms of the Kelvin isothermal heat input temperature T1 and the Kelvin
isothermal heat rejection temperature T2:

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the Betz Equation deals with the wind speed upstream of the turbine V1 and the downstream
wind speed V2.

The limited efficiency of a heat engine is caused by heat rejection to the environment.
The limited efficiency of a wind turbine is caused by braking of the wind from its upstream
speed V1 to its downstream speed V2, while allowing a continuation of the flow regime. The
additional losses in efficiency for a practical wind turbine are caused by the viscous and pressure
drag on the rotor blades, the swirl imparted to the air flow by the rotor, and the power losses in
the transmission and electrical system.

Assumptions:

Betz developed the global theory of wind machines at the Göttingen Institute in Germany
(Le Gouriérès Désiré, 1982). The wind rotor is assumed to be an ideal energy converter, meaning
that:

1. It does not possess a hub,

2. It possesses an infinite number of rotor blades which do not result in any drag resistance to the
wind flowing through them.

3.3 Application of conservation of mass (continuity equation):

Applying conservation of mass to this control volume, the mass flow rate (the mass of
fluid flowing per unit time) is given by:

where v1 is the speed in the front of the rotor and v2 is the speed downstream of the
rotor, and v is the speed at the fluid power device. ρ is the fluid density, and the area of the
turbine is given by S. The force exerted on the wind by the rotor may be written as

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3.4 Power and work:
The work done by the force may be written incrementally as,

and the power (rate of work done) of the wind is

Now substituting the force F computed above into the power equation will yield the
power extracted from the wind:

However, power can be computed another way, by using the kinetic energy. Applying the
conservation of energy equation to the control volume yields

Looking back at the continuity equation, a substitution for the mass flow rate yields the
following

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 Both of these expressions for power are completely valid, one was derived by examining
the incremental work done and the other by the conservation of energy. Equating these two
expressions yields

Examining the two equated expressions yields an interesting result, mainly

Therefore, the wind velocity at the rotor may be taken as the average of the upstream and
downstream velocities. (This is arguably the most counter-intuitive stage of the derivation of
Betz' law.)

3.5 Betz' law and coefficient of performance:

Returning to the previous expression for power based on kinetic energy:

By differentiating with respect to for a given fluid speed v1 and a given area S one
finds the maximum or minimum value for . The result is that reaches maximum value
when .
Substituting this value results in:

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The power obtainable from a cylinder of fluid with cross sectional area S and velocity v1 is:

The reference power for the Betz efficiency calculation is the power in a moving fluid in a
cylinder with cross sectional area S and velocity v1:

3.6 Torque:
Torque is given as:

Tmax= F * R

Torque that is transmitted to shaft , is

T =CT * Tmax

Where CT is the coefficient of Torque, its commercially used value is 0.3

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 Chapter 4 : Analysis of HAWT

4.1 LOAD and STRESS Analysis oF HaWT (NACA 4415):

As we intended to design the horizontal axis wind turbine of 5kW at rated wind speed of 13m/s.
Therefore, P = 5000 Watts and U= 13 m/s. Since, Most efficient modern wind turbines have
power coefficient of 0.4 or less, so considering Power co-efficient Cp = 0.35. Moreover, it is also
found that

Optimum tip speed ratio for modern wind turbines is usually more than 5, so considering tip
speed ratio λ = 7. The number of blades of wind turbine largely dictated by the tip speed ratio,
therefore this paper is designing for 3 bladed rotors. Blade length R can be estimated by
simplifying Equation 3.8 as follows:

Where, ρ=density of air=1.225 kg/m3 and assuming, ηmech=85%, the blade length which comes
out to be 2.15 meters. But, keeping in view various aerodynamic losses, R=3 meters is
considered. Thus, Angular speed Ω of the rotor can be calculated as:

By equating values in Equation 4.2 we get: Ω = 30.33 rad/sec or 289.66 rpm In this paper,
NACA 4415 is selected as airfoil due to its better lift to drag ratio, good stall characteristics and
cheap manufacturing. For design of blade shape we require maximum lift to drag ratio (Cl/Cd )
at subsequent angle of attack α and Reynolds number. It is fact that for given parameters
maximum Cl/Cd occurs at an angle of attack of 5.5°. Thus, α = 5.5°, Cl = 0.975 and Cd =
0.00775 is considered for simulation purposes.

4.2 Blade Shape:

According to Blade Element Theory we will divide the blade into N = 12 equal parts. Thus, the
parameters at each division/section of blade are shown in Table 1.

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4.3 Calculation of Performance Parameters: For estimating wind turbine rotor
performance various factors are need to be calculated as shown in Table 2.

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4.4 Thrust on the Rotor:
Thrust on the rotor is a force on the blade acts due to force normal to the plane of rotation and
can be calculated as follows:

However, Tangential force on the blade can be calculated as follows:

On the other hand, Torque produces the useful rotation and it comes into action in the presence
of tangential force. It can be calculated as follows:

4.5 Selection of Blade Material

In this paper, material of wind turbine blade is fiberglass reinforced plastic GRP. Its physical and
mechanical properties are given below:

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4.6 calaculation of Stresses
4.6.1 Bending of Blade Due to Weight and Tangential Force :
For making analysis easier we assume the blade to be rectangular. Now weight of the blade
would act through center of gravity and tangential force, we consider, is acting at tip of blade as
shown below for designing at extreme conditions. From Figure 1,
Moment=��=����×1.35+����×2.7=723.48 N.m

Hence, the design is safe under bending due to weight and tangential force.

4.6.2 Bending of Blade Due to Thrust Force :

Here again we consider the blade to be rectangular and thrust force is acting at tip of blade as
shown below for designing at extreme conditions

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 Moment=M=FN×2.7=550.34 N.m

Moment of Inertia=I= cav*g *tavg*312=0.000001099 m4

y= tavg /2=0.01875 m

Bending Stress = σ*b=My/I = 9.392 MPa

From Maximum Normal Stress Theory we have,

Factor of Safety=Ultimate tensile stress/Bending stress produced

=859.392=9

Hence, the design is safe under bending due to thrust force.

4.6.3 Stress on Blade Due to Centrifugal Force

Centrifugal force on blade causes direct tensile stress on the blade. If we assume the blade to be
rectangular having centre of gravity rcgat geometric centre then centrifugal force estimated to be:

Since we have considered the blade as rectangular so area subjected to the stress would be:

Stress due to centrifugal force would be:

Factor of Safety= Ultimate tensile / stressWorking Stress

= 856.037=14

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4.7 Solid Works Modeling
Using Naca 4415 Coordinates and also the Chord length along the length of blade , we modeled
airfoil in solid works:

4.7.1 Naca (4415) airfoil Coordinates:

1 0
0.99893 0.00039
0.99572 0.00156
0.99039 0.00349
0.98296 0.0061
0.97347 0.00932
0.96194 0.01303
0.94844 0.01716
0.93301 0.02166
0.91573 0.02652
0.89668 0.03171
0.87592 0.03717
0.85355 0.04283
0.82967 0.04863
0.80438 0.05453
0.77779 0.06048
0.75 0.06642
0.72114 0.07227
0.69134 0.07795
0.66072 0.08341
0.62941 0.08858
0.59755 0.09341
0.56526 0.09785
0.5327 0.10185
0.5 0.10538
0.4673 0.10837
0.43474 0.11076
0.40245 0.11248
0.37059 0.11345
0.33928 0.11361
0.30866 0.11294
0.27886 0.11141
0.25 0.10903
0.22221 0.10903
0.19562 0.10584
0.17033 0.1019
0.14645 0.09726

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0.12408 0.09195
0.10332 0.08607
0.08427 0.0797
0.06699 0.07283
0.05156 0.06541
0.03806 0.05753
0.02653 0.04937
0.01704 0.04118
0.00961 0.03303
0.00428 0.02489
0.00107 0.01654
0 0.00825
0.00107 0.00075
0.00428 -0.00566
0.00961 -0.01102
0.01704 -0.0159
0.02653 -0.02061
0.03806 -0.02502
0.05156 -0.02915
0.06699 -0.03281
0.08427 -0.03582
0.10332 -0.03817
0.12408 -0.03991
0.14645 -0.04106
0.17033 -0.04166
0.19562 -0.04177
0.22221 -0.04147
0.25 -0.04078
0.27886 -0.03974
0.30866 -0.03845
0.33928 -0.037
0.37059 -0.03547
0.40245 -0.0339
0.43474 -0.03229
0.4673 -0.03063
0.5 -0.02891
0.5327 -0.02713
0.56526 -0.02529
0.59755 -0.0234
0.62941 -0.02149
0.66072 -0.01958
0.69134 -0.01772
0.72114 -0.01596
0.75 -0.0143
0.77779 -0.01277

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0.80438 -0.01136
0.82967 -0.01006
0.85355 -0.00886
0.87592 -0.00775
0.89668 -0.00674
0.91573 -0.00583
0.93301 -0.00502
0.94844 -0.00431
0.96194 -0.00364
0.97347 -0.00297
0.98296 -0.00227
0.99039 -0.00156
0.99572 -0.00092
0.99893 -0.00042
0.99893 -0.00011
1 0

4.7.2 Formation of Airfoil (NACA 4415) :

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4.8 Importing model to Ansys for load/ stress Analysis

4.9 Normal stresses:

4.9.1 Normal Stress (X –Axis)

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4.9.2 Normal Stress (Y-Axis)

4.9.3 Normal Stress (Z-Axis)

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4.9.4 Equivalent Stress (von-Mises) :

4.9.5 Total Deformation:

36 | P a g e
4.10 Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic:

4.10.1 Total Deformation:

37 | P a g e
4.10.2 Equivalent stress:

4.10.3 Normal Stress(Y-Axis)

38 | P a g e
 Chapter 5 Results and Discussion

We designed a 5 kW Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine. The design wind speed used is 13
m/s. NACA 4415 is selected as airfoil due to its better lift to drag ratio, good stall characteristics
and cheap manufacturing. For design of blade shape we require maximum lift to drag ratio
(Cl/Cd) at subsequent angle of attack α and Reynolds number. It is fact that for given parameters
maximum Cl/Cd occurs at an angle of attack of 5.5°. Thus, α = 5.5°, Cl = 0.975 and Cd =
0.00775 is considered for simulation purposes. With the help of Betz theory, we calculated the
performance parameters e.g. power, torque. We determined the thrust and tangential forces
acting on the wind turbine blade. Then we determined the stresses acting on the blade due to
weight, tangential force, thrust force and centrifugal force.

5.1 Solution for Fibergalss Blades:

Here we have solution for FiberGlass from ANSYS WORK REPORT :

Solution (A6)

TABLE 10
Model (A4) > Static Structural (A5) > Solution
Object Name Solution (A6)
State Solved
Adaptive Mesh Refinement
Max Refinement Loops 1.
Refinement Depth 2.
Information
Status Done

TABLE 11
Model (A4) > Static Structural (A5) > Solution (A6) > Solution Information
Object Name Solution Information
State Solved
Solution Information
Solution Output Solver Output
Newton-Raphson Residuals 0
Update Interval 2.5 s

39 | P a g e
 Display Points All
FE Connection Visibility
Activate Visibility Yes
Display All FE Connectors
Draw Connections Attached To All Nodes
Line Color Connection Type
Visible on Results Yes
Line Thickness Single
Display Type Lines

TABLE 12
Model (A4) > Static Structural (A5) > Solution (A6) > Results
Total Normal Stress Normal Stress
Object Name Equivalent Stress Normal Stress
Deformation 2 3
State Solved
Scope
Scoping Method Geometry Selection
Geometry All Bodies
Definition
Total Equivalent (von-
Type Normal Stress
Deformation Mises) Stress
By Time
Display Time Last
Calculate Time
Yes
History
Identifier
Suppressed No
Orientation X Axis Y Axis Z Axis
Coordinate
Global Coordinate System
System
Results
-1.9643e+006 -1.1508e+006 -2.1694e+006
Minimum 0. m 50583 Pa
Pa Pa Pa
1.7969e-002 1.0203e+007 9.6082e+006 2.3507e+007
Maximum 1.7185e+007 Pa
m Pa Pa Pa
Information
Time 1. s
Load Step 1
Substep 1
Iteration Number 1
Integration Point Results
Display Option Averaged

40 | P a g e
5.2 Solution for CarbonFiber Reinforced Polymer Blades:
Similarly , For (CFRP)

Material Data

Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic

TABLE 13
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic > Constants
Density 1800 kg m^-3

TABLE 14
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic > Isotropic Elasticity
Temperature C Young's Modulus Pa Poisson's Ratio Bulk Modulus Pa Shear Modulus Pa
5.8e+011 0.29 4.6032e+011 2.2481e+011

TABLE 15
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic > Tensile Ultimate Strength
Tensile Ultimate Strength Pa
7.e+009

TABLE 16
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic > Compressive Ultimate Strength
Compressive Ultimate Strength Pa
2.e+009
Solution (A6)

TABLE 10
Model (A4) > Static Structural (A5) > Solution
Object Name Solution (A6)
State Solved
Adaptive Mesh Refinement
Max Refinement Loops 1.
Refinement Depth 2.
Information
Status Done

TABLE 11
Model (A4) > Static Structural (A5) > Solution (A6) > Solution Information
Object Name Solution Information

41 | P a g e
 State Solved
Solution Information
Solution Output Solver Output
Newton-Raphson Residuals 0
Update Interval 2.5 s
Display Points All
FE Connection Visibility
Activate Visibility Yes
Display All FE Connectors
Draw Connections Attached To All Nodes
Line Color Connection Type
Visible on Results Yes
Line Thickness Single
Display Type Lines

TABLE 12
Model (A4) > Static Structural (A5) > Solution (A6) > Results
Total Normal Stress Normal Stress
Object Name Equivalent Stress Normal Stress
Deformation 2 3
State Solved
Scope
Scoping Method Geometry Selection
Geometry All Bodies
Definition
Total Equivalent (von-
Type Normal Stress
Deformation Mises) Stress
By Time
Display Time Last
Calculate Time
Yes
History
Identifier
Suppressed No
Orientation X Axis Y Axis Z Axis
Coordinate
Global Coordinate System
System
Results
-1.846e+006 -1.0399e+006 -2.1669e+006
Minimum 0. m 53553 Pa
Pa Pa Pa
6.4284e-004 9.6699e+006 9.0771e+006 2.326e+007
Maximum 1.7334e+007 Pa
m Pa Pa Pa
Information
Time 1. s
Load Step 1
Substep 1
Iteration Number 1
Integration Point Results
Display Option Averaged

42 | P a g e
 After investigation of loads and stresses, the purpose was to compare the fiberglass and
carbon fiber blades. For this purpose, we modeled the airfoil in Solid Works using the NACA
4415 airfoil co-ordinates and imported the Solid Works model into ANSYS Workbench for
analysis. We performed the analysis of wind turbine blade in ANSYS using fiberglass reinforced
plastic (GFRP) as the material. The results were, the bending stresses were maximum at the tip
and root of the blade. We performed another analysis using carbon fiber reinforced plastic
(CFRP) as the material. Since carbon fiber reinforced plastic has a greater strength to weight
ratio, the deformation produced was low in this case as compared to fiberglass blade.

As the results for the CFRP are quite satisfactory but it is a very expensive material,
therefore it is not feasible to make a blade of solely CFRP. So, it will be more feasible to use it in
combination with some other composite material relatively cheaper than CFRP.

43 | P a g e
 References

1. Manwell, James F., Jon G. McGowan, and Anthony L. Rogers. "Wind energy explained:
theory, design and application. 2002." John Wiley & Sons Ltd, UK (2002): 577.

2. Burton, T., Jenkins, N., Sharpe, D., & Bossanyi, E. (2011). Wind energy handbook. Wiley.

3. Hau, Erich, and Heidelberger Platz. "Wind Turbines-Fundamentals, Technologies,

Application, Economics." (2008).

4. Piggott, Hugh. "Wind power workshop." Centre for alternative technology publications
(2000).

5. Khurmi, R. S., and J. K. Gupta. "Machine Design." (1982).

6. Hansen, Martin OL. Aerodynamics of wind turbines. Routledge, 2012.

7. Hansen, A. C., and C. P. Butterfield. "Aerodynamics of horizontal-axis wind turbines."

Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics 25.1 (1993): 115-149.

8. Ebert, P. R., and D. H. Wood. "Observations of the starting behavior of a small horizontal
axis wind turbine." Renewable energy 12.3 (1997): 245-257.

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