BIOLOGY  Relay

 Transmitter if message
BIO – life
via nerves or hormones
LOGY/LOGOS – study or both to the effector
- NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
ANATOMY/PHYSIOLOGY – body  Process when the receptor
parts/organs/system detects change and initiate
ABNORMAL – Pathophysiology – diseases response that will go against
the change
HISTOLOGY – tissue  E.g.,
 Blood glucoses rise
after sugar meal
BIO2 – General Anatomy/Physiology of Body –  Exercises create
Normal functions metabolic heat which
raises the body
Unit 1
temperature
Homeostasis and Feedback mechanism  36 to 37.5° - Normal
body temp
HOMEOSTASIS
 Lowers water
- Ability of human body to remain when temp goes
equilibrium up
- State of balance (dehydration)
- 3 components:  Blood vessels
 Receptor – free nerve ending in [Vasa
the skin Dilation
 Integrator – such as brain /Dilated]
 Effector – such as muscle or a o Loosen
gland up
 Cold weather
FEEDBACK MECHANISM
 Body temp goes
- Process of nervous and hormonal down (less than
regulation by which the body remains 36)
levels. [Hypothermic/h
- It is done to either increase or dampen ypothermia]
the change in the system.  Blood vessel
[Vaso
- Components of Feedback Loops: Constriction]
 Stimulus o Tighten
 Something in the  Pocari Sweat (high
environment that causes electrolyte) good for
change fever
 Receptor
 Cells or tissues that
receives stimulus - POSITIVE FEEDBACK
  Process by which the stimulus - Lines outer and inner surface of the
causes a response which will body
increase the stimulation - Most types: cells are compactly
 E.g., arranged and rest on a basement
 The contraction of membrane.
uterine during childbirth - Functions:
 Chloasma –  Protection
Mask of  Absorption
pregnancy;  Sensation
Darken of Skin  Reproduction
 Breastfeed – colostrum - Types
(nutrients essential for A. The number of cell layers
baby) 1. Simple Epithelium
 Hypothalamus - Made up of one layer of
– controls cells
hormones - Tunica mucosa of the
 Prolactin – digestive tube lining of
Hormone for the glands
milk production 2. Pseudo Stratified
 Oxytocin – - Made up of one layer of
Milk ejection; cells but different
stimulate heights, thus showing a
smooth muscle stratified appearance
 A ripening apple - Inner lining of trachea
releases the volatile 3. Stratified
plant hormone ethylene - Made up of more than
two layers of cells
- Epidermis

B. Based on the shape of the cell

1. Squamous Epithelium
- Outermost layer of
Unit 2
the skin
Tissues
2. Cuboidal Epithelium
- Group of similar cells performing a
- Inner lining of the
definite function.
digestive tube
- Animals: four major types of tissue
C. Based on function
 Epithelial
1. Sensory epithelium
 Connective
- Specialized for
 Muscular
reception of
 Nervous
stimulus
- Tongue, eye, skin
2. Glandular epithelium
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
 - Specialized for
secretion
- Glands
3. Germinal epithelium
- Specialized for
production of germ
cells
- Gonads (ovary and
testis
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
1. All develop from the mesenchyme
found in the embryo
2. Cells are loosely arranged and are
supported by a solid or liquid matrix
3. Solid matrix
 may contain other cells or
fibers produced by the
connective tissue cells
4. Functions:
1. Connects one part of another
part
2. Support
3. Bind parts together
4. Transports substances
5. Fills spaces within or between
organs
5. Types
A. Loose Connective Tissue
- Fibers in the matrix are loosely
arranged
B. Dense Connective Tissue
- Fibers in the matrix are
compactly arranged
C. Specialized Connective Tissue
1. Cartilage
- Cells are called
chondrocytes and lie
within a space called
lacuna
- Matrixes contain fibers
2. Bone or Osseous Tissue
- Cells are called bone
cells or osteocytes, each
located in a space
called lacuna
- Lacunae arranged
around a cavity called
Harversian canal and
communicated with one
another through
canaliculated
- Unit structure is
Haversian system
composed of the
haversian canal and all
the lacunae with bone
cells surrounding it
3. Hematopoietic Tissue
- Involved in formation
and maturation of
blood cells
4. Blood
- Transport substances
MUSCULAR TISSUE
- Specialized for contraction
- Cells are called Muscle cells or muscle
fibers and are enclosed by the
sarcolemma.
- Sarcoplasm
 Contains contractile fibrils
called Myofibrils
- Muscle fiber contraction involves
interaction between filaments or myosin
and actin
- Types:
 Smooth Involuntary muscle or
Visceral Muscle
 Striated Voluntary muscle of
Skeletal Muscle
 Striated Involuntary muscle or
Cardiac Muscle
NERVOUS TISSUE
 - Specialized for the reception of stimuli
and transmission of impulses
- Majority of neural tissue in the body is
concentrated in the brain and spinal cord
(Central Nervous System)
- Types:
 Neurons or nerve cells which
transmit signals
 Neuroglia or supporting cells
 Provide supporting
framework for neural
tissue
 Act as phagocytes
(defending the neural
tissue from pathogens,
and help in the repair
of injuries)
 Regulate the
composition of the
interstitial fluid and
isolate and protect the
cell membranes of the
neurons
- Parts:
 Soma or cell body containing
the nucleus
 Protoplasmic processes in the
for it:
 Dendrite – transmit
impulses towards the
soma
 Axon – transmit
impulses from soma to
synapse (specialized
intercellular junction
where the axon ends)
Unit 3
Integumentary System
- INTEGUMENT – covering
- Components
 Skin – largest organ in the body
 Hair
 Nails
 Glands
Sebaceous gland - sweat/oil
- Functions:
 Physical Protection - 1st line of
Defense against INFECTION
 Sensation
 Secretion
 Excretion
 Respiration
 Prevention of excessive loss of
body fluid
 Nourishment of the young
 Associated with Vitamin D
synthesis – 6 to 7 am
 Calcium = bone
Calcium will remain in
the blood if there's not
enough Vitamin D =
Brittle Bones - prone in
fracture
Priority: Safety
 Regulation of body Temperature
 Locomotion in lower animals
 Immunity
 Wound Healing - collagen
SKIN FACTS
- Weighs 20lbs. or more depending on the
size of the body
- Used to determine body fat
- 2 main regions:
 Epidermis
 Dermis
PARTS
EPIDERMIS
- 1st major skin region (outside) (outer
most layer)
- Composed of stratified squamous
epithelium
- Keratinization
 Process in which new cells
(with keratin) push old cells to
surface
 - Libag – Dead skin cells
- 40 – 56 days for new
cells to reach surface
- Layers:
 Stratum corneum
o Outermost layers of flat,
dead cells that re shed off at
intervals
o Responsible for variation in
skin thickness
 Stratum Lucidum
o Translucent layer here nails
originated (palm of the
hands, fingertips, and sole
of feet.
 Stratum granulosum
o Several layers of cells filled
with granules containing
keratohyalin (keratin),
nerve endings, and
epidermal pigments
 Stratum spinosum
o Layers with cells slightly
separated by tissue fluid but
joined by delicate
extensions of cytoplasm
(skin strength and
flexibility)
 Stratum Basale (germinativum)
o Layers of actively dividing
cells which replaces the
cells that are shed off.
o Primarily made up of basal
cells
- Melanocytes:
 Found in the lower epidermis
that produces melanin which
give the skin its color
 Melanin - Skin Color; different
quantity in individuals
o More melanin =
darker skin
 Produced by melanocytes (same
quantity human body)
Glutathione - liver supplement
Side effect - brighter skin; more
prone to skin abrasion
 Ranges from yellow to reddish-
brown to black
 Responsible for hair and eye color
 Provides protection against UV light
 Amt. produced determined by
genetics, UV light, hormones
 Freckles are accumulation of
melanin
 Albinism is absence of melanin
 Skin Color and Variations
o Determined by:
- Pigments
- Genetics
- Blood circulation
- Thickness of
stratum corneum
DERMIS
- Composed of collagen (skin repair) and
elastic fibers for strength and flexibility
- Extremely vascular (contains abundant
blood vessels)
- Contains abundant touch receptors
- Provides fingerprint patterns
GLANDS
- Skin Glands is Hyperactive - more sweat
oil There are some conditions wherein
the body produces so much sweat
- Hyper Hidrosis (Pasmado)
a. Eccrine
 Tubular coiled glands that open
in sweat pore on the surface of
the skin secreting a clear fluid
b. Apocrine
  Very large branched tubular
glands found in axillary,
mammary, and genital areas
producing typical body odors.
c. Ceruminous
 Large, branched glands usually
opening through the hair sheaths
along with sebaceous glands
d. Sebaceous
 Small alveolar glands usually
formed closed to hairs and
opening on the upper portion of
the hair follicle
 Absent on palms and soles
e. Mammary
 Milk secreting, compound
alveolar gland which fully
develop only during pregnancy
HAIR
- Strands of tightly – packed dead and
keratinized cells originating from the Unit 4
hair follicle
Skeletal system
- With arrector pili (goosebumps) (smooth
muscle) attached to it responsible for
elevating the hair upon contraction
Skin Abnormalities
FUNGAL INFECTION
- caused by Fungus
TINEA INFECTION
- Ringworm
1. Corporis - upper torso; common in
back
2. Capitis - Scalp
3. Unguium - nails - FUNCTIONS
4. Pedis - feet
5. Cruris - buttocks or groin
How to manage ringworm
1. Anti-fungal - Griseofulvin (oral)
2. (Acute) Topical Medication
(pinapahid) - Clotrimazole,
Miconazole 1&2 Both if needed
3. Hygiene Regiment - use your own
PARASITIC INFECTION
Scabies - Brown to Black Thread like
borrow
Over the counter medication - Kwell
1. make sure to use warm shower before
applying
2. Apply thinly (do not use it on Face/Scalp)
Note: do not shower in 12 hrs., After 12 hrs.
shower in warm shower. Repeat after 1
week but with Doctor Advise
Too much Kwell may cause seizure
- COMPOSE of
1. BONES
 functional Unit
2. CARTILAGES
 rubber padding: it
covers/support bones
(specifically long bones);
Tumor
3. TENDONS
 connective tissue; Muscle to
Bone
4. LIGAMENTS
 connective tissue; Bone
Tissue to Bone
 It provides supporting framework of
body
  Protects some viscera, brain, spinal
cord, sense organs, and the
hemopoietic system
 Provides lever for muscle
 It is Hemopoiesis
 it allows our body to stand
 movement
 it protects our vital organs
 production of blood cells (RBC)
 storage of mineral like Calcium,
phosphorus, and fats
SPINE - specific bone allows our body
to stand
WHITE BLOOD CELL - soldier of the
body.
o Low WBC leads to infection
= Immunocompromise - mas
mabilis mahawa
o WBC COUNT: 3.4-9.6 billion
cells/liter
PLATELETS - Blood Clotting
o There's a problem in the Bone-
there will be also decrease in
Platelets
-Prone to Bleeding, eventually
Shock. Bone Illness

Our muscles attach to bone to allows our 1. Infection (WBC)

body to move 2. Bleeding (PLATELETS)

MUSCLE - contraction 3. Anemia (RBC)

- NEWBORN - 270-350 bone, average of

SKULL - protects brain 300 ADULT - 206 bones

RIBCAGES - supports lungs, heart,

diaphragm DIVISION OF THE ENDO SKELETON
Inside long bone - is tumor, Bone (HUMAN)
marrow. Production of RBC -
Erythropoiesis 1. AXIAL
If a patient has bone cancer or bone - located on the center, vertical bones, midline
illness - there will be decrease in RBC, - Skull
decrease in hemoglobin and oxygen. - Hyoid Bone
(RBC carries hemoglobin carries - Vertebral Column
oxygen) - Ribs
Results in: - Sternum
1. Fatigue
 Skull
2. Anemia/ Pallor(maputla) o Cranial Bones - Frontal,
RBC COUNT Parietal, Occipital,
Temporal
MALE: 4.35- 5.65 trillion cells/MCL o Auditory Ossicles (ear) -
FEMALE: 3.92 - 5.13 trillion cells/MCL Smallest Bones

1. Malleus (Hammer)

2. Incus (Anvil)
 3. Stapes (Stirrups) (smallest)
 Thoracic Cages
o protects heart, lungs,
Internal Organ Sternum
o Ribs - 12 pairs (24)
o Vertebral Column - Back
bone
~Cervical (most important; controls the
breeding) - 7 bones
2. MALE PELVIS is deep,
and funnel shaped with
narrow pubic arch
3. FEMALE PELVIS is
shallow, and broad. With
wider and flaring pubic
arch
GAINT
- Manner of walking

~Thoracic - 12 " Unit 5

~ Lumbar - 5 " Muscular System

~Sacrum - 1 " - 640 muscles

- takes 40% of the body mass
~Coccyx - 1 " - SARTORIUS
Crunchy Breakfast - 7  longest
 Hip down to knee
Tasty Lunch - 12  To twist pull the thigh outward
- STAPEDIUS
Light Dinner - 5
 smallest
- Facial Bones - Hyoid [Jaw- helps for  ear - It aids hearing (for auditory
Masticate(chew) and speaking] purposes)
- GLUTEUS MAXIMUS
- Ribcages
 biggest
- Pelvic Bone  Buttocks
 Supports our body to sit or we fall
- Spinal Column
 Aids our body for walking and running

FUNCTION
2. APPERPENDICULAR
1. Movement
- Pectoral Girdle 2. Posture
- Upper Extremity Bones 3. Heat Production
- Pelvic Girdle (or Coxae) a. maintain muscle tone; produce
- Lower Extremity Bone friction and friction produces
heat (cold weather); every time
JOINTS a person age, everything goes
COMPARISON down except body fat (cold
intolerance)
1. MALE SKELETON is o MUSCLE ATROPHY
larger and heavier than - Decrease in muscle
FEMALE tone
 o GERIATRIC PATIENT
- 65 above yrs. of age
4. Protects the bones and internal organs
Muscles Classification Under Function
1. VOLUNTARY MUSCLE
- muscles that can be control intentionally
2. INVOLUNTARY MUSCLE
- can't be move intentionally
- can't control Example: Cardiac muscle,
Diaphragm (aids lungs for respiration)
STRUCTURE
1. STRIATED - stripes
2. SMOOTH - no stripes/striation
3 TYPES OF MUSCLE
1. SMOOTH INVOLUNTARY OR VISCERAL
MUSCLE
- Located in muscle layer of Visceral
Muscle
- Controlled by autonomic nervous
system via autonomic motor neuron in
autonomic, spinal, and some cranial
nerves
- feels fatigue, but very slowly
- found in circulatory system
- blood vessel can constrict and dilate
because of the smooth Constricted - bad
flow of blood (prone to stroke - less
blood in brain)
- Dilated
 good flow of blood
- Digestive System
 controls digestion
- Defecation
 eliminate feces from body
- Peristalsis
 Process of bowel movement
- Respiratory System
 Diaphragm
- Urinary System
 Bladder (30 ml per hour
Less - Polygyria (Diabetes)
More - Oliguria)
STRIATE INVOLUNTARY OR CARDIAC
MUSCLE (heart)
- Control is identical to that of smooth
muscle
- involuntary muscles
- aids the heart for pumping
- each has central nuclei/nuclear
- do not feel fatigue, unless there’s an
abnormality
Normal blood pressure -120/80
Normal Pulse rate - 60-100
MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION
- clog a certain part of heart dies
- Cause of death: Multiple Organ failure due
to lack of oxygen
- Management: coronary artery bypass graft
or CABIG (kukuha ng blood vessel sa tuhod
para gumawa ng bagong tubo para magflow
sa ibang part ang dugo)
STRIATED VOLUNTARY OR SKELETAL
MUSCLE
- Attached to the skeleton
- Controlled by voluntary nervous system
via somatic motor nerves in spinal and
in some cranial nerves
- Voluntary
- Contain many nuclei
- Fibers are long and cylindrical
- Tendons connects bone to muscle
 - feels fatigue Concept behind making
larger muscle
- damage (will heal but bigger and better)
and repair
SKELETAL MUSCLE
- Typically spindle-shaped and composed
of long muscle cells referred to as
muscle fibers bound together by a
connective tissue called FASCIA
- Each muscle contains several muscle
bundle or fasciculi
- Rich supplied with blood vessel which
provide nutrients to and remove waste
from the muscle
MUSCLE FIBER CONTRACTION
a. Electrical energy transmitted along
transverse tubules
b. Calcium ion released inactivates which
normally blocks interaction between
myosin and actin
c. ATP released causes actin to slide along
myosin filaments (contraction)
TYPES OF MUSCLES TO ACTION
a. Flexor
- Bends a part towards another
b. Extensor
- Straightens a part
c. Adductor
- Draws a part towards the
median line
d. Abductor
- Draws a part away from the
median line
e. Levator
- Raises a part
f. Depressor
- Lowers a part
g. Constrictor
- Closes an opening
h. Dilator
- Works against a constrictor
i. Pronator
- Bends back of hand forward
j. Supinator
- Bends the palm forward
k. Rotator
- Turn a part
TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH MUSCLE
AND MUSCLE CONTRACTION
1. Hypertrophy
- Physical enlargement of a
muscle due to addition of more
myofibrils to the muscle fibers
making them swell
2. Atrophy
- Reduction in the size of a
muscle due to the decrease in
the number of myofibrils in the
muscle fibers
3. Treppe (Staircase Phenomenon)
- When a muscle has contracted a
few times, subsequent
contractions are more powerful
- This may be related to the
release of increased quantities
of Calcium Ions
4. Shivering
- Rapid, repetitive, involuntary
skeletal muscle contractions
stimulated by hypothalamic
temperature-regulating center
5. Cramps
- Causes by sustained muscle
contraction
6. Rigor Mortis
- Strong association of actin and
myosin after death due to ATP
depletion.
 - Subsequent bacterial
decomposition of muscle
proteins brings about relaxation
- Body enters rigor state about 24
hours after death and comes out
of rigor about 24 hour later)
CHON (Protein - Carbon, Hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen) - 4 calories
FATS - 4 calories]
- Keto Diet - not advisable for those who
have heart disease (diet with healthy
meats, no carbohydrates)

- First process of Chemical digestion: Mouth

BURSAE
- Small sacs lined with sinusoid membrane
and contained synovial fluid
- Located whenever pressure is exerted over
moving parts like between skin and bone,
tendons and bone, muscles or ligaments and
bones.
- Acts as cushion relieving pressure between
moving parts
Unit 2
(Saliva amylase - specific enzyme inside the
mouth)
Saliva amylase - from salivary glands -
breakdown Carbohydrates (CHO)
Gastroesophageal reflux - acid from the stomach
goes to esophagus and mouth
2. Absorption of digested food
– emasculation
3. Elimination of undigested food

Digestive System PARTS

FUNCTION 1. Digestive Tube
- Starting from the mouth and ending
1. Ingestion of Food in the anus
- swallowing or mastication (happen in a. Mouth
Mouth)  Anterior opening of the
tube for the entrance of
- breakdown foods into smaller portion
food
2. Digestion of Food  Surrounded by lips
b. Oral cavity
a. Mechanical digestion  Cavity immediately
- physical digestion/ movement posterior to the mouth and
- Mastication - teeth, lateral incisors bounded by the
- Grinding o Cheeks
- Mashing o Tongue
- Mixing - tongue (taste and mixing o Hard and soft palate
foods) o Teeth
- Once the food reaches esophagus, it o Tonsils
called BOLUS c. Pharynx
 Posterior part of the oral
b. Chemical digestion cavity for passage of food
and air
- aid of Acid (Gastric Juices), enzymes
d. Esophagus
[metabolizes
 Collapsible muscular tube
CHO - 9 calories extending from the
 pharynx through an
opening in the diaphragm
(hiatus) to the stomach
 25 cm long and 0.13 in
diameter
 Secretes mucus and
facilitate passage of food
e. Stomach
 Highly muscular pouch
found in the epigastric and
left hypochondriac
portions of the abdominal
cavity.
 Divided into a fundus
(upper portion towards
the left), a body (central
portion), and the pylorus
(antrum) or constricted
lower portion
 With a lesser curvature
(upper right border) and
greater curvature (lower
left border)
 Provided with sphincter:
o Cardiac Sphincter – this
guards the opening of the
esophagus and stomach
o Pyloric Sphincter – guards
the opening of the pylorus
into the duodenum
 Where food id partially
digested and stored
prior to passage into
the duodenum
f. Small Intestine
 Longest part of the
digestive tube
approximately 6.1 meters
in length and 2.5 cm in
diameter
 Divided into three
portions
o Anterior duodenum – 20
cm
o Middle jejunum – 2.4 m
o Posterior ileum – 3.6 m
Receives secretion from
the liver, gallbladder,
and pancreas
 Site of final digestion of
food and absorption of
digested food
g. Large Intestine
 most posterior part
approximately 1.5 m long
and 6.3 cm in diameter
 Caecum
o First 5 – 7.6 cm
 Colon
o Ascending,
transverse,
descending, and
sigmoid
 Rectum
o 17.7 or 20.3 cm
 For water and Na ion
absorption and temporary
storage of fecal matter
h. Anus
 Terminal opening of the
digestive tube for
defecation
2. Digestive Glands
- Responsible for secretion of
digestive juices containing enzymes
for digestion of food
a. Salivary Glands
1. Parotid Glands
o Below the ear
2. Sub maxillary Gland
o Floor of the oral
cavity close to the
angle of the jaw
3. Sublingual Gland
o Floor of the cavity
under the tongue
b. Gastric Glands
 Microscopic glands found
in the gastric mucosa
 Secrete gastric juices
provided with enzyme
c. Goblet cells
  Microscopic unicellular 1. Simple sugar from carbohydrates
glands found in the 2. Amino Acids from proteins
intestinal mucosa 3. Fatty acids and glycerol from lipids
 Secrete intestinal juice or 4. Nucleotides from nucleic acid
succusentericus with
enzymes
d. Liver ~LECTURE NOTES~
 Largest gland divided into
lobes DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Functions:
1. Carbohydrate metabolism –
glycogenesis,
gluconeogenesis,
glycogenesis
2. Fat metabolism –
ketogenesis, synthesis of
glycerides, phospholipids,
and cholesterol; storage of
Fats
3. Protein metabolism – various
protein synthesis,
deamination, urea formation
4. Secrets bile – important for
the emulsification of fats
prior to digestion and serve
as a medium for excretion of
cholesterol and bile pigments
5. Decontaminates various
substances
6. Vitamin metabolism stores
vitamin A, D, K, and B12
synthesis Vitamin B3
e. Pancreas -small intestine
 Large lobulated gland
which is both an
endocrine and exocrine
gland
 Pancreatic cells connected
with pancreatic dust
 Secrete pancreatic juice
and enzymes

3. Accessory Parts
- Like lips, teeth, tongue, which aid in
the physical digestion of food. -large intestine
DIGESTION Structures inside
- Physical and chemical conversion of
1. MOUTH
food to simple absorbable forms
 •2 digestion - Mechanical and Chemical
b. pepsin - helps metabolizing lipids
•Salivary Glands - Salivary Amylase -
breakdown CHO and Starch
5. INTESTINES
•Epiglottis a. Small
- 20 ft long
•Teeth - as we age everything goes down, - contains Villi
maubos ung ngipin - increases the surface area; facilitate
2. PHARYNX peristalsis; helps in Absorption (starts in
small intestine)
3. ESOPHAGUS -80 percent water of Chyne; vitamins;
• 10 inches long structure mineral; CHO; CHON; FATS

• Bolus LYPASE- Aids in metabolization of Fats

• Produce mucus - lubrication (to avoid
b. Large
scarring)
- 5ft long
Peristalsis - pinaprime/ pinipiga para - absorbs the remaining 20 percent of water
mapunta sa stomach If there's a reflux of from Chyne -stool - poops
acid - (between the stomach and esophagus
the esophageal spinter is not working - Colon Cancer - problem with the 20
properly) - GERD [gastroesophageal reflux percent of water (watery stool)
disease, or chronic acid reflux] -Fermenting - remaining CHO; additional
protein breaks down
1. STOMACH
• J shape structure
Characteristics of Stool each segment
• produces 2 Gastric Juices
Ascending Colon
a. Hydrochloric Acid - same potent as
Chyne (watery stool)- transverse Colon
muriatic acid
(semi-form
- function: fights bacteria, fungi, and viruses
- descending colon (formed)
in the bolus (to avoid Gastro Entreaties -
- Rectum (temporary storage of solid waste)
inflammation in stomach
What holds large intestine –
-common cause: E-coli/Escherichia coli) -
Mesentery (chicarong bulaklak)
BOLUS – CHYNE (Food + hydrochloric +
pepsin + bolus)
6. Accessory Organs

If there is a problem in Pyloric sphincter -

LIVER
causes vomiting
- help the digestion
- production of Bile (Emulsification of fats)
Rugae- to avoid gastric ulcer, protects the
-Pag di nadigest ung stool (Fatty stool -
lining of the stomach (too much
Steatorrhea)
Hydrochloric acid, rugae may become
-breakdown/ kills old RBC (lifespan of RBC
thinner and wound leading to ulcer)
- 90-110 days or 110- 130 days)
Helicobacter Pylori - No. 1 causes of ulcer
Best recommendation of Donating Blood is
every 3 months
- Liver Cirrhosis

GALLBLADDER
- storage of bile that being produce by liver
- Gallbladder stones - will remove
gallbladder
-stones came from too much/less fat deposit,
vitamin c (max.2000) intake, and Calcium
intake

Pancreas - produces insulin

Diabetes Mellitus 1 - bata or juvenile
concept
Diabetes Mellitus 2 - Adult concept -
sedentary lifestyle and diet

What does insulin do?

- will bind with carbohydrate molecule
- key to open cell so carbohydrates go inside
the cell
- blood stream
- contains carbohydrates and blood vessels
Carbohydrates should be inside the cells
Diabetes - increase sugar because the
Carbohydrates do not go inside cell
Unit 7
Respiratory System
FUNCTION
- Exchange of gasses
PHASE OF RESPIRATORY
1.) Exchange of gasses between blood and
air (external respiratory)
2.) Exchange of gasses between blood and
cells (internal respiratory)
PARTS
NOSE
- Internal part in the skull above the roof
of the oral cavity; external part
protruding from the face
- Opens to the exterior through the
anterior nares and to the nasopharyngeal
the posterior nares
- Floor formed by the palatine bones and
maxillae
- Lined with ciliated mucosa
- Serve as passageway for incoming and
outgoing air filtering, warming, and
moistening
- Sense organ of smell
PHARYNX
- Nasopharynx
 Behind the nose with four
opening, two auditory or
Eustachian and two posterior
nares
- Oropharynx
 Behind the mouth with one
opening, filtering from the oral
cavity
- Laryngopharynx
 Behind the pharynx with two
openings, into the larynx and
into the esophagus
 Serves as passageway into the
respiratory and digestive tracts
 Tonsils found in the
nasopharynx destroys incoming
bacteria and detoxify foreign
protein
LARYNX
- Box-like cartilaginous structure located
just below the pharynx
 Thyroid cartilage (Adam’s
apple)
 Epiglottis (lid cartilage)
 Cricoid (signet ring cartilage)
 Arythenoid (Pyramid shaped
cartilage)
o Vocal cords of two types:
1. False vocal cord
– folds of mucus
lining
2. True vocal cord –
fibro – elastic
band stretched
across the interior
of the larynx
o Slit between vocal cord of
the glottis through which
air enters and leaves the
lower respiratory passages
TRACHEA
- Cartilaginous tube 10-11 cm extending
from larynx to bronchi
- Lined with ciliated mucosa
- For passageway of air, to and from the
lungs
LUNGS
- Cone-chape organs which completely
fill the pleural spaces extending from
slightly above the clavicle to the
diaphragm where the base of the lungs
rest
- Covered by visceral pleura
- Structure:
  Bronchi – right and left formed
by branching of trachea
 Bronchioles – smaller branches
of bronchi
 Alveolar ducts – microscopic
branches of bronchioles
 Alveoli – microscopic sacs at
the ends of the alveolar ducts
provided with a network of
lungs capillaries
o Serves for the
exchanges of gasses
between blood and air
Amount of Air Exchanged in Breathing
- Measure by apparatus called
SPIROMETER
a. Tidal Air
- Average amount
expired after a normal
respiration 500 ml
b. Expiratory reserved volume
(ERV)
- Largest additional
volume of air that can
be forcefully expired
after a normal
inspiration and
expiration
- 1,000 – 1,200ml
c. Inspiratory reserved volume
(IRV)
- Largest addition of
volume air that can be
forcibly inspired after a
normal respiration
- 3,000 – 3,300 ml
d. Residual Air
- Cannot be forcibly
expired from lungs
- 1,200ml
e. Minimal Air
- Can never be removed
from alveoli if they have
been inflated even once,
even though lungs are
subjected to
atmospheric pressure
that squeezes part of the
residual air out
f. Vital Capacity
- Approximate capacity
of lungs as measured by
amount of air that can
be forcibly expired after
forcible inspiration
- Varies with size of
thoracic cavity, which
is determined by
various factors (size of
rib cage, size of the
heart)
Types of Breathing
EUPNOEA - normal quite breathing
APNEA – temporary cessation of breathing
DYSPNEA – difficult breathing
ORTHOPNEA – inability to breath easily in
horizon position
TACHYPNEA - excessively rapid and shallow
breathing
~LECTURE NOTES~
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
- Exchange gasses
- Inhale – oxygen
- Exhale – carbon dioxide
Inhale (oxygen) lungs →support of heart (blood
vessels) to distribute the oxygen to the body
1. Asthma
2. Tuberculosis
3. Pneumonia → COVID (most patients do not
die by the virus but to the complications due to
the virus)

Nose (External Nares)

- Nasal Septum (soft tissue inside the nose,

dividing the two holes)
FUNCTIONS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
-contain sinuses (common site of infection)
1. Supplies Oxygen to different vital organs
-sinusitis - inflammation of sinuses
Lungs (exchange) and heart (distribution) work
hand by hand Cilia - hair like structure wherein it filters
foreign particles (sand; dust) (Do not pull,
2. Filters Inspired air
TRIM)
Too much Nitrogen, Co2, Carbon Monoxide -
suffered in respiratory toxicity •NOSE provides airway for respiration•
3. It produces sound

- Larynx or Voice Box -It detects Oder

No. 1 risk factor of Laryngeal Cancer -
Smocking

Laryngectomy - removal for larynx

4. Smell

5. It helps regulate blood ph (Normal blood ph

7.35 to 7.45)
Normal Oxygen Saturation - 95-100%

O2 Saturation - blood oxygen - amount of

oxygen in blood
PHARYNX (throat)
COVID - pulse oximeter → measure oxygen
- space use for Respiratory and Digestive
saturation
System
A drop of 02 saturation may indicate that there is
-common condition - tonsillitis → inflammation
something wrong with body
of tonsils. Management: Antibiotics
Recurring tonsillitis → best management:
Tonsillectomy - removal of tonsils

If on taking antibiotics without prescription -

will suffer in antibiotic resistance

•Multiple Antibiotic Resistance is worse than

cancer

• 7 days - 14 days →normal prescription for

antibiotic

DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH

DOTS - TB

Directly Observed Treatment, Short course for

Tuberculosis

TB - take 5 antibiotics for 6 months

R - rifampin

I - isoniazid

P – pyrazinamide

E - Ethambutol

S - Septicemia

BCG (bacille Calmette-Guerin)- primary

complex for baby (vaccine for TB)

PHARYNX

- divided in 3 regions
LARYNX (voice box)
NASOPHARYNX
- produces sounds
- adenoids →body immune defense
Epiglottis
OROPHARYNX
- most important part of larynx
- back portion of mouth
- separate the esophagus (for food) and trachea
- palatine tonsils (for air)
- Adenoids

LARINGO PHARYNX

- converge of esophagus and Larynx

LUNGS
- Main part of respiratory system
- where the gas exchange of gasses
- LEFT LUNG - divided into 2 lobes
-RIGHT LUNG - divide into 3 lobes Main
functional unit: Alveoli →
TRACHEA → will be divided into to:
BRONCHI (narrow tube to deliver certain
amount of air to the lungs)
-respiratory spirometer - to measure tidal air
(amout of air in lungs)
Normal respiratory rate: (Adult) 12-20 cycle per
minute
If the patient is newborn: Normal respiratory
rate - 40-60 cycle per minute
To get accurate pulse rate and respiratory is to
count it for 1 whole minute
(If the patient has heart problem there will be an
abnormal pulse)
Hawthorne Effect - phenomena wherein the
individual being observe can manipulate the
response
Apnea - abnormal cessation of breathing
- Obese, problem with sleep pattern
- common symptom: snoring
- calmly wake up the patient
Supine position - elevate the bed 30° (for the
patient with sleep apnea to breath normally
while sleeping)
Dyspnea - suffering with lung condition -asthma
and pneumonia
Orthopnea - inability to breath in straight
horizontal position
Tachypnea - above 20
Tachypnea - paper bag / brown bag
Bradypnea - below 12
Supine position = semi fowler position

Atelectasis - Lung Collapse

- a part of lung will shrink

Unit 8
Circulatory System
~LECTURE NOTES~ - divided into 4 chambers

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 1. Right and Left Atrium

-responsible for transporting materials
throughout the body
-Transport: Nutrients, Water, Oxygen.
-Carries carbon dioxide Oxygen = carbon
dioxide
-Highway of the body
- Inter Atrial Septum (Divides the right and left)
2. Right and Left Ventricle
-Intra Ventricular Septum (divides the right and
left)
*Septum - separates the right and left sides of
the heart

-It connects the systems Atria - collect the blood that enters the heart
Ventricle - to pump blood out of the heart
*Purine - foods that are high in organ meat
* Blood should not be accumulated in heart
Hyperglycemia - high sugar in the blood
- divided into 2 sides
(Lungs)Oxygen → Body
• Right Side - unoxygenated blood
Two types of Blood
• Left Side - oxygenated blood
1. Oxygenated Blood
Two types of heart failure
- Oxygen-rich blood
Left-sided failure - a complication in the lungs
- traveling towards the cell
Right-sided Failure - complication in other
- High amount of oxygen
major organs (kidney, liver, etc.)
- Low carbon dioxide
LAYERS OF HEART
2. Unoxygenated Blood
1. Pericardium
- Carries Carbon Dioxide
- outermost layer
- away from the cell
- protective Layer -lubricate the heart (so there
- low amount of oxygen will be no friction when the heart pumps)

- high amount of carbon dioxide - Pericardial Fluid (if there's a complication/leak

may result in heartache)
Components
2. Myocardium
2. HEART
- Muscle (ability to contract)
- Muscle
- pumping and contraction
- it pumps blood from the different parts of the
body 3. Endocardium

- Center of the circulatory system

- blood - vitamins, oxygen, nutrients

3. BLOOD VESSELS

Healthy: rubber structure

-Arteries

Coronary Artery - supply blood

Atherosclerosis - disease when blood builds up

inside the arteries (medication: CABG)

- every family member to know CPR

(Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation)

-Veins

-Capillaries