URINARY SYSTEM  Unlike the epithelium lining most organs, transitional
epithelium--capable of flattening and distending and does not
Why do dogs urinate on fire hydrants?
 Besides “having to go,” they are marking--territory with
chemicals called pheromones in their urine.
 It’s a form--communication, in which they are “saying” with
odors--yard is theirs and other dogs should stay away.
 Dogs--urinate on fence posts, trees, car tires, and many other
objects in addition to fire hydrants.
 Urination in dogs, as in people--usually a voluntary process
controlled by the brain.
 process of forming urine, which occurs--kidneys, occurs
constantly and is not under voluntary control.
What happens to all the urine that forms in the kidneys?
 It passes from the kidneys through the other organs of the
urinary system, starting with the ureters.
Kidneys
 Urine--formed by the kidneys, which filter many substances out
of blood, allow--blood to reabsorb needed materials, and use--
remaining materials to form urine.
 human body normally has two paired kidneys, although it is
possible to get by quite well with just one kidney.
Ureters
 As shown in Figure 19.4.219.4.2, ureters-- tube-like structures
that connect--kidneys with the urinary bladder.
 paired structures, with one ureter--each kidney.
 In adults, ureters--between 25 and 30 cm (10 to 12 in.) long and
about 3 to 4 mm (about 1/8 in.)--diameter.
Urinary Bladder
 Figure 19.4.219.4.2: Besides the kidneys, the urinary system
includes two ureters
 urinary bladder
 urethra.
 Each ureter arises in the pelvis of a kidney (Figure 19.4.319.4.3). It
then passes down-- side of the Kidney and finally enters the back of
the bladder
Figure 19.4.319.4.3: Urine collects in the renal pelvis which is continuous
with the ureter. The ureter then carries the urine from the kidney to the
urinary bladder.
 innermost
walls of theureters are composedlayer--special typeofofdifferent
of multiple layers epithelium, calledtheAstransitional
types of tissues. You can see the layers in Figure 19.4.419.4.4.
produce mucus.
 It lines much of the urinary system, including the renal pelvis,
bladder, and much of the urethra in addition--ureters.
 Transitional epithelium allows--organs-- stretch and expand as
they fill with urine or allow urine to pass through.
 Next layer of the ureter walls is made up of loose connective
tissue containing elastic fibers, nerves, and blood and lymphatic
vessels.
 After this layer--two layers of smooth muscles, an inner circular
layer, and an outer longitudinal layer.
 smooth muscle layers can contract in waves of peristalsis to
propel urine down-- ureters from the kidneys to the urinary
bladder.
 outermost layer--ureter walls consists of fibrous tissue.
 Figure 19.4.419.4.4: This illustration shows a cross-section of a
ureter.
 The white space inside--lumen through which urine passes.
 From the lumen outward, the layers of the ureter wall include
transitional epithelium, connective tissue, two layers of muscle
fibers, and an outer layer of fibrous tissue.
 hollow, muscular, and stretchy organ--rests--pelvic floor.
 It collects and stores urine from the kidneys before urine--
eliminated through urination. As shown in Figure 19.4.519.4.5,
urine enters the urinary bladder from the ureters through two
ureteral openings on either side--back wall--bladder.
 Urine leaves--bladder through a sphincter called the internal
urethral sphincter.
o sphincter relaxes and opens, it allows urine--flow out--
bladder and into the urethra.
 lined with transitional epithelium, which can flatten out and
stretch as needed as the bladder fills with urine.
 The next layer (lamina propria)--layer of loose connective
tissue, nerves, and blood and lymphatic vessels.
 followed by a submucosa layer, which connects the lining of
the bladder--detrusor muscle in the walls of the bladder.
 outer covering of the bladder--peritoneum, which is a smooth
layer of epithelial cells that lines-- abdominal cavity and covers
most abdominal organs
 detrusor muscle in the wall of the bladder--made of smooth
muscle fibers--controlled by both the autonomic and somatic
nervous systems.
o bladder fills, the detrusor muscle automatically relaxes
to allow it to hold more urine.
 bladder--about half full, stretching of the walls triggers--
sensation of needing to urinate.
 individual--ready to void, conscious nervous signals cause--
detrusor muscle--contract and the internal urethral sphincter to
relax and open.
epithelium.expelled out of the bladder and into
a result, urine--forcefully
the urethra.

Figure 19.4.519.4.5: This diagram of the urinary bladder shows
(a) a cross-sectional drawing of the entire bladder
(b) a microscopic cross-section of the tissues in the wall of the bladder.
Urethra
 tube--connects--urinary bladder--external urethral orifice, which
is the opening--urethra on the surface of the body. As shown in
Figure 19.4.619.4.6,
 urethra--person with XY chromosomes (anatomically male)
travels through-- penis, so it is much longer than the urethra--
person with XX chromosomes (anatomically female).
 male person--averages about 20 cm (8 in.) long,
 Female averages only about 4.8 cm (1.9 in.) long.
 XY individual, the urethra carries semen as well as urine, but--
the XX individual, it carries only urine.
 Like the ureters and bladder, the proximal (closer to the bladder)
two-thirds--urethra--lined with transitional epithelium.
 The distal (farther from the bladder) third of the urethra is lined
with mucus-secreting epithelium.
 mucus helps protect--epithelium from urine, which is corrosive.
 Below the epithelium--loose connective tissue, and below that
are layers of smooth muscle--continuous with the muscle layers
of the urinary bladder.
 bladder contracts--forcefully expel urine, the smooth muscle of
the urethra relaxes--allow the urine-- pass through.
 In order for urine to leave--body through--external urethral
orifice, external urethral sphincter must relax and open.
 sphincter--striated muscle--controlled by the somatic nervous
system, so it is under conscious, voluntary control-- most people
(exceptions are infants, some elderly people, and patients with
certain injuries or disorders).
 muscle can be held in a contracted state and hold--urine until the
person is ready--urinate.
 Following urination, smooth muscle lining--Urethra
automatically contracts to re-establish muscle tone, and
individual consciously contracts--external urethral sphincter to
close--external urethral opening.
 Figure 19.4.619.4.6: The urinary bladder and urethra are colored
brown to illustrate them in
o
(a) female anatomy and
(b) male anatomy.
 Notice how much longer the male urethra is because it travels
through the length of the Penis to reach the external urethral orifice.
FUNCTIONS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM
 Waste products removed from--body with the formation and
elimination of urine include many water-soluble metabolic
products.
 main waste products--urea, a by-product of protein catabolism,
and uric acid, a by-product of nucleic acid--catabolism.
 Excess water and mineral ions--also eliminated in urine.
 the elimination of waste products such as these, the urinary
system has several other vital functions. These include:
o maintaining homeostasis of mineral ions--extracellular
fluid.
o ions--either excreted in urine or returned--blood as
needed--maintain the proper balance.
o regulating--acid-base balance--body.
o For example, when pH is too low (blood is too acidic),
the kidneys excrete less bicarbonate (which is basic) in
the urine.
o When pH is too high (blood is too basic), the opposite
occurs and more bicarbonate is excreted--urine.
 controlling--volume of extracellular fluids, including--blood,
helps maintain blood pressure.
 kidneys control fluid volume and blood pressure by excreting
more or less salt and water in urine.
Control of the Urinary System
formation--urine must be closely regulated--maintain body-wide
homeostasis.
Several endocrine hormones help control--function--urinary system,
including antidiuretic hormone, parathyroid hormone, and aldosterone.
 Antidiuretic hormone, also called vasopressin, secreted by
hypothalamus.
 One of its main roles--conserving body water.
 released when the body--dehydrated and causes--kidneys to
excrete less water in urine.
 Parathyroid hormone--secreted by the parathyroid glands.
o works--regulate the balance of mineral ions--body
through its effects on several organs, including the
kidneys.
o stimulates the kidneys--excrete less calcium and more
phosphorus--urine.
 Aldosterone--secreted by the cortex--adrenal glands, which rest
atop--kidneys, as shown in Figure 19.2.319.2.3.
o Plays a central role--regulating blood pressure through
its effects--kidneys.
o It causes--kidneys to excrete less sodium and water in
urine.
Once urine forms--excreted from the body--process of urination.
Process--controlled by both the autonomic and the somatic nervous
systems.
As the bladder fills with urine, it causes--autonomic nervous system to
signal a muscle--bladder wall to contract and the sphincter between--
bladder and urethra to relax and open.
forces urine out of the bladder and through the urethra.
Another sphincter at the distal end of the urethra--under voluntary control.
relaxes under--influence of the somatic nervous system, it allows urine to
leave--body through the external urethral opening.