Chapters 2 & 3&4

Alexandria University Department of Naval Architecture
Faculty of Engineering and Marine Engineering
2. Ship type selection
For Solar Photovoltaic the weight matrix for selection is shown in the next table 2-1:
Table 2-1: Weight matrix of ship type selection for Solar Photovoltaic considerations
Ship Type /Consideration Area available Required Power Weight * Freeboard Total
RoRo 7 3 8 8 26
Oil Tanker 8 5 8 6 27
Bulk Carrier 6 6 8 3 23
General cargo 2 7 8 4 21
Passenger 5 1 8 7 21
High Speed vessels 4 2 8 2 16
Container ships 1 4 8 5 18
Supply vessel 3 8 8 1 20
The most suitable ship type ship type is then the oil tanker then RORO ship.
For wind turbines and flettner Rotors the weight matrix for selection is shown in the next
table 2-2:
Table 2-2: Weight matrix of ship type selection for Wind turbine and flettner rotors
considerations
Ship Type/ Consideration Ship speed Air draft Weight Area available Sum
RoRo 5 2 2 5 14
Oil Tanker 6 8 8 8 30
Bulk Carrier 7 6 7 7 27
Ship Type Selection Page | 21

Passenger 3 1 1 1 6
High Speed vessels 1 5 3 4 13
Container ships 4 3 4 2 13
Wind turbine and flettner rotors have similar considerations for applicability onboard ships.
The most suitable ship type for wind turbines and flettner rotors application onboard ship is
oil tanker then Bulk carrier.
For Fuel Cells weight matrix for selection is shown in the next table 2-3:
Table 2-3: Weight matrix of ship type selection for fuel cells considerations
Volumetric power High power

Ship Type /Consideration Noise Weight Total
density output
RORO 7 6 7 6 26
Oil taker 4 4 4 4 16
Bulk 3 4 3 5 15
Passenger 5 8 8 1 22
High speed 2 6 2 7 17
Container 8 4 6 2 20
The most suitable ship type for fuel cells is the RORO ships then passenger ships.
From various points of views, the most suitable ship type for most technologies is oil tanker
then RORO ship type.

2.1. Obtaining Ship Data
Oil tanker piping on deck is to interfere with installing PV panel, the small free board may
also be an obstacle, also tankers data required for the project is difficult to obtain.
The second option was RORO ships; the RORO ship was found by the group had not
sufficient space on deck as it was used for accommodating containers.
The third option was the bulk carrier, Edfu bulk carrier was used for the case studies, and the
data was obtained through the national navigation company website. Main ship information is
shown in the next table.
Table 2-4: main information of the bulk carrier Edfu (NNC, 2019)
Ship Name Edfu
L(OA) 223.7 m
Breadth 32.2 m
Gross Tonnage 37794 Ton
Dead Weight 71572 Ton
Year of Build 1997
Main Engine Power Rating 8800 KW
Auxiliary Engines Power Rating 450 KW
Number of Auxiliary Engines 3
Hatch 1 16.15*12.96 m
Hatch 2,3,4,5,6,7 17*14.58 m

Figure 2-1: Edfu Ship Photo

3. PHOTOVOLTICS
3.1. Introduction into Photovoltaics
3.1.1. History and Definition
Photovoltaic is the direct conversion of light into electricity at the atomic level. Some
materials exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect that causes them to absorb
photons of light and release electrons. When these free electrons are captured, An electric
current results that can be used as electricity (Gil Knier, 2008).
The photoelectric effect was first noted by a French physicist, Edmund Bequerel, in 1839,
who found that certain materials would produce small amounts of electric current when
exposed to light (Gil Knier, 2008).
The first photovoltaic module was built by Bell Laboratories in 1954. It was described as a
solar battery and it was too expensive to gain widespread use. In the 1960s, the space
industry began to make the first serious use of the technology to provide power aboard
spacecraft. Through the space programs, the technology advanced, its reliability was
established, and the cost began to decline. During the energy crisis in the 1970s,
photovoltaic technology gained recognition as a source of power for non-space
applications (NASA, 2008).
Figure 3-1: PV in Space Craft (NASA, 2008)
By 1980 ARCO Solar becomes the first panel manufacturer to hit 1 MW of yearly
production. Six years later, the University of South Florida hits 15.9% efficiency with
cadmium telluride thin-film.
PHOTOVOLTICS Page | 25
In 1985, silicon solar cells achieved the milestone of 20% efficiency. Over the next
decade, the photovoltaic industry experienced steady growth rates of between 15% and
20%, largely promoted by the remote power supply market.
The year 1997 saw a growth rate of 38% and today solar cells are recognized not only as a
means for providing power and increased quality of life to those who do not have grid
access, but they are also a means of significantly diminishing the impact of environmental
damage caused by conventional electricity generation in advanced industrial countries
(Solar power world, 2019).
Figure 3-2: Operating of a basic Photovoltaic Cell (NASA, 2008)
By 1998 Inventor and scientist Subhendu Guhainvents the first flexible thin-film product
labeled as a solar shingle for Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) use (Kelly pickerel,
2019).
By 2007 Nano solar ships the first commercialized CIGS thin-film modules. The company
-cost solar panel at the time at $0.99/W (Kelly pickerel,
2019). In 2016, the United States installs its one millionth arrays.
Figure 3-3: Price history of silicon PV cells (Bloomberg, New Energy Finance, 2015)
PV Panels has experience a high drop in Prices (Bloomberg, 2015), Figure (3-3) shows the
history of Silicon PV cells prices and table 3-5 shows the average price of PV modules in
2016 accounted for approximately between 40% and 50% of the lowest achievable prices
that have been reported for grid-connected systems. In 2016, the lowest price of modules
in the reporting countries was about 0.3 USD/W. It is assumed that such prices are valid
for high volumes and late delivery (Iea Pvps, 2018).
Table 3-1: Indicative module prices (national currency/watt and USD/watt) In Selected
reporting countries (Iea Pvps, 2018)
LOCAL
COUNTRY Currency USD/W
CURRENCY/W
AUSTRALIA AUD 0,54 - 0,8 0,4 - 0,6
AUSTRIA EUR 0,46 - 0,7 0,5 - 0,8
CANADA CAD 0,66 - 0,78 0,5 - 0,6
CHINA CNY 3,1 0,5
DENMARK DKK 2 6 0,3 - 0,9
FINLAND EUR 0,5 - 0,65 0,6 - 0,7
GERMANY EUR 0,41 - 0,57 0,5 - 0,6
ITALY EUR 0,4 - 0,65 0,4 - 0,7
JAPAN JPY 189 1,74
KOREA KRW 374 565 0,3 - 0,5
MALAYSIA MYR 2,33 - 3,62 0,6 - 0,9
PORTUGAL EUR 0,5 - 0,6 0,6 - 0,7
SPAIN EUR 0,5 - 1,05 0,6 - 1,2
SWEDEN SEK 6,5 - 6,5 0,8 - 0,8
SWITZERLAND CHF 0,5 - 0,8 0,5 - 0,8
USA USD 0,37 1 0,37 1
Notes:
Green = Lowest price RED = Highest price
Solar is also ranked as the No. 1 source of new electric generating capacity additions on an
annual basis -for the first time ever, First Solar says it has converted 22.1% of the energy
in sunlight into electricity using experimental cells made from cadmium telluride, a
technology that today represents around 5 % of the worldwide solar power market.
Nowadays, 22.1% PV has become available on the commercial market (SEIA, 2016).
Over the recent decades, silicon has been used for manufacturing more than 80% of solar
cells although other materials and techniques are developed (Fraunhofer Institute 2014).
Photovoltaic (PV) has been and will continue to be one of the more promising
technologies in the energy field (Spellman, 2016).
3.1.2. Photovoltaic Applications
Nowadays Photovoltaic modules are highly scalable, which make them suitable for a wide
number of applications, ranging from small solar pico-systems to the most efficient PV
modules found in the International Space Station.
Photovoltaic can be applied by Two Main Methods categorized as follows:
- Off grid systems:
the load this excess is usually stored in a battery system for later use (Weis, 2013). See
figure (3-4).
Figure 3-4: Off-grid PV System (Pure Energy Center, 2013)
- Grid tied systems: Grid tied systems are connected to the local utility network and can
generated electricity exceeds the
local loads demand. Some grid connected systems still have battery storage capability, see
figure (3-5).
Figure 3-5: Grid Tied PV system (Amplus solar, 2019)
Applications of photovoltaics cover a wide range covering almost every aspect of rural
activities. Examples are:
- Rural Electrification.
- Water pumping and treatment systems.
- Health care system.
- Communication.
- Transport aids like road signs and hazard signals.
- Security systems.
- Corrosion protection systems.
- Miscellaneous like consumer devices, feeding systems on fish farms, aeration systems
in stagnant lakes, earthquake monitoring systems, fountains and emergency power for
disaster relief.
- Income generating activities like battery charging, TV and video pay stations, village
industry power and refrigeration services (EL-Hefnawi, 2005).
Regarding the challenges that face the shipping sector requiring reducing emission, and
complying with IMO Regulations, the PV raise as one of the practical solution for these
requirements.
3.2. Photovoltaics Application onboard Ship
Despite their extended inland applications, the use of solar energy convertors in modern
marine technology is still limited, mainly as power suppliers to small lighthouses, buoys,
and to charge batteries of small sailing yachts (Kobougias et al., 2013). Feasibility of
installing photovoltaic modules onto vessels is considering a payback time between 10 and
27 years, depending on solar radiation and fuel cost (Glykas A. et al., 2010).
The largest reported applications are Planet Solar (with a 537 m2 active photovoltaic area),
see figure (3-6), Planet Solar achieves average speeds of 5 knots (9.25 km/h) and provides
a maximum power output of 120 kW. The next table (3-2) showing the Technical aspects
data of Planet Solar Boat
Table 3-2: Technical aspects of Planet Solar Boat (Planet Solar, 2013)
Length 31
Width 16
26 m
Height (above the waterline) 6.5 m
Number of modules 825
Cell efficiency 22.6%
Total weight of the Li-Ion batteries 12 t
Autonomy without sunshine 3 days
Figure 3-6: Planet Solar Boat with a 537 m2 active photovoltaic area (Planet Solar,
2013)
Another application is applied on Nichioh Maru, a massive roll-on/roll-off coastal
transporter ship, equipped with 281 photovoltaic solar modules mounted above deck, see
figure (3-7). Producers, Nissan, state that the ship will lower its fuel bill by 1,400 tons of
diesel per year, and lower carbon emissions by 4,200 tons (COTORCEA et al, 2014).
In this case the payback period of the investment depends greatly on the fuel prices. For a
reasonable fuel price annual increase at about 10 15% the estimated payback period varies
from 16 to 27 years. A higher increase ratio in the fuel price will lead to a shorter payback
period, which converges to a minimum of 10 years (Glykas A. et. al., 2010). Nevertheless,
since 2010 the costs of PV panels have been significantly reduced so the investment time
for the PV solutions is also decreasing; therefore, it results the need of a well fundamental
cost-benefit analysis.
Figure 3-7: Nichioh Maru, a RORO coastal ship, equipped with 281 PV solar modules
Common to both applications mentioned earlier is the horizontal mounting of the

photovoltaic array; despite the safety, this solution has the obvious disadvantage of a
significantly reduced collection degree of the solar radiation.
Other than the already existing vessels powered mainly by solar energy or partially as an
energy saving technique, there are many studies made to estimate the solar panels benefits,
one a case study made by (Yupeng Yuan et al., 2018) on a 5000-car space solar/diesel
hybrid RORO ship of 182.2 m. Their results show that when the electrical load is 600 kW
the solar energy output accounts for 22.7% of the load power, the optimal fuel
consumption of 115.7 kg/h can be obtained instead of 137.9 Kg/h.
Another case study made by (Seddiek and Salem, 2016) on Alazezy boat of 43.1 m figures
(3-8,3-9) showed that for a period of 10 working years, the proposed system can achieve a
fuel saving cost of about 18500 $/year in case of international fuel prices.
The results in the same study show that there is a possibility of achieving a total reduction
1.64 m2, which has been decreased to 299 $ in 2019.
Figure 3-8: Alazezy, Research vessel
Figure 3-9: Alazezy Research Vessel General Arrangement (Salem and Seddiek, 2016)
3.3. Photovoltaic Cell Working Principle
Conversion of light energy in electrical energy is based on a phenomenon called photovoltaic

effect. The basic reason for producing electricity due to photovoltaic effect is when
semiconductor materials are exposed to light; some of the photons of light ray are absorbed
by the semiconductor crystal which causes a significant number of free electrons in the
crystal.
Photovoltaic cell is the basic unit of the system where the photovoltaic effect is utilized to
produce electricity from light energy. Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor material
for constructing the photovoltaic cell (Green M., 2002).
The photovoltaic effect is done by using a thin layer or wafer of silicon that has been doped
to create a PN junction. The depth and distribution of impurity atoms can be controlled very
precisely during the doping process. The thin silicon circular wafers are first sliced from an
ingot of ultra-pure silicon and then the surface of the wafer is textured for better light
absorption. The circular wafer may be trimmed to an octagonal, hexagonal, or rectangular
shape for maximum coverage when fitted in a module, as shown in next figure (3-10):
Figure 3-10: Making a Wafer from a Silicon Ingot (Faizan, 2018)
The key feature of conventional PV cells is the PN junction. In the PN junction solar cell,
sunlight provides sufficient energy to the free electrons in the n region to allow them to cross
the depletion region and combine with holes in the p region. This energy creates a potential
difference (voltage) across the cell (Faizan, 2018).see the next figure (3-11):
Figure 3-11: Basic Construction of PV Cell (Faizan, 2018)
To understand junction effect, we should understand n-type and p-type material. Doping
process is needed to obtain n-type or p-type material. Doping means inserting another atom
into the bulk crystal. Consider silicon crystal: each silicon atom has four electrons in its
valance band and these electrons make bonds with other Silicon atom (Green, 2002).
When a photon penetrates either the n region or the p region and strikes a silicon atom near
the PN junction with sufficient energy to knock an electron out of the valence band, the
electron becomes a free electron and leaves a hole in the valence band, this is called an
electron-hole pair. The amount of energy required to free an electron from the valence band
of a silicon atom is called the band gap and is 1.12 eV (electron volts). The electron volt is a
unit of energy used for convenience at the atomic level and specifically for electrons.
In the p region, the free electron is swept across the depletion region by the electric field into
the n region. Electrons accumulate in the n region, creating a negative charge.
In the n region, the hole is swept across the depletion region by the electric field into the p
region. The electrons that accumulate in the n region create a negative charge, and holes that
accumulate in the p region, create a positive charge. A voltage is developed between the n
region and p region contacts (Faizan, 2018). See the next figure (3-12):
Figure 3-12: Diode Schematic (Ismail-Beigi Research Group, 2019)
When a load is connected to a PV cell, the free electrons flow out of the n region to the grid
contacts on the top surface, out the negative contact, through the load, back into the positive
contact on the bottom surface, and then into the p region, where they can recombine with
holes. The sunlight energy continues to create new electron-hole pairs and the process goes
on, as illustrated in next figures (3-13, 3-14) (Faizan, 2018).
Figure 3-13: Working of a Photovoltaic Cell with Incident Sunlight (Faizan, 2018)
Figure 3-14: PV Operating Principle (Trabish, 2012)
3.4. Photovoltaic System Components
3.4.1. Solar Panels
The panel consists of a collection of modules mechanically fastened together, wired and
designed to provide a field installable unit. There are three main types of solar panels that are
widely available for use in photovoltaic systems, monocrystalline, polycrystalline, and
amorphous thin-film see figure (3-15). Each type of panel has its advantages and
disadvantages. The primary differences between these panel types are their cost and
efficiency.
The following table (3-3) describes the main difference between main types of solar panels,
such as; the main advantage and disadvantage, the cost and the efficiency of each one.
Table 3-3: Comparison between the main types of solar panels (GreenMatch, 2018)
Efficiency
Solar Cell Type Advantages Disadvantages
Rate
High efficiency
Monocrystalline rate; optimized
Solar Panels (Momo- 20% for commercial Expensive
SI) use; high life-
time value
Sensitive to high temperatures;
Polycrystalline Solar
15% Lower price lower lifespan & slightly less
Panels (p-SI)
space efficiency
Relatively low
Thin-Film:
costs; easy to
Amorphous Silicon 7-10% Shorter warranties & lifespan
produce &
Solar Panels (A-SI)
flexible
Figure 3-15: Main Types of Solar Panel (Spiegel, 2019)
Also the following table (3-4) compare between the cost, efficiency, area of kilowatt, and
the temperature resistance of the three types by 2013.
Table 3-4: Solar Cell Comparison Chart Mono-, Polycrystalline and Thin Film
(Energy Informative, 2013)
Monocrystalline Polycrystalline Amorphous
Typical module
15-20 % 13-16% 6-8%
efficiency
Best research cell

25 % 20.4% 13.4%
efficiency
Area required for

6-9 m2 8-9 m2 13-20 m2
1 KWp
Typical length of
25 years 25 years 10-25 years
warranty
Lowest price 0.75 $/W 0.62 $/W 0.69 $/W
Performance drops Less temperature

Temperature Tolerates
10-15% at high resistance than
resistance Extreme Heat
temperatures monocrystalline
3.4.1.1. Energy
The number of PV modules and batteries are determined based on the energy balance
calculation. The energy is balance if battery energy ( ) equals to the minimum difference
between PV energy ( ) and energy demand ( ). Since, the battery is not allowed to
fully discharge (0% remaining capacity), then the percentage of minimum remaining battery
capacity (SOC, state of Charge) is considered into this calculation. The energy balance is
expressed in the following equation. In this case, SOC is taken 50% which is typical of Lead
Acid battery (Nasirudin, 2016).
3.4.2. Solar Rack
Monitoring solar PV panels is an easy job when you have the correct size of racks, a
hacksaw, a power drill, and a power screw driver. Racks are specially designed for different
installation situations, Racks can be obtained cheaply at $29 from Solar-land, but there are
more expensive types going for between $65 and $110, Marine grade racks are made of
sturdy and rust-proof steel (Constructor culture, 2019). See figure (3-16)
Figure 3-16: Solar Rack (Constructor culture, 2019).
3.4.3. Direct Current System Equipment
3.4.3.1. Charge Controller
The charge controller regulates the flow of electricity from the PV modules to the battery and
the load. The controller keeps the battery fully charged without overcharging it. When the
load is drawing power, the controller allows charge to flow from the modules into the battery,
the load, or both. When the controller senses that the battery is fully charged, it stops the flow
of charge from the modules. Many controllers will also sense when loads have taken too
much electricity from batteries and will stop the flow until sufficient charge is restored to the
batteries figure (3-17). This last feature can greatly extend the batte
2000).
The nominal and maximum voltage and current specifications on the charge controller will
determine the number of charge controllers required to gather energy from the solar array. If
a solar array generates a maximum current of 16 A, but a charge controller only accepts a
maximum current of 10 A, the solar array can be divided into two parts. Each half of the
array can generate a maximum 8 A of current, and each half of the array can be connected to
the 10 A charge controller. The other option would be to use a charge controller with a larger
current rating. Most charge controllers have very high current ratings (at least 40 amps), and
the need for more than one charge controller only becomes an issue with very large solar
arrays (Spiegel, 2019).
Controllers generally cost between $20 and $400, depending on the ampere capacity at which
the PV system will operate and the required monitoring features (NREL, 2000).
Figure 3-17: Charge Controller Wiring (Spiegel, 2019)
3.4.3.2. Batteries
A PV system may have to be sized to store a sufficient amount of power in the batteries to
meet power demand during several days of cloudy weather. This is known as
the modules are not generating sufficient power to meet load requirements. To provide
electricity over long periods, PV systems require deep-cycle batteries. These batteries,
usually lead-acid, are designed to gradually discharge and recharge 80% of their capacity
hundreds of times. Deep-cycle batteries cost from about $65 up to $3,000 (NREL, 2000).
3.4.3.2.1. Energy Balance
The number of PV modules and batteries are determined based on the energy balance
calculation. The energy is balance if battery energy ( ) equals to the minimum
difference between PV energy ( ) and energy demand ( ). Since, the battery is
not allowed to fully discharge (0% remaining capacity), then the percentage of
minimum remaining battery capacity (SOC, state of Charge) is considered into this
calculation. The energy balance is expressed in the following equation. In this case,
SOC is taken 50% which is typical of Lead-Acid battery (Nasirudin, 2016).
3.4.3.2.2. The cost of batteries storage devices
The cost of batteries storage devices depends on:
i. The type of battery,

ii. Capacity of battery(ampere-hours),
iii. The climatic conditions in which it will operate,
iv. How frequently it will receive maintenance,
v. The types of chemicals it uses to store and release electricity.
3.4.3.2.3. Batteries Design Consideration in PV System
Most types of batteries contain toxic materials that may pose serious health and safety
problems. The National Electric Code (NEC), battery companies, and PV system
designers recommend that:
i. Lead-acid and wet cell batteries, which give off explosive hydrogen gas when
recharging, be located in a well-ventilated space isolated from the other
electrical components of the system and away from living spaces.
ii. Allow enough space for easy access during maintenance, repair, and
replacement.
iii.
instructions, and recycle the batteries properly when they wear out.
iv. Automotive batteries are shallow-cycle batteries and should not be used in PV
systems because they are designed to discharge only about 20% of their
capacity. If drawn much below 20% capacity more than a few dozen times, the
battery will be damaged and will no longer be able to take a charge (NREL,
2000).
3.4.4. Alternating-Current System Equipment
3.4.4.1. Power Inverter
Inverter is a Dc-Ac converter, AC systems also require an inverter, which changes the DC
electricity produced by PV modules and stored in batteries into AC electricity. Different
Inverters for most stand-alone applications cost less than $1 per rated output watt. The cost is
affected by several factors, including the quality of the electricity it needs to produce;
whether the incoming DC voltage is 12, 24, 36, or 48 volts; the number of AC watts loads
require when they are operating normally; the amount of extra surge power your AC loads
need for short periods; and whether the inverter has any additional features such as meters
and indicator lights (NREL, 2000).
3.5. Factors affecting Applying of Solar Energy onboard Ships
3.5.1. Solar Radiation Distribution
Data on the solar radiation distribution in a given water region are of vital importance when
assessing the possibility of using any solar energy system as a power source in that region.
Such data are prerequisites for the design of any solar power conversion system. The solar
rface is subject to many years of observation (possibly not
less than 20 years) that must be attained in order to get a precise estimation of the long-term
distribution and availability. There are many places in the developing countries that do not
have necessary facilities for accurate and continuous measurements of solar radiation, hence
it is necessary to use some experimental methods based on easily-measured meteorological
parameters such as: relative humidity, temperature, duration of bright sunshine, rainfall
periods and cloudiness. The long-term average of the annual sum of radiation worldwide
ranges from 700 to 2700 kW.hr/m2 while the daily sum is from 2.0 to 7.5 kW.hr/m2. In
particular, it is found from the radiation map of Arab countries that the annual and daily sums
of radiation range from 1600 to 2400 kW.hr/m2 and from 4.4 to 6.6 kW.hr/m2, respectively,
(A. Salem & Seddiek, 2016).
Figure 3-18: Solar Direct Normal Irradiation 2017 (World Bank Group, 2017)
3.5.2. Solar Sun-exposed Deck Area
The available sun-exposed deck area aboard a ship plays a great role in the amount of
absorbed solar energy. The available area is a function of several factors, such as ship type,
ship dimensions, and deck machinery arrangement. The larger the number of solar panels that
can be installed, the more sunlight they can collect and, consequently, the faster the solar
energy is converted into electricity that can be stored in batteries. Large deck area is also
important in other situations, such as cloud cover, or low-angled and low intensity light in
winter. The charging time can vary from 4 to 16 hours of sunlight for one battery, depending
on the surface area and light conditions. Solar energy can be calculated according to the
geographical position, solar panel area, and solar panel efficiency. Generally, the amount of
solar energy which can be absorbed is estimated as follows (A. Salem & Seddiek, 2016):
Where
ASE: is the average solar energy per unit area (kW/m2).

P.A: is the solar panel area (m2).
µ: is the solar panel efficiency.
Figure 3-19: Solar Panels on Boat with a small deck area
3.5.3. Impact of the Weight of Solar Energy System on Ship Stability
There is no doubt that adding extra weight aboard the existing ship will result in certain
location changes of its center It should be
noted here that the added weight of the solar panels, which need to be placed at the upper
center of
gravity. However, at the same time the heaviest component of the solar power system, which
is the battery bank, is usually secured properly at the bottom of the ship, near the keel, which
center
See figure (3-20):
Where
: Ship Displacement.
KG: Distance between center of gravity of ship and the keel.
m: mass of each item.
kg: Distance of center of each item and keel.
Figure 3-20: Impact of Solar Energy System weight onboard ship
3.5.4. Grid-connected PV Solar Power System
A grid-connected PV solar power system consists mainly of solar panels, inverter, battery
bank, and other necessary electric devices. Figure (3-21) describes a simple model of a grid-
connected PV system which can be installed on board a ship. As shown in the figure, the
multiple solar panels (1) are connected together to make up a solar array (2) which is
responsible for producing DC (direct current). It is noteworthy that the number of solar
panels that can be used depends on the storage capacity of the used batteries. The produced
DC is then transferred to the combiner box (4) via electric wires (3). The electric current
coming from the solar panels and prevents batteries from overcharging (Solar GIS, 2015).
The electricity then goes to multiple batteries composing the battery bank (7). The batteries
use and store DC. They have low voltage output, usually in the range of 12-24 volts. As most
of the appliances on board ships operate on 220V AC, the inverter (9) is needed in the system
to convert DC into AC. The shunt B is used to measure the electric current passing between
the battery banks (7) and the inverter (9). The produced AC is supplied to the designated
electric consumers (13), to provide lighting, for instance. Once the quantity of solar energy
becomes low; the automatic Genset starter (10) is activated to start up the electric diesel
generator (11). The selector (12) is used to switch between the current coming from the
inverter and that supplied by the generator (A. Salem & Seddiek, 2016).
Figure 3-21: Simple model of grid-connected PV solar power system that can be
installed on board a ship
3.6. Power Calculations
Solar cells generate electrical power by converting solar radiation into direct current (DC)
electricity. The output power of a solar panel is affected by the cell operating temperature. As
temperature rises, output from the solar panel decreases (Alamsyah et al. 2003). The output
electrical power of each solar panel (EP) may be calculated according to the following
equation (Mostafa and El-bokl, 2014):
Where
TCF: Temperature correction factor.

: Average number of peak sunlight hours per day.
: The rated power for each solar panel in watt hour.
: The output electrical power of each panel in watt hours per day.
Solar energy can also be calculated according to the geographical position, solar panel area,
and solar panel efficiency. Generally, the amount of solar energy which can be absorbed is
estimated as follows (Salem and Seddiek, 2016).
Where
ASE: average solar energy per unit area ( ).

P.A.: is the solar panel area ( ).
Number of modules can be defined as the case requires:
1- In case of design PV system for boats, number of PV panels can be calculated

according to the following equation:
2- In case of already existing ship the number of PV will be defined based on the
available area as follows:
The output power of any solar system onboard ship represents a saving in the electrical power
produced by the diesel generators on such ship. Daily output power of any solar system (E DS)
may be calculated as follows (Mostafa and El-bokl, 2014):
Where
: Daily output power of any solar system in watt hours per day.
: Output electrical power of each panel in watt hours per day.
: Number of solar panels.
: Battery efficiency.
: Inverter efficiency.
The battery efficiency and inverter efficiency can be estimated to be 0.85 and 0.9 respectively
(Mostafa and El-bokl, 2014). The amount of fuel required to generate such amount of
electricity by diesel generators represents an important source for energy saving in the
consumed power onboard (Mostafa and El-bokl, 2014).
3.7. Cost calculations
3.7.1. Life Cycle Cost Method
The Life Cycle Cost (LCC) of any system consists of the total costs of owning and operating
e LCC of any PV solar system includes the
(charge controllers), inverters, the cost of the installation, and the maintenance and operation
(M&O) cost of the system. Table1 shows the details of the used cost data for all items.
The life time (N) for all items is considered to be 20 years, except that of the battery which is
considered to be 10 years. Thus, another group of batteries have to be purchased after 10
years. The present worth of the second group of batteries (CB2PW) is calculated as follows:
Where
d: Inflation rate, 5%.

i: Interest rate, 10%.
N: Life span in years.
PW: Single present worth factor.
CB1PW: Present worth of the first batteries group.
CB2PW: Present worth of the second batteries group.
Total present worth of maintenance & repair cost (CMPW) may be calculated using series
uniform present worth factors (SPW) as follows:
Where
CSP: Cost of solar panels.

N: Life time for solar panels.
SPW: Series uniform present worth factor.
CMPW: Total present worth of maintenance and repair cost.
Average annual cost (AAC) of any photovoltaic (PV) solar system may be calculated as
follows:
Where
CR: Capital recovery factor.

AAC: Average annual cost in $/year (Mostafa and El-bokl, 2014).
3.7.2. Annual Net Cost Estimation of Solar Power Cost Saving On-board Ship
The annual net cost savings resulting from implementing the solar power aboard the ship can
be estimated from the following formula:
Where
: Diesel engine power (KW).

: Time of connection to batteries (hr/year).
: Specific Diesel Fuel oil consumption (g/KW.hr).
: Diesel fuel oil cost (USD/tonne).
: Auxiliary onboard engine operating cost (USD/year).
y: Refer to maintenance items.
w: Refer to operation items.
ACC: Annual Average Cost of implemented solar energy system.
TUC: Total Unit Cost of solar energy system (USD).
CRF: Capital Recovery Factor.
N: Expected number of years of ship operation after implementing solar panel system.
i: Annual interest rate.
TUC of any solar energy system depends on three main variables, which are: the initial cost,
the operating cost, and the maintenance cost. The initial cost includes, in addition to the
purchase and installation cost of the system, various sub-systems necessary for its effective
operation. The operating and maintenance costs are difficult to quantify because they depend
on a large number of variables, such as local labor cost, life-time of the equipment, and
operating time. Based on the data collected from actual projects utilizing the same solar
panels, and on quotations obtained from solar panel manufacturers; the value of initial,
operating and maintenance costs can be estimated from the following equation:
Where
3.7.2.1. Estimation of Solar Array Cost
The PV modules represent about 60% of the total cost of the coherent system for power
generation. Therefore, the cost reduction in modules has a significant impact on the system
investment. The cost of solar array depends mainly on the number of solar panels (Nm).
3.7.2.2. Estimation of Power Grid Cost
The cost of power grid system includes the cost of batteries, inverter, and charge controller.
The cost of batteries can be estimated as follows:
Total number of batteries needed to supply the required current, which may be calculated as
presented in (Moustafa and El-bokl, 2014), and (Bhatt and Verma, 2014) as follows:
Where
: Cost of one battery

: Total number of batteries needed to supply the required current, which may be calculated
as presented in (Moustafa and El-bokl, 2014), and (Bhatt and Verma, 2014) as follows:
, i.e. already
existing or newly built.
: Expected number of days without sunshine.
: The voltage of the selected battery in (volts).
: The capacity of the selected battery in (A.hr).
DOD: Battery depth of discharge.
The costs of inverter and charge controller are taken as specific power in (USD/Watt)
(Hussein and Ahmed, 2014) and (Moustafa and El-bokl, 2014). Finally, the annual operation
and maintenance (O&M) cost of the system can be either estimated according to data
collected from the established units, companies and catalogues, or taken as a percentage of
the capital cost and interest charge (Bhatt and Verma, 2014).
3.7.3. Levelized Cost of Energy
Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) can be calculated using the following equation
(Fraunhofer, 2015)
Where
CAPEX: Investment expenditures in USD.

OPEX: Operational and maintenance expenditure in USD.
Mt,el :Produced energy in respective year in kWh.
i: Real discount rate in % (10%).
n: Economic operational lifetime in years t Year of lifetime (8 years).
3.8. Environmental Analysis
emission factors of the used fuel, which vary largely among different engines and fuels. On
the other side, the emissions released by the Solar PV system are considered equal to zero as
there is no burned fuel. To evaluate gains of using the concept of Solar PV system as a green
alternative to the auxiliary diesel engines, it is very important to estimate the quantity of the
exhaust gases emitted from the auxiliary diesel engines. These amounts are estimated during
emission factors, the consumed electric load, and the working hours. Table (3-9) summarizes
the main emission factors of the diesel generator (Seddiek et al., 2013).
Table 3-5: Summary of main emissions factors of Diesel generator (Seddiek et al., 2013).
Emission Gases CO2 CO NOx PM10 SOx HC
Emission Factor (g/kw.hr) 698 1.68 13.43 0.55 2.56 0.53
As the solar energy system has zero emissions, the amount of emissions that can be deducted
as a result of implementing the solar energy system aboard ships (Ededuct) can be expressed as
follows:
Where
: The emission factor in (g/kWh).

P: The power saved when using the solar power system in (kW).
: The time of power saving.
3.9. Cost effectiveness
To assess the benefit of using this technology, the cost effectiveness has to be checked as
follow:
3.10. PV Case Study
3.10.1. Basic Data
3.10.1.1. Case Study
Figure 3-22: Edfu Ship (Marine Traffic, 2019)
Table 3-6: Case Study Data (Edfu Ship)
Ship Name Edfu
L(OA) 223.7 m
Breadth 32.2 m
Gross Tonnage 37794 Ton
Dead Weight 71572 Ton
Year of Build 1997
Main Engine Power Rating 8800 KW
Auxiliary Engines Power Rating 450 KW
Number of Auxiliary Engines 3
Hatch 1 16.15*12.96 m
Hatch 2,3,4,5,6,7 17*14.58 m
3.10.1.2. Hatch Areas
Table 3-7: Hatch Covers Data
L (m) b (m) Area (m2)
16.15 12.96 209.304
17 14.58 247.86
17 14.58 247.86
17 14.58 247.86
17 14.58 247.86
17 14.58 247.86
17 14.58 247.86
Total Area 1696.104
Figure 3-23: PV system is applied onboard Edfu on hatch covers
3.10.2. Route Data
Table 3-8 Selected Route Meteorological Data
Place Coordinates GHI (Kwh/m2 per year)
Demitta, Egypt (31.814, 31.4175) 2043
Tunis, Sea (10.817,37.312) 1748
Vimianzo, spain (-9.0173,43.273) 1311
Dunkerque, France (2.376,51.0447) 1088
3.10.2. Marine Photovoltaic Solar System
Sun light will absorb by the solar panels, which convert the light to electricity, which pass to
charge controller to regulate the flow, then to batteries to store the electricity, then DC loads
can be serviced by batteries and AC loads by inverter which convert DC form Batteries to AC
current, the system is illustrated in the following figure (3-24):
Figure 3-24: Solar System Connection for Edfu Ship
3.10.2.1. Solar Panel
The selection of panel was according to its ability to with stand mainly for several
environmental condition and salt corrosion. See figure (3-25):
Figure 3-25: Selected Solar Panel Cross Section
(AE P6-72, 325W) has maximum mechanical load 5400 Pa which is highly stable, tough and
plus-sorting, also a salt corrosion and sand resistant.
Table 3-9: Specifications of Solar Panel (AE P6-72, 325W)
Power 325 W
Open Circuit voltage (voc) 45.83
Short circuit current (Isc) 9.33
Voltage at Pmax (Vmp) 36.83
Current at Pmax (Imp) 8.82
Length 1956 mm
Width 992 mm
Height 40 mm
Weight 23.5 Kg
Life Span 25 Years
Table 3-10: Calculating number of solar panels for edfu
Area of total Hatch Available Area for Area of Panel No. of

Hatch No.
(m2) panels (m2) (m2) Panels
16.15x12.96 =
1 104.652 1.956x0.992 53.93 = 53
209.304
= 1.940352
2,3,4,5,6,7 17x14.58 = 247.86 123.93 63.87 = 63
3.10.2.2. Power Calculations
The average power output for the used panels for the selected trip is calculated in next table
(3-11):
Table 3-11: Power Output of PV onboard for Edfu
Solar Electric
2 Solar energy
Place GHI (Kwh/m year) irradiation output
(kwh/day)
(kWh/m2 day) (Kwh/day)
Demitta, Egypt 2043 5.597 1568 1199.52
Tunis, Sea 1748 4.789 1342 1026.63
Vimianzo, spain 1311 3.59 1006 769.59
Dunkerque,
1088 2.98 835 638.78
France
Average output per day 908.63
3.10.2.3. Batteries
The number of batteries needed for the system is calculated as follows
The system needs 316 batteries weights about 19.91 ton.
Table 3-12: Specifications of a 12V 300Ah solar storage deep cycle battery
FS200 - Future Science and Technology Co.,

Battery
Ltd.
Battery type Lead acid
Nd 1
VB 12
Bcap 300
DOD 0.8
Dimension (L/W/H) 522x240x219 mm
Weight 63 Kg
Life Time 8-12ears
3.10.2.4. Charge Controllers
Number of units of charge controller and total weight , the selected charge controller is
determined as follows:
Table 3-13: Specifications of a 140 Amps Charge Controller
Rated solar, load or diversion current 140 amps

System Voltage 12 24 volt
Min. voltage to operate 30 volts
Max solar voltage (voc) 60 volts
Height 15.2 cm
Width 5.5 cm
Depth 3.4 cm
Weight 0.23 Kg
3.10.2.5. Power Inverters
The selected Power inverter specification is shown in next table (3-14), the number of units
and total weight is also calculated.
Table 3-14: Specifications of a 100 KW Power Inverter
Type DC/AC inverter

Input voltage DC 12 Volt
Output voltage AC 220 Volt
Peak power 100 KW
Output waveform Pure Sine Wave
Output Frequency 50 Hz
L*W*H 700*800*1960 mm
Weight 470 Kg
3.10.3. Cost Calculations
3.10.3.1. Power Grid Cost
Solar Panel 0.27 $/Wp
Batteries 0.88 $ / Ah
Inverters 8500 $/unit
Charge Controllers 64 $/unit
Operation & Maintenance Cost 2% of PV cost
Installation Cost 10% of PV cost
Salvage Value 20% of PV cost
3.10.3.2. Project total Cost data
PV panels 75640.5 $
Batteries 83424 $
Inverter 93500 $
Charge controller 4416 $
O&M 1512.81 $
Installation cost 7564.05 $
Salvage Value 53211.472 $
Life time for ship is 8 years, the total cost will equal 266057.36 $
PV Batteries Charge controller Power Inverter Installation M&R
Figure 3-26: Components share in PV system cost
3.10.4. Environmental Calculations
Table 3-15: Emission Reduction Calculation for each type of emissions
Emission Auxiliary Emission / trip Emission / year Emission reduction

type power (tons) (tons) (tons)
Diesel only 150.768 1809.216
CO2 190.27
With PV 134.9122 1618.946
Diesel only 0.36288 4.35456
CO 0.45795
With PV 0.359064 4.308765
Diesel only 2.90088 34.81056
NOx 3.66087
With PV 0.792402 9.508822
Diesel only 0.1188 1.4256
PM10 0.149924
With PV 0.106306 1.275676
Diesel only 0.55296 6.63552
Sox 0.697828
With PV 0.494808 5.937692
Diesel only 0.11448 1.37376
HC 0.144472
With PV 0.102441 1.229288
Total Emission 195.3782
Emission Comparison
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
CO2 Nox PM10 Sox HC
Diesel only2 Diesel with PV3
Figure 3-27: Emission Comparison for all emission types
3.10.5. Cost effectiveness
To assess the benefit of using this technology the cost we check the cost effectiveness as
follows:
3.10.6. Impact of System Weight on Stability
Regarding the impact of the weight of solar energy system on ship stability; Adding extra
weight aboard the existing ship will result in location changes of its center of gravity, which
will probably affect its stability. It should be noted here that the added weight of the solar
panels, which need to be placed at the upper decks exposed to the Sun, will result in a
component of the solar power system, which is the battery bank, is usually secured properly
at the bottom of the ship, near the keel, which br
2016).
The shift in center of gravity is too small, which can be neglected.
4. Wind Turbines
4.1. Introduction to wind turbines
Today, several hundred thousand windmills are in operation around the world, many of
which are used for pumping water. The use of wind energy, as a pollution-free means of
generating electricity on a significant scale, is attracting the most interest in the subject
today (Spellman, 2016).
Today there are various types of wind turbines in operation, the different types are
illustrated in next figure, although there are different types, the most common is the
horizontal-axis wind turbine (Wagner, 2017).
The horizontal-axis wind turbine (HAWT), like the traditional farm windmills used for
water pumping (Spellman, 2016), this turbine can deliver power ranging from 10kW to
some MW. The largest turbine on the European market has a power of 8MW (Wagner,
2017). See figure (4-1):
Figure 4-1: Overview of the different types of wind turbines (Wagner, 2017)
Wind Turbines Page | 64

And the vertical-axis wind turbine (VAWT), like the eggbeater-style, Darrieus rotor
model, named after its French inventor, the only vertical-axis machine with any
commercial success.
Despite there are different types, there is a limit in wind turbine technologies, this is given
by the fluid mechanics fact that the highest efficiency of a wind turbine, which is called
ideal Betz number (Cp,max) and is 0.593.
A wind turbine can therefore never take out more energy from wind than 59.3% of the
potential energy in wind (White 2011). This happens because the wind after the turbine
will have a slower speed than the wind before the turbine.
Estimated performance of various wind turbine designs as a function of blade-tip speed

ratio is shown in next figure (4-2):
Figure 4-2: Estimated performance of various wind turbine designs as a function of

blade-tip speed ratio (White, 2011)
Global turbine installations totaled 52,573MW in 2017 down 3.7% from a year earlier,
according to the latest figures (4-3) from the Global Wind Energy Association (GWEC). The
total capacity in the world 2015, using wind power, was 434.9 GW, which is 16.5% higher
than in 2014 (Education World Wind Energy Association, 2016). China is world leading in
total capacity of wind energy at 148 GW, while Denmark is world leading in using electricity
from wind energy. 42% of the total power in Denmark is produced by wind turbines
(Energinet 2016).

Figure 4-3: Global Annual Installed Wind Capacity 2001-2017 (GWEC, 2018)
In regarding the life cycle cost of energy (LCOE), LCOE of onshore wind turbines in 2018,
with specific plant costs of 1500 to 2000 EUR/kW, ranges between 3.99 and 8.23 Cents/kWh.
Onshore wind farms at very good locations already produce electricity at lower costs than
newly erected coal or CCGT power plants. Despite higher average full load hours of up to
Cents/kWh is
significantly higher than onshore wind turbines. This is owed to higher investment and
installation costs as well as higher operating and financing costs for offshore installations
(specific system costs 3100 to 4700 EUR/kW) (FRAUNHOFER ISE, 2018).
These statistics show the high demand of wind turbines for electric power generation, with
slight environmental impact, given these enormous advances made in wind turbine
technology for electricity generation, it is highly likely there are important lessons to be
transferred now to the shipping sector.
4.2. Wind Turbine Application onboard Ships
Wind turbines have been mooted over many years for ship propulsion. However, to date there
are no successful prototypes of their application (IRENA, 2015). This reflects systemic issues
with their ultimate stability and vibration and the inherent inefficiency in energy conversion
relative to other technologies. The advantage of the turbine is that it can continue to harness
power even when the craft is sailing directly into the wind. There is a case to be made for

wind turbines as a producer of ancillary power for ships and as a replacement for shore-side
electricity generated from non-renewable sources (IRENA, 2015).
Despite these facts, there are two wind turbine technologies studied, the vertical axis
electrical generation wind turbine EcoVert by Inergy Company. EcoVert is quiet, relatively
slow, bird-friendly, and not a hazard to vessel occupants from a collision standpoint, Gyro
effect of turbine helps dampen vessel motion, Pitch control provides extremely high
efficiencies and the ability to shed load when wind is stronger than can be captured. Unique
design c
The Gemma One
the new generation of clean vessel powered by EcoVert wind turbine is shown in the next
figure (4-4).
Figure 4-4: Gemma One concept design of a wind power boat by Inergy (Inergy, 2019)

The next table shows the available information about the Eco Vert Technology (CE Delft,
2016):
Table 4-1: Eco Vert's Technology Factsheet (CE Delft, 2016)
Type of Wind Propulsion Wind Turbine

Technology
Specific technology
Location of R&D company USA (Florida)

Vertical-axis electrical generation wind
Main characteristics of technology turbine for either supplementing hotel load or
providing electrical propulsion energy.
Can be integrated on a multihull down to 50 T
Ship types/sizes and a monohull down to 100 T.
For load supplementation the turbine may be
used on any larger sized vessel of any type.
Retrofit/new builds Both

Start of R&D activity R&D activity on wind power started in 2009 and
R&D regarding vessel use in 2015.
Current state of development of Seeking multiple demonstration applications/
technology currently working on demonstration vessel.
Current state of deployment of Land-only with a few pending changes required
technology for marine version.
This plan will be market driven. Currently
investigating interest level and establishing
2020/2030 state of development
partnerships for the yacht concept demonstration
(Gemma One).
Main engine equivalent power: 70 kW, 300
kW or custom size.
Expected relative fuel savings:
Approximately 8 L/hr diesel (70,000 L annually
full time) for 70 kW machine 34 L/hr (300,000
L annually full time) for 300 kW machine in
Publicly available performance data
annual average conditions, route and location
dependent.
Almost 50% of the kinetic energy in the wind
within the boundary of space that the blades pass
through is converted into usable electricity.
EV75 is designed to produce <25kN force at its
hub in a 69.5m/s wind.

The next studied concept is the foldable wind turbines by the Swedish startup company
ProPit, they develop a concept for harnessing sea winds for simultaneous electricity
generation and thrust, by using conventional, but modified wind turbines onboard merchant
vessels. The primary market should be tankers and bulk ships with large and open deck
space, operating on routes and in areas with favorable wind conditions. The business idea is
to create substantial fuel savings while simultaneously reducing harmful greenhouse gas
emissions (Carlson and Nilsson, 2015).
Through extensive measurement campaigns at sea with a prototype wind turbine mounted on
a model oil tanker in the scale of 1:12, significant amounts of data were recorded and
analyzed (Carlson and Nilsson, 2015).
The next figure (4-5) shows the prototype used for this technology assessment:
Figure 4-5: The 1:12 scale model tanker Airmax during a sea measurement campaign

The next table (4-2) shows the factsheet for the foldable wind turbines technology onboard
ships:
Table 4-2:
Type of wind propulsion technology Wind turbine

Specific technology Foldable wind turbines
R&D company ProPit
Location of R&D company Sweden
PROPit has developed foldable wind turbines on
board for commercial ships, providing fuel savings
by letting on-board wind turbines create thrust and
electricity. The rotation of the wind turbine
produces electrical power through a conventional
generator to replace electricity otherwise generated
by the auxiliary diesel engines, thus reducing the
need for fuel oil combustion. To the extent where
Main characteristics of technology there is surplus power this can be transmitted to an
electrical engine connected to a shaft generator.
The turbine is designed to produce not only
electricity but also thrust, which assists in driving
the ship forward.
The wind turbines are ship-mounted and the masts
are foldable in an automated bridge controlled
operation.
Ship types/sizes Commercial ships (ocean going tankers or bulk

carriers).
Two different cases were analyzed, one for a
VLCC with 260,000 dwt and one for a product
tanker with 11,000 dwt.
Fuel savings ranging from 15 to 28% for the

larger and between 6 and 16% for the smaller ship
Publicly available performance data
have been established with high certainty in both
studies.
This has been verified by research at Chalmers

University of Technology and through broad
industry collaboration.

4.3. Concept and Components
Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power. This mechanical
power can be used for specific tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator
can convert this mechanical power into electricity. We have been harnessing the energy of
the wind for hundreds of years (Spellman, 2016). Today, the modern equivalent of a windmill
-a wind turbine- can use the energy of the wind to generate electricity. The blades of a wind
turbine spin like aircraft propeller blades. Wind turns the blades, which in turn, spin a shaft
connected to a generator and produce electricity (Wind Energy EIS, 2009).
4.3.1. Technical aspects of wind Turbine
Although the wind turbine market has shown different designs, the next Figures (4-6) an
illustration of the most commonly referred wind turbine components.
Figure 4-6: Schematic overview of wind turbine components (Carlson and Nilsson,
2015)

The two main designs is Wind turbine with gearbox and wind turbine without gearbox as
some companies e.g. the German company Enercon, design this type without gearbox, the
scheme of such a turbine is shown in fig. (4-7), where the main design aspects can be clearly
seen.
Figure 4-7: The design without gearbox (Enercon E-66, 2019)
4.3.2. Aspects of design and development
There are several critical aspects of a wind turbine that need to be considered in the design
phase, to ensure the turbine will be economic and durable.
4.3.2.1. The Tower
In principle, the tower needs to be as tall as possible, because the wind speed increases with
height. However, the height is limited by costing issues; an increase in tower height of 10m
costs an extra fifteen thousand Dollars, and a tower height of over 100m requires an aircraft-
warning beacon, which is again so expensive (Wagner H.J., 2017).

4.3.2.2. Heat Energy
Large turbines (>1MW), have an average generator efficiency of 98%. Heat is also generated
in the mechanical parts of the machine including the bearings and the gear box. This means
that around 40kW of power are lost to the generator heating up during operation. This heat
energy needs to be controlled to prevent damage to the machine parts. A large fan system is
mounted in on the back side of the hub of a turbine and used to draw cool air through the hub
and remove the heat energy emitted during operation (Wagner H.J., 2017).
4.4. Applicability of Wind Turbines onboard Ships
4.4.1. Factors affecting the use of wind turbines onboard ships
4.4.1.1. Speed:
It is to be the preferred form of wind-assisted ship propulsion, a ship cruising at 15 knots

must sail an extraordinary windy route with wind speeds above 15 m/s. The other alternative
is, of course, to reduce the ship speed, a measure which in itself will reduce fuel consumption
(Bøckmann and Steen, 2011).
4.4.1.2. Air Draft:
The height, or air draft, is a limiting factor for both wind turbine ships and ships equipped
ports restrict the air draft of wind-assisted ships to about 60 m, unless the wind turbine tower
can be folded down (Bøckmann and Steen, 2011). According to (Bøckmann and Steen,
draft of wind assisted ships to about 60 m. Air draft limitation of Panama Canal is 57.91m,
Suez Canal is 68m and Kiel in Germany is 40m.
4.4.1.3. Safety Clearance:
The clearance around the wind turbine, especially around the blades area, is very important to
ensure safety during the operation. The proposed wind turbine is designed to be installed at
the front of the ship with a safety clearance of more than half of the breadth of the ship from
the blade tips to the superstructure on deck. The safety clearance of blade tips to the
freeboard must have a minimum clearance about 3 m, in consideration of human passageway.

4.4.1.4. Stability:
The heel angle of a 150 m long tanker was found increased, by the horizontal-axis wind
turbine having diameter of 39 m and a hub height 39.5 m had shown negligible result, in a
research paper published by Eirik Bøckmann and Severe Steen (2011). According to the
result of research, an extreme heeling moment occurred when the ship was sailing at 10 knots
with a true wind angle of
The calculated heeling moment around the center of gravity of the optimized turbine rig in
that research was 6.08 MNm. Heeling moments of 6.08 MNm resulted in a heel angle below
ased heel angle can be considered as negligible (Bøckmann and Steen, 2011).
4.4.1.5. Other Consideration:
A very important aspect of ship implementation takes into consideration the size of the ship
and the application (where it is used the energy produced by the wind turbine). The
emplacement on the deck must be very carefully considered, as there are several aspects that
should be taken into consideration: to be placed away enough as to not disturb the crew or the
ship functioning; to not be a danger to the crew, passengers or other ships or animals, to
produce as less noise as possible (especially for fishing boats). Thus, the best solution for
implementation should be on the mast, or on a tall mast on the deck, and not be obstructed by
the ship geometry (elements that can block the free airflow from reaching the turbine
(Ionescu et al., 2014).
4.4.2. Comparison between using Vertical and horizontal axis wind turbine onboard ships
Generally, the horizontal-

the equivalent class of vertical-axis wind turbine (VAWT), primarily attributed to the higher
efficiency and the higher power produced for the equivalent area (Pope, K., et al., 2010). In
comparison to HAWTs, VAWTs may also have additional issues leading to poor
performance. These issues include low aerodynamic efficiency, fluctuation of the torque on
the shaft and problems with start-up due to requirements of higher wind velocity to set the
rotor in motion.
VAWT as a concept does however have some very favorable features in comparison to
HAWT, especially when applied to the marine world (Talluri et al., 2016, Ionescu et al.
2014).

4.4.2.1. Using vertical axis wind turbines onboard ship has several advantages as following
i. Capable of catching wind from all directions,

ii. Can be built lower and more stable since the center of gravity is low,
iii. Does not need yaw mechanisms, rudders, or downwind coning,
iv. Easy to conduct maintenance work because the electrical generator can be put at a
lower position,
v. Safer operation due to lower rotational speed,
vi. Has low noise level (low tip speed ratio), and
vii. Does not suffer much from the constantly varying gravitational loads that normally
would limit the size of horizontal- axis wind turbines.
4.4.2.2. The horizontal axis wind turbine may not be available yet on the large scale for the
following reasons
i. The introduction of the wind turbines with their towers on the deck in front of the
bridge will disturb the view for the officers somewhat.
ii. For hazards identified in Environment, Other Activities in Different Modes and
Health & Safety Categories, there is a lack of safeguards and recommendations have
been made. Class, SOLAS and Flag State requirements shall be fulfilled as a
minimum. Furthermore, it is necessary to conduct studies to quantify the hazards
and health & safety of the crew.
4.4.2.3. Selection of Type of Wind Turbine
In the weight matrix table (4-3) shows a benefit of using Vertical axis wind turbine when
considering using a large scale wind turbine.
Table 4-3: Weight Matrix for the selection of Wind Turbine Type
Vertical Axis Horizontal Axis

Efficiency 1 2
Stability 2 1
Maintainability 2 1
Safety of operation 2 1
Direction wind 2 1
Start up 1 2
Noise 2 (38 Db) 0 (95 Db)
Force on support
2 1
structure
Total Weight 14 10

4.4.3. Configuration of wind assisted power generation
The great variations in wind power, which occur season to season, hour to hour, minute to
minute and indeed second to second constitute major challenges when producing electrical
power from a wind turbine. Ideally, in a combined wind/diesel system the diesel generator
could be used to provide power when the wind is insufficient, and the wind turbine could be
used to save diesel fuel when the wind is blowing. To connect the generator of the wind
the generator and the grid. When designing a wind/diesel system the main aspects to consider
are:
i. Power from a wind energy converter.

ii. How to control the power.
iii. The influence on the grid.
iv. The fuel consumption of the diesel generator set.
v. The minimum load of the diesel generator set.
Two different wind/diesel system layouts are presented in this report, one with shaft
generator and the other with a separate diesel gen-set for power production. The most
favorable design would probably be the latter with an integrated shaft generator and therefore
the following figure (4-8) describes the schematic layout (Carlson and Nilsson, 2014)
Figure 4-8 Wind/diesel system on a ship with a shaft generator to produce electric
power (Carlson and Nilsson, 2014)
For a suggested wind/diesel system for the 72000 DWT tankers therefore consists of the
wind turbine with frequency converter, a main engine with a shaft generator, an auxiliary
engine and a small diesel gen-set for emergency situations. By this set-up the ship will
both have reliable electric power supply and reduced fuel consumption (Carlson and
Nilsson, 2014).

4.5. Power Calculations
4.5.1. Energy Content in the Wind
The following section will be used to mathematically explain where the energy in the wind
comes from and what factors it depends on. Power is defined as:
Where
E: kinetic energy.
A: Swept area.
V: wind velocity.
Therefore, it is also proportional to the cube of the wind speed .
4.5.2. Power Coefficients
There is now the question of how much of the energy in the wind can be transferred to the
blade as mechanical energy.
in the wind to mechanical energy using a wind turbine. This is because the wind on
the back side of the rotor must have a high enough velocity to move away and allow
more wind through the plane of the rotor.
The relationship between the power of the rotor blade PR and the maximum power
PRmax is given by the power coefficient cp:
The maximum power coefficient is determined through the ratio v2/v1 and setting the
derivation to zero.

Therefore, an ideal turbine will slow down the wind by 2/3 of its original speed
The value of the coefficient Cp is affected by the type of wind turbine and the value of
the parameter , which is named tip speed ratio and is described by:
Where
.
r: radius of the rotor (m).
The relation between Cp and tip speed ratio is shown previously in figure (3-2).
4.5.3. VAWT Swept Area
For a giromill VAWT, also named H-rotor figure (4-9), the swept area is:
Where
d: diameter of the rotor (m).

h: length of the blades (m).
Figure 4-9:

4.5.4. Wind Gradient
To calculate the wind speed at the height of the hub, it is necessary to take care that the wind
speed varies with height due to the friction against the structure of the ground, which slows
the wind. This phenomenon is named wind gradient or wind profile and it is shown in next
figure (4-10):
Figure 4-10: Wind speed profile for various locations (Tore Wizelius, 2006)
Where
z0:Wind speed at the reference height z0(m/s).

z0: Reference height (m).
: Value depending on the roughness class of the terrain, as shown in the following table (4-
4):
Table 4-4: Roughness classes (Tore Wizelius, 2006)
Roughness Class Type of Terrain

0 Open Water 0.1
1 Open Plain 0.15
2 Countryside with farms 0.2
3 Villages and low forest 0.3

4.5.5. Apparent wind speed
not affect much on the vertical axis wind turbines performance but it would affect wind
velocity (Dabiri, 2012). For a moving vessel, the true wind direction will affect the wind
turbine performance. This is because the changes in true wind direction to a moving vessel
will result in a change in apparent wind speed. Wind which attacks the turbine blades of a
moving vessel is apparent wind speed instead of true wind speed. In other words, wind
turbine might not operate even if the vessel is moving. This is because attack wind speed will
fall below wind turbine cut-in wind speed. Apparent wind is a vector subtraction of wind
velocity to the object velocity. It can be obtained through parallelogram method or triangle
method. Next figure (4-11) shows the equations derived to obtain apparent wind speed using
parallelogram method.
Figure 4-11: Apparent Wind Calculations
Where
Vs: Velocity of Ship.

Vt: Velocity of True Wind.
Va: Velocity of Apparent Wind.

4.6. Economics calculations for the wind turbines
The annual net cost savings resulting from implementing the wind turbine aboard the ship can
be estimated from the following formula:
Where
: Diesel engine power (KW).

: Time of connection to batteries (hr/year).
: Specific Diesel Fuel oil consumption (g/KW.hr).
: Diesel fuel oil cost (USD/tonne).
y: Refer to maintenance items.
w: Refer to operation items.
ACC: Annual Average Cost of implemented solar energy system.
TUC: Total Unit Cost of solar energy system (USD).
CRF: Capital Recovery Factor.
N: Expected number of years of ship operation after implementing solar panel system.
i: Annual interest rate.
TUC of any wind energy system depends on three main variables, which are: the initial cost,
the operating cost, and the maintenance cost. The initial cost includes, in addition to the
purchase and installation cost of the system, various sub-systems necessary for its effective
operation. The operating and maintenance costs are difficult to quantify because they depend
on a large number of variables, such as local labor cost, life-time of the equipment, and
operating time. Based on the data collected from actual projects utilizing the same solar
panels, and on quotations obtained from solar panel manufacturers; the value of initial,
operating and maintenance costs can be estimated from the following equation:
Where

4.7. Environmental Analysis
on the
emission factors of the used fuel, which vary largely among different engines and fuels. On
the other side, the emissions released by the wind turbine system are considered equal to zero
as there is no burned fuel. To evaluate gains of using the concept of wind turbine system as a
green alternative to the auxiliary diesel engines, it is very important to estimate the quantity
of the exhaust gases emitted from the auxiliary diesel engines. These amounts are estimated
hing. The quantity of emissions depends mainly on the main
emission factors, the consumed electric load, and the working hours. Table (4-5) summarizes
the main emission factors of the diesel generator (Seddiek et al., 2013).
Table 4-5: Summary of main emissions factors of Diesel generator
Emission Gases CO2 CO NOx PM10 SOx HC
Emission Factor (g/kw.hr) 698 1.68 13.43 0.55 2.56 0.53
As the wind turbine system has zero emissions, the amount of emissions that can be deducted
as a result of implementing the wind energy system aboard ships (Ededuct) can be expressed as
follows:
Where
Ef: is the emission factor in (g/kWh).

P: is the power saved when using the solar power system in (kW).
Ts: is the time of power saving.

4.8. Case study
4.8.1. Ship Route
The next voyage was selected for the case study; the general information is given in next
table (4-6) and figure (4-12):
Figure 4-12: ship route and passing points (Searouts, 2019)
Table 4-6: Ship route data (NNC, 2019, Searouts, 2019)
Lat: 31.4175388
Delivery port Damietta, Egypt
Lng: 31.814443
Lat: 51.0447801
L. Port Dunkirk, France
Lng: 2.3761368
Lat: 37.312427
Tunis
Lng: 10.817820
Points of the route
Lat: 43.273706
Portugal
Lng: -9.017320

Total distance 3155.39 mi (5843.78 km)
Cargo type Wheat
Estimated days of the voyage 12 15 days
Date of voyage 1st mid of jan
4.8.2. Selection of wind turbine
according to:
- The maximum output

- The suitable weight to be added over board
- The availability to be suited on deck.
- The avoidance of interference with hatch openings
- The avoidance of interfering with cargo loading and unloading operations
The following designs have been checked.
- Aric on: Horizontal axis wind turbine 10KW.

- Atlantis Wind Kraft: Horizontal axis wind turbine 0.3 - 0.6 KW.
- Euro wind Small Turbines Ltd: VAWT from 1.3 kW to 30 kW.
- Fortis Montana: HAWT from 0.8 kW to 10 kW.
- Gaia-Wind A/S: HAWT 11 kW.
- OY Wind side Production Ltd: VAWT from 1 kW to 8 kW.
- Ropatec S.p.a. - VAWT from 0.75 kW to 6 kW.
- Rugged renewable - VAWT 0.4 kW.
- Turby B.V: VAWT 2.5 kW.
Rated power versus rotor diameter and rotor weight is shown in the next table (4-7) and
figures (4.13, 4.14):
Table 4-7: Rated power of VAWT, Rotor diameters and rotor weights
VAWT Rated power (KW) Rotor Diameter (m) Rotor weight (Kg)
OY world side 1.2 1 400
Turby 2.5 2 134

Ecofys 3 2.8 200
Ropatec S.p.a. 6 3.3 750
OY world side 8 2 3000
Rated power Versus Rotor Diameter

3.5
3
2.5
2
Rated power Versus
1.5 Diameter
1
0.5
0
Figure 4-13 relation between the pwer and rotor diameter
Rated power versus weight

3500
3000
2500
2000
Rated power versus
1500 weight
1000
500
0
Figure 4-14 Rotor power rate to weight

4.8.2.1. Technical specification of the selected wind turbine
The selected wind turbine is Turby B.V: VAWT 2.5 kW, it shows the highest power per kg,
and among the highest power per diameter. The technical specification of the wind turbine is
shown in next table (4-8):
Table 4-8: Power and speed information for Turby VAWT (Intelligent Energy
program, 2019)
Power Unit
Rated power 2.5 Kw
Rated wind speed 14 m/s
Cut-in speed 4 m/s
Cut-out speed 14 m/s
Maximum wind speed 55 m/s
Dimensions Units
Rotor weight 134 Kg
Rotor diameter 1.99 M
Rotor height 2.88 M
Swept area 5.3 m2
Height of the mast 6 7.5 M

Table 4-9 Other technical data of the Turby VAWT (Turby, 2016)
Other information
Maximum rpm 400 At rated wind speed
Gear box type No gears
Brake system Electrical brake system
Number of blades 3
Blades material Carbon epoxy composite
Output voltage 230 V

O
Minimum operation temperature -20 C
O
Maximum operation temperature 40 C
Acoustic levels at a distance of 20m, wind at 10 m/s 45 DB
Lifetime 20 Years
Is the machine self-starting No
Use of an asynchronous generator No
Yaw control system Independent
Up wind or downwind Both

Figure 4-15: Photo of the Turby (Polinder et al, 2004)
Very important parameters are the wind speed versus the power generated. Table(4-10) , next
the power calculated for the range of wind speed and the power curve.
Table 4-10: Calculated Power curve of the selected wind turbine
Wind Speed (m/s) Power (W)
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 6
5 56
6 155
7 310
8 527

9 812
10 1171
11 1659
12 2136
13 2500
14 2500
15 --
Figure 4-16: Power Curve of the selected wind turbine
4.8.3. System Weight
The system weight is divided into two main components rotor weight and Tower weight and
they are as follows: Rotor weight = 134 Kg, Tower weight = 230 kg
The Total weight for 1 turbine is 364 kg and the total weight for 12 turbines = 4.368 tons
which will have a neglected effect on center of gravity and cargo capacity.

Figure 4-17: Wind Turbines Distribution onboard Edfu
4.8.4. Power output
Average power output is calculated for different point using actual wind data, during different
times around the year as shown in next table:
Table 4-11 power calculations output

True True wind Ship Apparent Apparent Apparent Power
City wind direction heading wind wind wind speed output
speed speed angle in m /s (w)
Damietta 17.33 292.5 295 30.3 359 15.58632 2500
Tunis 18.7 315 260 28.2 33 14.50608 2500
Jan
Portugal 20.6 225 0 24.43 264 12.56168 2250
Dunkrik 21.3 240 60 18.3 180 9.41352 1000
Damietta 20.6 292.5 295 33.6 258 17.28384 2500
Tunis 18.7 292.5 260 30.5 19 15.6892 2500
April Portugal 28.7 45 0 39 31 20.0616 2500
Dunkrik 12 45 60 24.8 353 12.75712 2350

Damietta 44 300 295 57 4 29.3208 2500
Tunis 25 300 260 35.8 27 18.41552 2500
july Portugal 20.13 22.5 0 32 14 16.4608 2500
Dunkrik 25.5 225 60 25.4 150 13.06 2500

Damietta 25 330 295 36.5 23 18.7756 2500
Tunis 18.2 225 260 29.8 339 15.32912 2500
Oct. Portugal 17.5 45 0 28.3 26 14.55752 2500
Dunkrik 14.5 30 60 26.6 344 13.68304 2500

Average Annual Power Output 2381

The average annual power obtained by one VAWT is 2381 watt, the total power output by 12
turbines 28.6 kW. With power to weight ratio of 6.6 w/kg and power per meter diameter of
1.2 KW/m
4.8.5. Economic Analysis of VAWT
Two methods are used in the economic analysis first is the payback period and the second is
LCOE.
4.8.5.1. Payback period
The data for calculating payback period is shown in next table:
Table 4-12 payback period
Paux (KW) 300
tc (hr/year) 900
sfc (g/KW.hr) 250
fc (USD/tonne) 814
CaMa (USD/year) Average O&M cost = 0.02 * 900 hr * 300 Kw

Cb Ob (USD/year) = 5400 $
ACC (USD/year) 34305
TUC (USD) 15255 * 12 = 183060
CRF 0.1874
N (year) 8
i 8
The vessel is built in 1997 assume a 30 years life time the remaining time 8 years.

4.8.5.2. Total unit cost
Table 4-13: Wind Turbine Cost
Part Cost ($)
Turbine Cost 12315
Mast 2255
Inverter Included
Electrical items 675
Foundation 3045
Lightening, grounding 790
Salvage 3825
Total cost 15255
Total Unit Cost

Turbine Cost Mast Electrical items Foundation Lightening, grounding
Figure 4-18: Distribution of components cost of the wind turbine
Annual net cost savings = 60345 34305 = 26040 $

4.8.5.3. Levelized cost of Energy (LCOE)
LCOE was calculated using the following equation (Fraunhofer, 2015).
Where
CAPEX: Investment expenditures in USD.

OPEX: Operational and maintenance expenditure in USD.
Mt,el :Produced energy in respective year in kWh.
i: Real discount rate in % (10%).
n: Economic operational lifetime in years t Year of lifetime (8 years).
For 8 years period: the LCOE will be 0.0136 $/KW
LCOE decreases with the increase of project years the following table (4-14) and figure (4-
19) shows LCOE for different project years:
Table 4-14: LCOE vs Project years
Number of Years LCOE
6 0.017
10 0.012
14 0.010
18 0.009
22 0.008

LCOE
0.018
0.016
0.014
0.012
0.01
LCOE
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Project years
Figure 4-19 LCOE vs Project years
4.8.6. Environmental Analysis
The emissions per trip and per year are calculated, also the emission reduction, and the
quantity of the emission in case of using wind turbine beside the diesel sets. The next table
shows emissions calculations.
Table 4-4-15: Emissions quantities and emission reduction due to VAWT onboard ships
Emission / trip Emission / year Emission reduction

Emission type Auxiliary power
(tons) (tons) (tons)
Diesel only 150.768 1809.216

CO2 180.9
Diesel with wind 135.69 1628.3
Diesel only 0.36288 4.35456

CO 0.435
Diesel only 2.90088 34.81056

NOx 3.48
Diesel only 0.1188 1.4256

PM10 0.14
Diesel only 0.55296 6.63552

Sox 0.66
Diesel only 0.11448 1.37376

HC 0.137

4.8.7. Cost effectiveness
Cost effectiveness for the emission reduction is shown in next table (4-16) it shows that it
cost 184.65 $ per ton emissions.
Table 4-16: Cost effectiveness for emission reduction due to using VAWT
Emission Cost effectiveness
CO2 189.6125
CO 78779.49
NOx 9854.768
PM10 240635.5
SOx 51699.04
HC 249716.1
Total emission 184.6523

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Alexandria University Department of Naval Architecture

Faculty of Engineering and Marine Engineering

2. Ship type selection

High Speed vessels 4 2 8 2 16

Ship Type Selection Page | 21

High Speed vessels 1 5 3 4 13

Volumetric power High power

Ship Type Selection Page | 22

2.1. Obtaining Ship Data

Ship Name Edfu

Gross Tonnage 37794 Ton

Dead Weight 71572 Ton

Year of Build 1997

Main Engine Power Rating 8800 KW

Auxiliary Engines Power Rating 450 KW

Number of Auxiliary Engines 3

Hatch 2,3,4,5,6,7 17*14.58 m

Ship Type Selection Page | 23

Figure 2-1: Edfu Ship Photo

Ship Type Selection Page | 24

3.1. Introduction into Photovoltaics

3.1.1. History and Definition

Figure 3-1: PV in Space Craft (NASA, 2008)

Figure 3-2: Operating of a basic Photovoltaic Cell (NASA, 2008)

Figure 3-4: Off-grid PV System (Pure Energy Center, 2013)

Figure 3-5: Grid Tied PV system (Amplus solar, 2019)

3.2. Photovoltaics Application onboard Ship

Height (above the waterline) 6.5 m

Number of modules 825

Cell efficiency 22.6%

Total weight of the Li-Ion batteries 12 t

Autonomy without sunshine 3 days

Common to both applications mentioned earlier is the horizontal mounting of the

1.64 m2, which has been decreased to 299 $ in 2019.

Figure 3-8: Alazezy, Research vessel

3.3. Photovoltaic Cell Working Principle

Conversion of light energy in electrical energy is based on a phenomenon called photovoltaic

Figure 3-10: Making a Wafer from a Silicon Ingot (Faizan, 2018)

Figure 3-11: Basic Construction of PV Cell (Faizan, 2018)

Figure 3-12: Diode Schematic (Ismail-Beigi Research Group, 2019)

Figure 3-14: PV Operating Principle (Trabish, 2012)

3.4. Photovoltaic System Components

3.4.1. Solar Panels

Figure 3-15: Main Types of Solar Panel (Spiegel, 2019)

Monocrystalline Polycrystalline Amorphous

Best research cell

Area required for

Lowest price 0.75 $/W 0.62 $/W 0.69 $/W

Performance drops Less temperature

3.4.2. Solar Rack

Figure 3-16: Solar Rack (Constructor culture, 2019).

3.4.3. Direct Current System Equipment

3.4.3.1. Charge Controller

Figure 3-17: Charge Controller Wiring (Spiegel, 2019)

3.4.3.2.1. Energy Balance

3.4.3.2.2. The cost of batteries storage devices

The cost of batteries storage devices depends on:

i. The type of battery,

3.4.3.2.3. Batteries Design Consideration in PV System

3.4.4. Alternating-Current System Equipment

3.4.4.1. Power Inverter

3.5. Factors affecting Applying of Solar Energy onboard Ships

3.5.1. Solar Radiation Distribution

3.5.2. Solar Sun-exposed Deck Area

Chapters 2 & 3&4

Chapters 2 & 3&4