LYMPHATIC SYSTEM 1.

Eliminates nitrogenous or liquid waste

of the body in the form of urine
(urination, micturition, or voiding)
FUNCTION 2. Maintains fluid and electrolyte balance
3. Regulates the composition and volume
Returns fluid in lymphatic originating of the blood and regulates blood
from the interstitial fluid that has entered the pressure
lymphatic capillaries (failure of proteins to
return to the blood results in edema).
PARTS

PARTS 1. Kidney
- Bean – shaped structure lying against
1. Lymph the posterior abdominal wall at the level of the
- Fluid in lymphatic originating from the last thoracic and first three lumbar vertebrae
interstitial fluid that has entered the lymphatic (right kidney slightly lower than the left per
capillaries kidney)
2. Lymph Vessels - Function: Formation f urine by
3. Lymph Nodes filtration, reabsorption, and secretion
- Lymphatic tissue usually in clusters - Composition of Urine:
separated into compartment by fibrous 1. Water – 1.5 liters per day
partitions which help defend the body against average
injurious substances and are the sites of 2. Urea – waste product of protein
hemopoiesis (T and B lymphocytes) and amino acid metabolism
4. Spleen 3. Uric Acid – waste product of
- Mass of lymphatic tissue found above muscle metabolism or purines
and behind the cardiac portion of the stomach by liver
- Functions: 4. Creatine – waste product of
Defense muscle metabolism
 By phagocytosis of particle 5. Electrolytes – K, Na, Ca Cl
such as microbes, red cell 6. Hormones and their
fragments, and platelets; breakdown products
antibody formation 7. Vitamins – particularly the
Hemopoiesis waste-soluble Vitamin B and C
 Lymphatic tissue of spleen 8. Drugs like aspirin, penicillin,
forms lymphocytes and and sulfa
possible monocytes  Abnormal constituents:
Blood Reservoir glucose, albumin, red blood
 Capable of squeezing out cells, kidney stones
approximately 200 ml. of
blood into the general
circulation within one 2. Ureters
minute. - A pair of tubes extending from the
kidneys to the urinary bladder for the passage
of urine
3. Ureters
- Musculo – membranous tube lined with
EXCRETORY SYSTEM mucosa with an opening to the exterior called
urinary meatus
- In males, it is longer and functions as
FUNCTION passage of both urine and semen
- In females, shorter and function as
passage of urine only
REPRODUCTION SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS
1. Production and maturation of gametes
2. Secretion of sex hormones
PARTS
MALE
1. Testes
- main reproductive organs located in the
scrotum composed of tiny tubules called seminiferous
tubules where spermatogenesis occurs and interstitial
cells which secrete the male hormone testosterone
2. Ducts
a. Epididymis – along top and sides of
each testis consisting of tightly coiled
tube enclosed in a fibrous case which
secretes small part of semen, stores
semen prior to ejaculation and conducts
semen from testes to vas deferens.
b. Vas Deferens or Seminal Ducts – a pair
of tubes extending through the inguinal
canal into the abdominal cavity over the
top and down posterior surface of the
bladder to join ducts from seminal
vesicles which conduct sperms and
small amount of fluid from epididymis
to ejaculatory ducts
c. Ejaculatory Ducts – formed by the
union of each vas deferens with ducts
from seminal vesicle passing through
the prostate gland terminating in the
urethra for the ejaculation of the semen
into the urethra.
d. Urethra – refer to the excretory system
3. Accessory Glands
a. Seminal Vesicle – convoluted pouches
with mucous lining located on the
posterior surface of the bladder which
secrete nutrient-rich fluid (constitute
about 60% of the semen)
b. Prostate Gland – walnut-size glands
with ducts opening into the urethra
secreting an alkaline substance which
increase sperm motility (constitute 30%
of semen)
c. Bulbo-urethral or Cowper's Gland -
small, pea-shaped glands with ducts
leading into the urethral located just
below the prostate which secrete an
alkaline fluid that lubricates the urethra
prior to ejaculation.
4. External Genitalia
a. Scrotum-skin- covered pouch
suspended from perineal region and
divided into two compartments, each
containing the testis, epididymis, and
first part of seminal ducts; allows
sperms to develop to 2-3 degrees below
b. Penis – copulatory organ made up of
three cylindrical masses of erectile.
tissue containing large vascular space
(filling of these spaces with blood
causes erection) Property body
temperature
FEMALE
1. Ovaries
- Almond-shaped organs suspended by the
mesovarium - Contain Graafian follicles embedded in
connective tissue in which the ova develop; each
month, surface of the ovary ruptures and expels its
ovum into the pelvic cavity
 2. Uterine Tube (Fallopian Tubes or pectoralis major muscle which functions for
Oviducts) milk secretion
- a pair of tubes attached to the upper outer
angel of uterus with fimbriated distal ends that open
into the pelvic cavity; for the passage of ova from
ovaries to uterus; site of fertilization

3. Uterus
- pear-shaped organ (approximately) the size
of a clenched fist) located in the pelvic cavity
between the bladder and rectum; function is
associated with menstruation, pregnancy, and labor.

4. Vagina
- collapsible, Musculo- membranous tube
located between rectum and urethra with an outlet to
the exterior protected by a fold of mucosa membrane
called hymen whose functions are to receive semen
from the male; acts as duct for uterine secretions and
menstrual flow and constitutes the lower part of the NERVOUS SYSTEM
birth canal.
5. Vulva
- collective term for external genitalia FUNCTION
composed of:
a. Mons veneris – hairy skin-covered pad 1. Reception of stimulus
of fat over the symphysis pubis 2. Transmission of impulses
3. Coordination of body activities
b. Labia mojara – hairy skin-covered lips
DIVISIONS
c. Clitoris – small mound of erectile tissue
below junction of two minora 1. Central Nervous System
- Composed of brain and spinal cord
d. Urinary meatus – opening into the
urethra just below the clitoris 2. Peripheral Nervous System
- Composed of cranial nerves from the
e. Vaginal orifice – opening into the brain and spinal nerves from the spinal cord
vagina below the urinary meatus
3. Autonomic Nervous System
6. Accessory Glands - Composed of sympathetic and
a. Skene's glands – small mucous glands parasympathetic chains of ganglia
whose ducts open on each side of the
urinary meatus
BRAIN
b. Bartholin’s glands – a pair of small,
bean-shaped glands whose ducts open Embryonic Division
on the side of the vaginal orifice
1. Prosencephalon or forebrain
7. Breasts or Mammary Glands – lobulated 2. Mesencephalon or midbrain
gland located under the skim over the
- found between the forebrain and the
hindbrain contains four nuclear masses
collectively known as the corpora quadrigemina
a. superior colliculi – involved in visual
reflexes
b. inferior colliculi – associated with
hearing
- contains reflex centers from cranial nerves
III (oculomotor) and IV (trochlear).
- cavity is called mesocoel.
3. Rhombencephalon or hindbrain
Adult Division
1. Telencephalon or Cerebral Hemispheres
- Composed of two hemispheres
connected by corpus callosum
- Cavity in each hemisphere is the first
and second ventricles
- Divided by fissures into four major
lobes
a. Frontal Lobes – for abstract
thinking, sense of humor, and
uniqueness of personality;
contraction of skeletal muscles and
synchronization of muscular
movement
b. Parietal Lobes – translate nerve
impulse into sensations, provides
appreciation of size, texture, and
weight, sense of taste
c. Temporal Lobes – translate nerve
impulse into sensation of sound;
control behavior patterns; sense of
smell
d. Occipital Areas – translates nerves
impulses into sight; provides
appreciation of size, shapes, and
color
2. Diencephalon or Twixt brain
- Unpaired division of the forebrain
- Cavity inside is the third ventricle
- Consists of:
a. Thalamus – paired structure of gray
matter below the corpus callosum which
is relay center for all sensory impulses;
functionally related to all motor centers
b. Hypothalamus – lies between the
thalamus; forms the floor of the third
ventricle; regulates the peripheral
nervous system discharges which
accompanies behavior and emotional
expression manufactures hormones of
the neurohypophyses and controls
secretion of both anterior and posterior
pituitary, where the pituitary gland is
attached by a stalk
3. Mesencephalon or optic lobes
4. Metencephalon or Cerebellum
- second largest part of the human brain which
exerts synergic over control skeletal muscles
resulting in coordinated skeletal muscle contraction
to produce smooth, steady, and precise movements;
maintains equilibrium and normal posture
- its cavity is the metacoel
5. Myelencephalon or Medulla Oblongata
- most posterior portion of the hindbrain and
contains centers for vital heart function, blood vessel
diameter (blood pressure), and respiratory reflexes;
also, centers for vomiting, coughing, and swallowing;
conducts impulses between the cord and the brain
(sensory and motor).
- its cavity is the fourth ventricle
SPINAL CORD
- posterior continuation of the brain located in the
spinal cavity
- conducts impulses to the brain through its
sensory tracts; contains reflex centers for all
spinal cord reflexes
MENINGES OF THE BRAIN AND SPINAL
CORD
 - membranous coverings consisting of three layers
a. dura mater – outer layer of white fibrous
tissue
b. arachnoid membrane – middle layer
c. pia mater – innermost layer adhering to the
surface of the brain and spinal cord and
containing blood vessels
CRANIAL NERVES
- nerves originating from the brain (12 pairs in
man)
- receptors in the epithelium of the nasal mucosa
- odors sensed as chemicals interact with receptor
sites on sensory hair of olfactory cells
SIGHT
- eyeball consists of three coats: outer sclera, and
cornea, middle choroid, ciliary body, and iris, and
inner retinal with anterior cavity containing a liquid
aqueous humor and posterior cavity. containing a gel-
like vitreous humor

SPINAL NERVES
- nerves originating from the spinal cord (31 pairs
in man)
- each nerve is attached to the cord by short roots
- branches of spinal nerves form plexus or intricate
network of fibers from which the nerves
supplying various parts of the skin, mucosa, and
skeletal muscles emerge
- all spinal nerves are mixed nerves
HEARING
- external ear consisting of the pinna, ear opening
and external auditory canal
- middle ear separated from the external ear by the
tympanic membrane; contains the ear ossicles
and opening from the eustachian tubes.
- inner ear (or labyrinth) composed of body
vestibule, semicircular canals and cochlea
(containing the organ of Corti), the hearing sense
organ innervated by the cranial neve VIII.

SENSE ORGANS ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Muscles, Initiate reflexes, Stimulated

Kinds Location Function
Tendons, initiate muscle By
Joints, sense, or sense Initiate
Pressure Changes in
Proprioceptors Semi- of position and reflexes,
Changes external
circular movement of Skin, sensation of
environment
canal of parts, also called Exteroceptors Mucosa, many kinds
(ex. Heat,
inner ear kinesthesia Ear, Eye (ex. Heat,
cold,
cold, pain,
pressures)
vision)
Initiate
TASTE reflexes,
Changes in initiate
- taste buds the in facial the tongue Visceroceptors internal sensation of
- responds to chemicals; sweet at tongue tip: sour Viscera
(interoceptor) environment many kinds
and salt at tip and sides; bitter at back (ex. Pressure) (ex. Hunger,
sex, nausea,
pressure)
OLFACTION
FUNCTIONS:
 1. Manufacture and secretion of hormones
or chemical messengers stimulating or
inhibiting signals to target cells.
2. Coordination of body activities together
with the nervous system.
ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR
HORMONES
1. Pituitary Gland - located in the sell turcica
of the skull
a. ANTERIOR ADENOHYPOPHYSES
1) Growth hormone (GH) or
somatotrophic hormone (STH)
 promotes normal growth
2) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
or thyrotrophin
 stimulates synthesis and secretion of thyroid
hormones
3) Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone
(ACTH) or Adrenocorticotropin
 stimulates growth of adrenal cortex and
secretion of glucocorticoids
4) Follicle-Stimulating Hormones (FSH)
 in females, stimulates the growth of
Graafian follicles and stimulates follicle cells to
secrete estrogen; in males, stimulates development of
seminiferous tubules and spermatogenesis
5) Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
 in females, brings about complete
maturation of follicle and ovum, required for
ovulation; causes formation of corpus luteum and
stimulates corpus luteum to secrete progesterone
6) Interstitial Cell-Stimulating Hormone
(ICSH)
 in males, stimulates interstitial cells
of testes to secrete testosterone
7) Prolactin or Lactogenic Hormone of
Luteotropin
 promote breast development during
pregnancy; initiates mile secretion after delivery;
stimulates progesterone secretion by corpus luteum
8) Alpha and Beta lipoproteins
 cause release of lipids from adipose cells
b. POSTERIOR NEUROHYPOPHYSES
1) Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) or
Vasopressin
 increases water reabsorption by kidney
tubules; stimulates vasoconstriction and raises blood
pressure
2) Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
 stimulates synthesis and of melanin
depression darkening of skin
3) Oxytocin
 stimulates powerful contractions of pregnant
uterus; stimulates milk ejection of lactating breast;
essential before milk can be removed by suckling
4) Coherin
 regulates peristaltic rhythmicity in intestinal
smooth muscles
2. Pineal Body – located in the midbrain
3. Thyroid - located on the thyroid cartilage below
the larynx
4. Parathyroid – located on the posterior wall of
the thyroid
5. Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans) – located
along the duodenal curve to the spleen
6. Placenta – is an organ that attaches the
developing fetus to the uterine wall. The placenta
offers oxygen and nutrients to growing babies
and eliminates waste products from the baby's
blood.
ROOTS
Roots are cylindrical structures which are
usually located beneath the surface of the soil
TYPE OF ROOTS (BASED ON ORIGIN)
A. Primary root
 B. Secondary roots c. Presence of clinging roots
C. Tertiary roots  Examples old tress
D. Adventitious roots.
2. Food Storage
a. Enlarge
ROOT SYSTEM  Examples: camote, carrots, ube, radish,
cassava
- Refers to the entire mass of underground roots
produced by a plant 3. Photosynthesis
Types: a. Green, aerial roots
A. Fibrous or Diffuse Root System  Example: orchid roots
B. Taproot System
4. Reproduction
a. Formation of Adventitious buds
ROOT ANATOMY  Examples: camote, carrots, ube, radish,
cassava
A. Longitudinal Regions
1. Root Cap Region 5. Protection
2. Meristematic or Embryonic region (Root a. Presence of thorns or spines
Apical Meristem)  Example: tugui
3. Region of Elongation or Region of Cell
Enlargement 6. Nitrogen- Fixation
4. Region of Maturation or Region of Cell a. With root nodules containing nitrogen-
Differentiation fixing bacteria
 Example: peanuts, sitao, batao, patani
In dicots, this region is subdivided into:
a. Root-Hair Zone 7. Aeration
b. Zone of Primary Permanent Tissue a. Presence of pneumatophores
c. Zone of Secondary Tissues  Example: mangrove (Rhizophora)

In monocots, this region is subdivided into:

a. Root-Hair Zone
b. Zone of Primary Permanent Tissues
*Note: There are no secondary tissues present
because monocots, generally, do not have cambia
where secondary tissues are derived
FUNCTIONS OF THE ROOTS:
STEMS
A Stems is a plant organ which is the
continuation of the roots. It is located above the
surface of the soil. The stem with its leaves is called
shoots. All the stems and the leaves of a plant
constitute the shoot system. Stem originates from the
epicotyl and partly from the hypocotyl of the embryo.

A. Principal or Mail Function CLASSIFICATION

1. Anchorage of the plant in the soil
2. Absorption of substances A. BASED ON TOUGHNESS
3. Conduction of absorbed substances. 1. Herbaceous stems
2. Woody stems

B. Modified or Specialized Function

1. Support B. BASED ON LOCATION
a. Presence of brace roots 1. Aerial Stems (Epiterranean Stems)
 Examples: rubber tree, five fingers a. Runners (stolons)
b. Prop roots b. Tendrils (scramblers)
 Examples: corn, pandan
 2. Underground Stems (Subterranean 3. Stele or Vascular Cylinder
Stems) o An inner region composed of primary
a. Rhizomes vascular tissue made up of primary xylem
 Underground, horizontal stem which may be and primary phloem
swollen due to the presence of stored food
 Examples: ginger, bamboo

b. Tubers
 Short, swollen, terminal portions of an FUNCTIONS
underground stems with the stored food
 Example: potato A. PRINCIPAL OR MAIN FUNCTIONS:
c. Bulb 1. Provides mechanical support for leaves and
 Very small piece of the stem tissue other plant organs
surrounded by numerous fleshly leaves 2. Conducts water, mineral salts, and
 Examples: onion, garlic manufactured food
d. Corm 3. Produces new living tissues
 Globose underground stem with thin, papery
leaves on its surface
 Example: gladioluses, gabi B. MODIFIED OR SPECIALIZED
FUNCTIONS:
1. Unusual method of support
STEM STRUCTURE a. Tendrils
 Examples: Cadena de
A. EXTERNAL STRUCTURES amor, ampalaya, squash
1. Nodes b. Photosynthesis
2. Internodes  Example: balloon vine
3. Leaf scar c. Root climbers
4. Bundle scars  Example: creeping ivy
5. Lenticels
6. Buds 2. Photosynthesis
a. Green stems
 Example: stick plant
B. INTERNAL STRUCTURES: b. Phyllodes (dadophylls)
Like in roots, sections through the  Example: cacti
apical meristem show three distinct regions
of meristematic activity: the protoderm, the 3. Absorption of water and mineral salts
ground meristem and the procambium. From a. Uncutinized epidermis
these meristematic tissues, will arise the  Example: digman
primary tissues of the stem.
4. Reproduction
1. Epidermis a. Development of buds in some parts of
o One cell layer derived from the protoderm the stem
composed of cells with thick walls and  Examples: gingers, potato, gabi
covered by a layer of cutin
5. Storage
2. Cortex a. Fleshy, underground stems
o A middle region composed of an outer zone  Examples: ginger, potato, gabi
of collenchyma, an inner zone of
6. Protection
parenchyma and a layer of endodermis
a. Stems are modified into thorns and
consisting of thick-walled cells
spines
 Example: bougainvillea, rose, pomelo, b. b. Dentate
calamansi c. Lobed
d. Scalloped
e. Cleft

- Base may be:

a. Rounded
b. Truncate
c. Cordate
LEAVES d. Sagittate
e. Auriculate
Leaves are expanded and flattened green f. Peltate
parts of the plant that grows out from the nodes of the
stem. B. MONOCOT LEAF
1. Leaf Sheath
- the support of the leaf which may
PARTS OF A LEAF completely envelope the stem, of a small
flap of delicate issue extending upward
A. DICOT LEAF called the ligule.
1. Petiole or Leaf Stalk
- Cylindrical or flattened structure which
2. Leaf Blade
supports and holds leaf upright
- Thin expanded portion above the sheath
- Conducts materials to and from the leaves
- May have two small, leaf-like outgrowths at VARIATION IN LEAF STRUCTURE
its base called the stipules
- Leaves without a petiole are called sessile A. LEAF BLADE CONFIGURATION
leaves. 1. Simple leaf
- the blade consists of one-piece
2. Lamina or Leaf Blade
- The green expanded and flattened part of the 2. Compound leaf
leaf - the blade consists of divided into segments
- Variable external features are its overall called leaflets or pinnae, the stalk of each
shape, apex, margin, and base. known as petiolule.
- Shape may be:
a. Linear
b. Cordate B. VENATION - arrangement of veins
c. Ovate 1. Netted or reticulate venation
d. Deltoid - veins branch profusely and from a network
e. Reniform over the blade; found in dicots
f. Orbicular
g. Flabellate 2. Parallel Venation
h. Cuneate - Veins do not form a network
- They are found in monocots
- Apex may be:
a. Pointed
b. Rounded C. PHYLLOTAXY
c. Emarginate 1. Alternate (Spinal)
d. Caudate 2. Opposite
e. Flattened 3. Whorled (Verticillate)
- Margin may be:
a. Entire
VARIATION IN LEAF ORIENTATION 2. Collenchyma Cells
3. Parenchyma Cells
1. Dorsiventral or Bifacial Leaves 4. Vascular Bundle
- Leaves are horizontally oriented - Occupies the center of the midrib which may
- The upper or ad-axial surface receiving be circular or crescent-shaped in a cross section
direct sunlight

2. Isobilateral or Equifacial Leaves

- Leaves are vertically oriented FUNCTIONS OF THE LEAVES
- The two surfaces receiving direct sunlight A. PRINCIPAL OR MAIN FUNCTIONS
1. Photosynthesis
2. Transpiration
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF LEAVES
B. PRINCIPAL OR MAIN FUNCTIONS.
A. LEAF BLADE 1. Support
1. Dorsiventral Leaves a. Tendrils
a. Epidermis – Example: garlic vine a. Aeration
– upper and lower outermost layer Example: rattan
or of more rectangular cells whose b. Supporting leaf bases
outer walls are cutinized less. – Example: Banana
– Randomly scattered are pores or
stomata apertures associated with a 2. Aeration
pair of kidney-shaped a. Enlarged petiole (floats)
achlorophyllous cells, the guard – Example: water hyacinth
cells.
 Generally, with more 3. Absorption
stomata on the lower a. Thin, uncutinized epidermis
epidermis – Example: digman
b. Insectivorous Leaves
b. Mesophyll – Example: pitcher plant, Venus fly
– Photosynthetic parenchymatous trap
region between the upper and lower
epidermis 4. Attraction of Pollinators
– Due to presence of chlorophyll, a. Brightly colored leaf blades
cells are called chlorenchyma – Examples: bougainvillea, Dona
Aurora
2. Isobilateral Leaves - b. Peralloid bracts
a. Epidermis – Example: anthurium, calla lily
– similar to that of the dorsiventral
leaves 5. Reproduction
a. Adventitious buds at certain parts
b. Mesophyll of the leaves
– Spongy layer occurring between – Example: katakataka
two palisade layers located beneath
the upper epidermis and above the 6. Protection
lower epidermis a. Bud scales
– Example: rubber tree
c. Vascular Tissue b. Motile leaves
– Same as in the dorsiventral leaves – Example: makahiya

B. MIDRIB
1. Upper and lower Epidermis c. Leaves reduced to spines
 – Example: cactus

7. Storage
a. Fleshy, thickened blades
– Example: sabila
b. Bulbs
– Example: Onion, garlic

8. Additional Photosynthesis
a. Expanded leaflike petiole
– Example: pomelo
b. Expanded leaflike stipule
– Example: rose