1.

Basic Design Data

In preparation of Job Execution PLul, die following basic design u<i.u must be identified.

1.1 Codes and Standard (Refer to Code and Standard for Instrumentation)

(1) Dcsign of Instruments : Sizing of CV, SV and Ori (ice Plates

Manufacturing of T.'C. R I D etc.

(2) Symbols to be used for :

P & 1 Diagram
Loop drawing
Interlocking logic diagram
Construction draw ing (Layout drawing)

(3) Electric Instruments in Hazardous Atmosphere

Refer to section 4,1 of this information.

1.2 Units

(11 General MKS or SI

(2) Pipe size inch or mm

(3) Flow rate Mass or volume

(In case of volume flow, measure of base condition or
flowing condition should also be confirmed.)

1,3 Materials

(1) Codes and standard and possibility to use equivalent materials of other standards.

(2) Requirement for material control procedure.

(3) Materials used for protection against environmental conditions or process nature.

1.4 Weatherproof and Protection

(1) Environmental conditions

(2) Protection of field instruments

Heating and protection boxes
Sun shade
Painting

(3) Degree of protection provided by instrument enclosure

Refer to section 4.5 of this information

Page 2 of 29
2, DESIGN OF INSTRUMENTS

2-1 Temperftture Instruments

2,1,1 Thermo-well

(I) Material
For general service Type 304 ar Type 316 stainless steel
for high temperature service Type 310, Type 446, Ceramics, etc,
for corrosive services cansuit with process licenser- manufacturer

(2) Construction
Drilled bar sleek or Pipe with welded end
Tapered or straight
Flanged Of threaded

(3) Installation
Insertion length : distance from free end of well to attachment to a
vessel or pipe

Immersion length r distance from free end of well lo inner wall of a

vessel or pipe

The free end of well will normally be located in Hie center third of the pipe.
However, for practical reasons, well length may be classified in lo several types (i.e.
250mm for pipe and 500 nun for vessel).

For fire box installation , lhe tip should be located approximately 3 inches inside the
tube wall.

Tube surface temperature measurement requires proper shield from furnace radiation,
minimum gap between tube and tip. and reducing mass- at the point of measurement,
(added mass may result temperature different from that of relatively cool tube wall)

If well is. installed at an angle or in an elbow, the tip should point toward lhe flow in
pipe.

(4) Thermo-well shall be so designed that wake frequency (Fw) in normal operation shall
be lower tturn 80% of natural frequency (Fn).
The following is calculation of Fw and Fn, Also refer to ASME PTC 19 3-1974

Fw = St * V / D
St Strouhal number(0.22 at red range of 104 to
10')
D Diameter of well tip in cm
V Fluid velocity in cm/sec

Fn=(E‘ 1* g/(rB A))K/C’L

Modules of elasticity of well al use

temperature in °C.
in cm
980 cm-'sec
Specific weight of well al use temperature in
kg'cm3

Page 3 of 29
 A Sectional area of well lip in cm2
L Well Length In cm
C-0.719+ L069Ll/L+(0-l 4^2.24 (0.5-L1/L) )

(1) Construction
Magnesium insulated metal sheathed assembly
Grounded or isolated hot junction

Grounded : faster response

Special attention for common mode noise, input
circuit to DCS, etc.
Isolated i Stower response

(2) Temperature ranges

Symbol Materials Normal Tempera lure Retofti mended
Range
K Chromel - Alumel -200 to 1200 0 io 750
T Copper - Constantan -200 to 350 -200 to 250
F. Cliromcl - Constantan -200 to 800 -200 to 500
J Iron - Constantan 0 in 750 Oto 450
S Pt, Rhodium - Pt 0 to 1600 0 to 1400

Applicable ranges differ from above "Normal temperature1’2due 3 to thermocouples

wire size- .Recommended: ranges arc based on J .0 mm wire diameter {sheath diameter
6.4 mm).

(3) Extension wire

Symbol T / C Symbol Extension wire matcruite

KX K Chromel - Alumel
TX T Capper ■ Constantan
EX E Chromel - Constantan
JX J Iron - Constantan
sx S Cupper - Copper nickel alloy

Iron wire may be provided with anti-corrosion treatment, litis must be removed before
connection.

{1) RTD provides more accurate measurement than is possible with thermocouples,
Accordingly, RTD is used in installation where there greater accuracy is warranted or
narrow measuring range is required.

(2) Temperature ranges

Pt 100 (Ro = lOOohmSr = 0.00385) Range - 200 to R50 acc. to IEC
751

(3) Ordinary copper 3-wire extension cable is used to compensate fur resistance and
temperature change in the lead wire.

Page 4 of 29
2-1.4 Bimetal type or filled type dial thermometers with thcrmo-weli will be used tor local
temperature indication.

2,[,5 Filled type thermometers with thermo-well may be used as locally mounted
temperature controller or local temperature indicator, with Extended capillary hwtwre
necessary.

Features of the thermometers:

Type Volume expansion Pressure Change

Liquid Filled Mercury Filled Vapor pressure Gas pressure
Temp. Limit deg C ■ US to 315 -381O550 485 to 315 -270 to 550
Min. Span deg. C 25 50 50 100
Bulb Size Small Medium Medium Big
Scale Uniform Uniform Non - linear Uniform
Max- Tube Length 30 m 30 m 50 m 30 m
Response Medium Slow Fast Fast
Over Kir.ize 100% of span 100% of span Consult vendur Consult vendor
Error due to Inst, £ Nil Consult vendor Consult vendor Nil
bulb positHjn

2-1-6 Field mounted temperature transmitters may be used instead of thermocouples and
RTD. Field mounted tempera! are transmitters have limitations with regard to ambienl
temperature, accessibility, vibration, electro - magnetic interference and grounding-
Ihc transmitters separately mounted from ihermo-wel] gives greater advantages in
overcoming these difficulties.

2.2 Flow I rtsl rumen Is

22.1 Principle of differential pressure ly pe flow meter

(1) Bemoueli Principle
vP/2g + Pl/rl + ZJ = v2!/2g + P2.T2 + 22 vl,v2 : average velocity
£ : m/53
P1.P2 : Pressure
rl,r2 : density
ZI.Z2 : static head

Al vl = A2 v2 Al, A2 : Sectional area

v 11 + Pl /r = v2z/2g+P2/r where rl - r2 ” r. ZI = Z2

then v2J=2g(FL-P2>''i x I I-(A 2/AI J2)

where AI is pipe sedional area (diameter - D) and A2 Is orifice bore (diameter - d)

aid p2 - A2/AI = (f/D3, A P = Pl -P2

Q = 1^/4 x v2 Q : Volume flow

nd!74 x(2gdPA-)!^xC^I-p4)K C Dischaigc
Coefficient

ce“C/(L-pVi <x : Flow Coefficient

then Q * at x d"/4 X (2g^ P/r)!4

Pagei of 29
 = K'Xp2LP(^ P/rj’/z K t Constant

In case of gfss>
Q KaLp“eD3(^ P/rJ’/a c : Gas expansion
factor

■x and e are available in codes and standards.

■r is regarded constant where pipe Reynolds number is over a certain figure.

Orifice type flow meter must be used, in this domain and when application requires
wide rangeability. Measuring error subject to (he change of <£ at low flow conditions
(=low Reynolds number) shall be checked.

(2) Pressure and Temperature Compensation for Gas

rf = rn ’ Pt7 Pn * Tn / Tf

Q = K«r B2eD:{^ P/(m'Pf/Pn'Tn/Tf))W

(3) Permanent Pressure Loss

PllM- z3Ptl.*p:)/(L+<cf*3)

{4} Reynolds Number

Re = iOOO * v * D * r/ji v : average velocity in flVsec
D : pipe ID in m
R. : density in kg/m3
p : viscosity in cp

2-2-2 Design of differential pressure type flow meters

(1) Type
Orifice concentric, eccentric or segmental
Sharp edge (square edge) or quadrant
Flow nozzle for higher velocity and better pressure recovery than orifice,
Venturi for high capacity and good pressure recovery or fluid
contains solids.
Pitot tube for high volume flow with no appreciable pressure drop can
be tolerated. Example: cooling water, flue gas, air duct.
Annubur is one of the averaging pressure type Pitot tube.

(2) d.‘D (Beta) ratio

Limit of d/D (Beta) ratio is 0.1 co 0,8 depending on applicable Codes and Standards.
However, most end-users prefer the range of 0,5 to 0.7.

(3) Sizing orifices

It is common to size the orifice for 2500 mm water column at maximum flow (meter
range)

(4) Orifice tap location

Type Line size (inch) Rtniiirks

Flange Taps 2 to 30 lM available with quadrant edge
Corner Taps 2 to 40 1 -16" available in L. K, Spink
Radius l aps (1D-1Z2D) 2 TO 30 1 - 16" available in L, K. Spink

Page 6 of 2.9
 Vena Contracts Taps 2 to ] 6 I - ’/T' available in L. K. Spink
Pipe Taps (2JZ2EMJD) 2 to 30

Check tap location for radius taps and vena cofllratta tap* because they may fall
in an undesirable location in the flange bub or weld line depend on size and
pressure ruling,

(5) Minimum length of meter run

Meier run should be designed with no less than □ minimum length given by Codes
□nd Standards.
Meter run length based on d«'D = 0.7 is recommended where practical because of
provision of increasing dZD ratio in future expansion.

(61 Eccentric or segmental orifices may be used tor horizontal piping in rase fluid
contains large quantity of undissolved gjas or gas containing condensable.
Segmental orifices are recommended for slurry services,
For sizing refer to ASMIL but size available is from 4 to 14 inches with flange and
vena contracts taps.

{7} Quadrant edge orifice is used for viscous stream or for line Reynolds number range
from lOOnOOO down to 3000 to 5000 depending on beta ratio
(square edge orifice coefficient correction factors are available for Reynolds number
down tu approximately 25.000)

(8) Orifice may be provided with a weep hole to prevent buildup of condensate or vapor
in horizontal lines.

2,23 Variable-area flow mf rei1* (Rotameter!

The terms variable - area meter is derived from principle that internal area of flowing
Lube is variable while differential pressure is constant across the float.

Wide range of flow race (frequently 10:3).

Linear output.
High viscosity immunity.
Accuracy is typically 2%.

gtyrtk flow meters-

Magnetic flow meters are used on conductive viscous or slurry streams that have
required measure of electrical conductivity (approx, more than 5 p. Stem).
(NOTE : most petroleum hydrocarbons have insufficient conductivity.)

Accuracy is typically 0.5%.

Range ability is 10: I.
No straight meter run required.
Bi-directional flow and large size available.
Temperature limit may depend on insulation materials (usually less than 200 deg. C).

2.2.5

Major application is custody transferor light products or light crude oils.

Accuracy is typically 0,25% or better.

Page 7 of 29
2,2.6 displacement meters

Major application is custody transfer of heavy or viscous products.

Accuracy is typically better ur equal to turbine meter.

22.7 Vortex meters

Vortex meler is used for steam water, light hydrocarbons and any gases where large
turndown is required.
Size up to 12 inches.
Accuracy is typically 1%.

Note : Depending on the required turndown, the selected meter size may result in
significant pressure loss al normal flow because of increasing Reynolds number at
minimum flow,
Confirm allowable system pressure loss when selecting meter size.

2L2-8 Target flow meters

Fot viscous flows such as hot asphalt, tars, etc.,

Size up to 4 inches.
Accuracy is typically 2%.

2,2,9 CnrwLis mass flow meter

Direct mass flow measurement of any liquid flow.

Accuracy is typically 0.2%
Rangeability is 20 : 1.
No straight meter run required.
Size up to 6 inches.

2,2.10 H’ltra - sonic flow meter

Contra propagation meter : measures difference in the transit times of sounds.

Doppler or reflection meter : measures Use frequency shift of sound reflected back
from
Particle or bubbles in the flow stream.

Accuracy is typical ly 2%.

Suitable for liquid flow measurement in large pipe applications.

2 J J L Sizing Restriction Orifice Plates (Simplified! Methodi)

{1 j Liquid
W = 39 6 Off G^ P)!4 W : Flow in kg/h
D : Orifice bore in mm
G : Specific gravity (waler = 1)
Jp : Di fferential Pressure in kg / cm2
/
C = 0.62 where t^d/8 £ Plate thickness
c =o.s di'8<t<d
C = l.o

Page 8 of 29
(2) Gas - Critical Flow,
W - Cd2PI (Mw/ZT)W Pl : IJp-stream Pressure in kgfomZA
Mw: Molecular weight
T : Up steam temperature in K

C= 1.22+0.5 Z : isentropic exponent

(3) Gas - Non Critical Flow

First get “d" by means of formula in above (2) then conrtcl it according to following.:

d,=d(l+2.6(P2.lPK6)2) d1 : Orifice bore in mm corrected for non critical

flow
P2; Down - stream Pressure in kgfcrn2 A

23 Pressure Instruments

23+1 Pressure gauge design

Pressure gauges shall normally be bourdon or bellows elements type.
Connections of pressure gauge shall normally be screwed.

23.2 Element and socket material

Type 316 is most common for elemenli, sockets and other welled parts.
Bronze may be used for air. sweet water and inert gases.
Monel is a superior material for caustic and salt solutions where chloride stress
corrosion might adversely affect stainless Steel-

2.3.3 AccesMiries
(1) Siphon : steam service
hot condensable vapors

(2) Pulsation Dampener : pu Isating servicc such as discharge of reci prorating pump
Note : Pressure gauge with liquid-filled cases is also considered for this applications.

(3) Diaphragm seals ; corrosive fluid

crystallizing fluid
fluid including solid
high viscosity fluid

Note t Diaphragm seals with or without capillary is also used to minimize heat
tracing
or for vibration free installation.
Consult with vendor where diaphragm seals are applied to vacuum service.

23-4 Safety design

1.1) Blowout back (prevent bursting of glass or case in case of element failure )

(2) Solid front

(3) Excess pressure cut-ouis devices (velocity checks)

23.5 Range
23.6 Type of element
(1) Mechanical Liquid column
Dead weight
EiasLic raaltr ial

(2) Electrical Strain’gagc

Capacitance

2.4 Liquid Level Instruments

2.4.1 Type
(1) Gauge Glass Tubular type
Armored type gauge glass (Transparent or Reflex}
Magnetic. flout type
(2) Hydrostatic head
(3) Differential pressure
(4) Displacement or Float
(5) Nuclear
(6) Ultra “Sonic
(7) Capacitance

2.4.2 Connection
Level instrument connection must be from the vessel.
Instruments shall be located SO that the midrange position of tile Instnniienl enmes to
the normal liquid level.

2-4-3 Multiple instrument mounting

To minimize the opening in the vessel common stand-pipe system is suggested
method. Some end-users accept deletion of block valves between stand-pipe and
vessel.
Sometime, the level switches used as protective devices may have separate
connections to the vessel independent of other instruments.

NOTE : Improper assembly of the gauge glasses may result in glass failure or
leakage, cluse coordination in design and field fabrication between instrument and
piping is mandatory requirement.

2-4.4 Design of ga uge glasses

(1} Tubular gauge glasses : not popular for process applications.

(2) Transparent type gauge glasses: for acid, caustic, dirty liquid, steam, interface service

(3) Reflex type gauge glasses: for clean services.

(4) Magnetic - type gauge : is popular especially for toxic, flammable liquid

(5) Transparent or reflex type gauge glasses with large chamber are often used for the
services which may boil or tend in surge in the gauge glass.

(6} Gauge glass assemblies

Gauge glass should be limited in length co 1.5 m especially for high temperature
services otherwise requirement of additional support?- Offsets or expansion loop
installation should be considered.
In ease of multiple gauge mounting. Overlapping (approx. 30 mm) of gauge should
he kept.

Page Id of 29
(7) Gauge glass pcutetlion agautst etch ing
Mica sheer Teflon and Kel - F should be provided with glass (o prevent etching of
glass by sietUH, hydrofluoric acid amines, caustic file.
NOTE : Such shield can not be applied to reflex type due to construction.

2.4.5 Hydrostatic head pressure

This means (direct mounted pressure instruments, bubbler tube type, etc.) is limited to
tanks or vessels under oLmuspheric pressure.
Accuracy is affected hy gravity changes

2.4.6 Differential pressure

(1) This means is widely used for higher spans than that of available in displacement type
ur foi slurries and viscous fluid (with diaphragm seals), boiling services, high
pressure services, etc.
Accuracy is affected by gravity changes and changes in height of reference leg..

r3 : density at vapor phase

A P - Hi-Lo
= ((h I -f hit h3) Jr3 +(h2+h3 )r2) -h 1 r 1
= (ih2+hj) ) (r2-r3 )+h I r3 > - hl rl
“ (h2+h3Rr2-r3) - hl(rl-r3)

In above formula r3 is negligible tor general applications, however, it must be

considered
for high pressure services such as 120 kg/cm2 steam drum level measurement in
ethylene plant etc.

2.4.7 Displacement or float

This means is used for liquid level of 1,5 to 2 m span and for liquid - liquid interface
measurement but not suitable far viscous and boiling services.
Torque lube is normaJly -stainless steel type 316. Inconel may be considered in case
operating temperature is higher than 200 dcgC.
 Bonnet shall be provided with air fills or extensions where operating temperature is
aboveSOO deg C nr below 0 deg. C.
Internal displacement type should he provided with stilling well
Accuracy L> afitcLcd by gravity changes.

2.4.8 Nuclear
This means is used where other type of instruments can not be used> such as vacuum
tower, catalyst level, etc.

2.4.9 Ultra-sunk
Ultra-sonic type works on the principle of measurement of the time required for
sound waves to travel through space, and suitable for difficult level measurement
applications of liquids and solids.
Accuracy may be affected by variations of pressure, temperalure, relative humidity,
concentration of gases and vapors, as they affect sound velocity.

2.4.10 Capacitance
Capacitance type measures the changing electrical capacitance between probe and
vessel (when vessel is made of electrical conductor). If (he material being measured
is an elec trical conductor, insulated pTobe is used.
This instrument is suitable for level measurement applications of liquids, powders, and
solids.
Accuracy may be affected by variations of temperature and relative humidity, because
thev may affect dielectric constant.

2.4.11 l ank gauging

Float - and - cable tank gauges are the most common means of tank level
measurement
Otter type of tank gauges arc now available which do not use floats and cables, hut
they may nut provide the high accuracy normally required.

When Float - and - cable lank gauges are used for custody transfer or maximum
accuracy is required, installation should be :
Provide stilling well to avoid turbulence.
Servo-balanced floal to reduce immersion and hysteresis errors.
Mean temperature measurement of the liquid.

Paae 12 of 29
2.5 Control Valves

2.5J Types
(1) Globe body valve (the valves which have globular shaped cavity around port]

Single seat : minimum leakage in close position but require

actuator
Force,, particularly for large sizes.

Double seat : higher leakage rale than single scat valve but reduces
required actuator force due tn balancing feature of
plus.
design.

Angle valve : for high pressure services- Usually single port type
only.

3-way valve : Diverting or mixing.

Cage guided : Leakage rate ls like as single seat. Balanced plug

design permits operation with smaller actuators than
those for single seal,
Noise attenuaLiuo or anti-cavitation type trim is
available-
This type is not suitable for dirty or solid containing
services.

(2} Butterfly valve : for high capacity and low pressure drop services.
Conventional discs provide throttling conLrol for up
to <iQ degree disc rotation.

(3) Ball valve : Suitable for erosive or viscous fluids, or slurries

containing entrained solids or libers.
V-notch produces an equal percentage flow
characteristic, and used for control of above fluids
and application where very high range-ability is
required.

(4) Eccentric spherical plug valve. Usually less costly than conventional globe valves
and adaptable to ordinary control requirements.

2.5.2 Connection & Rating

U) Connection
Threaded for smal I size valves
Flanged for general applications (face to face dimension as per ISA S75.03)
Flange-less common for rotary shaft control valves
(face to face dimension as per ISA S75 04 except tor butterfly valve)
Welded for high pressure, high temperature Of higjily toxic fluids

(2) Rating
Pressure-temperature rating must be compatible with the system in which the valve is
employed. In smaller sizes. It is often more economical to standardize on a minimum
rating such as class 300 #

Page 13 of 29
2.5.3 Materials
Body, bonnrf : Carbon steel
Chrome-moiy steel
Type 304 or 316 stainless steel

Trim : Type 316 with stellite where weakness is expected

Type 416 or 44Q
Monel
Inconel

1.5.4 Packing
(1) Teflon (solid molded, braided. Chevron ring}:
Packing lubrication is no! required and good resistance !o most known
chemicals. Requires smooth stem finish (easy to leak if stem ar packing
surface is damaged). Recommended temperature range from -4Q deg. C io
230 deg- C.

(2) Teflon Impregnated Asbestos :

Packing lubrication is recommended.
Has much ability to stop leakage caused by minor stem damage.
Recommended temperature range from - 70 deg. C to 230 deg. C.

(3} Graphilcd Asbestos:

Useful on petroleum distillate, steam, oil service up to 230 deg. C,
Packing lubrication is recommended.

(4) Graphite:
Packing lubrication is hot required.
Suitable lor high temperature serv ices.
Note : (Packing lubrication ( Silicon Grease) is provided for reduction of friction and
improvement of sealing.
For higher temperature, care should be taken that rhe lubricant may oxide and cause a
problem in obtaining a tight packing seal.
Packing should not be lubricated for the valve in oxygen service.

2-5.5 Seal leakage

The degree of sealing accomplished is dependent upon the valve construction. The
materials and condition of 1he scaling surfaces, and the actuator power available
Following is one oflcakage standard established by ANSI Bl 6.104.

Class [ Leakage rate nut specified

Class II 05% of rated capacity. Test medium is 3.5 bar air or water

Class HI 0.1 % of rated capacity Tesl medium is 3.5 bar air or water

Class IV 0.01 % of rated capacity Test medium is 3-5 bar air or water

Class V 0.0005 ml/min inch psi Test medium is waterundcr max.

service
pressure
Class VI bubble tight fur soft scat trim (leakage allowable depending on size)
Test medium is J.5 bar air.
2.5.6 Trim characteristic
(1) Quick Opening : Provides a maximum change i n flow rate al lower

Page 14 cif 29
 valve crave] with a fairly linear relationship, and
lesser flow
increase as the plug opens further,
(normally not used for throttling service)

(2) Linear Provides equal increases in Cv fur equal increases in

stem [ravel. Often specified for liquid level concrol
and applications requiring constant gain (pressure
dTOp is constant).

(3} Equal Percentage Provides equal percentage increases in Cv for equal

increments of stem travel. This characteristic
provides precise throttling control at valve close
position and rapidly increasing capacity as the plug is
near the open position.
Suitable for pressure control application, or on
applications where highly varying pressure drop can
be expected and the pressure drop at control valve is
relatively small against the system pressure drop.

225.7 Sizing
(1) Valve Capacity Coefficient (Cv)
Cv is the number of gallons per minutes of water at 60 " F (15 UC) that will pass
through a given flow restriction with a pressure drop of 1 psi.

(2) Sizing Formula ( For details refer to ANS1/ISA-S75.0 I)

Basic formula
a) tor Liquid
Cv - 1. 17Q( P)K Q : Capacity in mJ/h
G : Specific Gravity (water @ 15C =
1.0)
A P: Pressure difference in kgi'cm?

hl for Gas
CV = V (Mw T / P(P J +-P2 ))16 /1460 PO. 5 P]

Cv-V(Mw T)b/1270 P] d P<0.5 PI

V : Gas flow in N'mJ.'h

Mw : Molecular weight
T Inlet gas temperature C
Pl ; Inlet pressure in kg/cm2 abs.
P2 : Outlet pressure in kg/cm2 abs.

c) CV = 74K1 +0.0013 T sh ) W / (J P (PI +P2)}'/i d P<0.3 p 1

Cv-85 (1+0,0013 TA) W7 Pl d PXL5 Pl

TsJl ; Steam super heat in C

W : Steam flow in pin

(3) Factors related to sizing and selection

Piping influence : Capacity reduction due to presence of reducers up and down stream
of the valve. Correction factor will be available from the
manufacturer,

Page 15 of 29
Reynolds Number ; For low Reynolds number applications such as viscous or small
flow, the bask sizing equation can not be used without correc1ionK
since the equation is based on Lhe turbulence flow.
Correction factor will be available from lhe manufacturer.
Usually the corrections can be ignored, (when Reynolds number is
greater than 4000, the correction will be 10% or less.)

Pressure recovery: As flow pzissrs through the restriction, there is a contraction of the
flow stream. The minimum cross-sectional area of the contraction
is called the vena contacts.
At the vena contracta, the velocity is maximum and pressure is
minimum. Further down stream, as the fluid stream expands in to a
large area velocity decreases and pressure increases. This
phenomena is called pressure recovery .
As a general, globe valves have lower pressure recovery than ball
or butterfly valves.

Choked flow ■ When die pressure at vena contracts drops below the vapor pressure
of the liquid), bubbles Will form in the Stream. The formation of (he
hubbies causes a crowding condition at lhe vena contracta which
tends to restrict flow, and further increase in pressure drop will not
produce increase in flow. This is called u Clicked flow”.
fin case of gas, choked flow means outlet velocity reaches sonic
velocity.)
The limiting pressure difference Pt (delta P) is called "
Maximum allowable differential pressure tor sizing*' and
determined by following

d Pt - Fr (Pl - Ff- Pv), where Ff = 0.96 - 0.2K (Pv / PC)!4

Fr : Pressure recovery coefficient

Pl : Inlet pressure
Ff : Critical pressure ratio
Pv : Vapor pressure of the liquid
Pc : Critical pressure

Pressure recovery coefficient will be available from the

manufacturer Vapor pressure and critical pressure will be given by
process data
Pt is smaller Lhan aciual^ Pt, usod Pt for string.

Cavitation: When the pressure at vena conUacla drops below the vapor pressure
of the liquid , bubbles will form in the stream. And if downstream
pressure recovery is sufficient to raise the outlet pressure above die
vapor pressure of the liquid, the bubbles collapse and produce
cavitation.
To prevent cavitation, the valve with low-pressure recovery should
be used And in some cases special component or mulii stage
pressure reduction should be considered.
Flashing. When the pressure at vena contracla drops below the vapor
pressure of the liquid, bubbles will form in the stream. And if the
pressure at valve ouLlet remains below the vapor pressure of the
liquid, (he bubbles remain in lhe downstream, and this process is
sajd as “"flashing".
 To determine proper valve size, required Cv is sum of that tor
liquid ptiase and vapor phase separately calculated, in order to do
so, ptTccnLage of flashed vapor is required.

(4) Guidelines for size selection

(a) The control valve is usually one sire smaller than the line.
(b) The fluid velocity at the valve outlet should be less than the fallowing.

Liquid
V = Q/(0-0036. Jt <j2/4) Q : Flow in m3/h
d : valve diameter In mm
V : Flow velocity in m/sec

Recommended velocity limit (m/sec.)

dp 1" 2:" 4” 8” ]2” 14H

35 Ig/cm2 9 7 6 5.5 5 4.5 rrtfsec
>35 kgfcm2 6 6 6 55 5 •1.5 m/sec

Gas. a nd Steam
By following formula. Lire diameter tn which fluid velocity reaches sonic
velocity is obiained. Therefore, the valve must be larger than the Hd-

For Gai
d=1.2 (QGfH/P2)£
d = 0.07 (Q T GfH/P2}& in case 1> 70 °C

For Steam
d=50(W/P2)1d

d : Diameter in mm
Q : Gas flow in NmB/h
Gf : Specific gravity at operating temp
P2 Outlet pressure in kg/cml as.
T : Operating teni pcrature in0 K
W z Steam flow in r.-Ti

Gf=(Mw/29) (273/(273 + t))

I : Operating. tern pcrature in *C

1.5.8 Noise
(1) Source of noise
a) Mechanical vibration
b) Caviiaiion
c) Aerodynamic noise : Xoise resulting from turbulent flow of gases

Note : Predicting aerodynamic noise is established by several valve manufacturers.

17 of 29
(2) Noise reduction
a) Acoustic insulation
b) Use low-noise trim
c) In-line mufflers
d} Several valves Of valves and orifices in series

2,5-9 Actus Cur

(I ) Selection Parameters
a) Operating media (air, hydraulic, electrical motor, etc.)
b) Thrust Requirements
c) Length of stroke
d) Speed of stroke

(2) Type
a) Spring d iaphragjn actuators
b) Piston actuators (Spring relumed or Double acting)
c) Motor actuators

(3) Nates
a) Maximum air pressure for actua<OT design should not exceed 4 kg/cm2g.
b) Unless maximum differential pressure at control valve is given in process
data, use maximum upstream pressure for determination of the thrust
required,

2.5. UJ Accessories

(1 j Extension bonnet
A bonnet with an extension between the packing box and bonnet flange.
For temperature exceeding 200X7 an extension bonnet containing sufficient area tn
provide radiating heat loss may be used.
A similar bonnet design is employed on low temperature application,. GX7 and below.
In no case should such a bonnet be covered with insulation materials.

(2) Bellows seal bonnet

A bonnel that uses a bellows for sealing against leakage around the valve plug stem.
They are often used when the process fluid is toxic, volatile, radioactive or highly
expensive.

(3) Positioners
Functions of positioners
a) Provide split range control
b) Reverse the valve action without changing the fail safe action
c) Improve response
d) Improve the resolution or sensitivity

2.6 Safety Valves.

2.6.1 General
The safety valves must comply with the technical regulations in accordance with the
applicable codes and standards.

2.6.2 Type
Direct spring loaded : Conventional type
Balanced safety relief valve
Pitol operated type

Page IS of 29-
 Balanced safety relief valve should he used when back pressure is variable or built-up
back pressure exceeds 10% of (he set pressure,
Pilot operated type Ls lmJ where live operating pressure is clew to set pressure or
influence of back pressure is to be eliminated.
Pilot operated type should not be used for dirty, viscous sendees.

2.6.S Sizing formulas, coefficients and rapacity correction factors

Refer to .applicable Codes iind Standards

2.6,4 Notes
(1) Depending on the regulation, pilot operated valves can not be used without
combination of the spring loaded safety valves.

(2) Set pressure must be equal or less than the maximum allowable working pressure of
the equipment.

(J) Maximum accumulation (Overpressure)

For boiler 3%
For gas and vapor L0%
For gas and vapor (in case of fire) 21%
For liquid 25%

CAUTION : above figures arc reference only, see Codes and Standard tor detail.

{41 In case of multiple valve arrangement, set pressure and accumulation of the first valve
shall be as per above (2} and (3)„ and Lhose of (he supplemental valves may he over
such limitation. Detailed are referred to applicable Codes and Standards.

(5) If rupture disk is installed at safety valve inlet consider the dc-rating factor (0.9 by
API)

(6) Blowdown is usually more than 5% of set pressure and re-scaling pressure must be
higher than the operating pressure, Thus it is recommended safety valves be set al a
minimum of 10% above the operating, pressure.

(7) Where a conventional safety valve is used in service against constant buck pressure,
the set pressure minus constant back pressure shall te used for spring set pressure.

(S) To compensate reduction of set pressure due to effect of service temperature on the
spring and expansion of body bonnet, set pressure increasing factor must be
considered when the valves are tested at ambient conditions,
2.6.5 Piping; for Safety Valves
(1) The pressure loss in the inlet line must be less than 3% of the set pressure

(2) Cross sectional area of inlet pipe shall be always larger than the safety valve inlet
flange. This must be ensured where calculated pipe (not scheduled pipe) is employed
for inlet pipe line such as high pressure services etc. because calculated pipe inside
diameter is sometime smaller than Lhul of die scheduled pipe,

2.6.6 Definition
(1) Safety Valve :
An automatic pressure relieving device actuated by the static pressure upstream of the
valve, and characterized by rapid full opening ar pop action.

Page 19 of 39
(2) Retief Valve
An automatic pressure relieving device actuated by tiie static pressure upstream of the
valve, which opens in proportion to the increase in pressure over the opening
pressure.

(3) Safety Relief Valve

An automatic pressure actuated relieving devices suitable for use as either a safety
valve or relief valve, depending on application.

(4) Set Pressure

Inlet pressure at which the pressure relief valve is adjusted to open.

(5) Cold Differential Set Ptasure

An inlet static pressure at which the safely relief valve is adjusted to open on the test
bench.

(6) Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (MA WP)

Maximum gauge pressure permissible for a designated temperature.
The design pressure may be used in place of VTA WP where calculations are not made

(7) Over-pressure
A pressure increase over the set pressure

(8) Accumulation
A pressure increase over the maximum allowable working pressure

(9) Blowdown
Difference between stiual popping pressure and actual re-scaling pressure

(10) Built-up Back Pressure

Pressure existing al die outlet of tire safety relief valve occasioned by the flow
through that particular device into a discharge system.

(11) Superimposed Back Pressure

Static pressure existing at the outlet of safety relief valve at the time Lhe device is
required to operate it is the result of pressure in the discharge system from other
sources.

3 INSTRUMENTATION AUXILIARIES

3J Electrical Power Supply

3.1.1 Typical power qualify requirements for recent instrumentation system

(<) Voltage regulation ±10%
(») Frequency regulation : ±2 HcrtZ
(iii) Total harmonic distortion 5% maximum
Civ) Power interruption within 5msec.
(v) Voltage ripple (fur DC) : 1 to 2%

3.12 Un-interruptible Power Supplies (UPS)

Key component of UPS systems arc an AN to DC rectifier, a battery charger, storage
batteries, a DC to AC inverter and a static transfer switch.

Page 20 of 29
 UPS comply to the power quality requirements shown above and normally provided
with 50 minutes back-up batten1 capacity.

3.13 Estimation of required power capacity

Consideration must be given to back-up power supply for a micro-processor oriented
systems, They are utilizing switching regulator type power supply (peak current is 2
to 5 times of I ms), and have a higher inrush (caused by initial charge of condensers
or exciting transformer).
The power supply unit must be designed to satisfy both peak and inrush current.
Consult with vendor or refer to vendors' instruction to determine the power supply
system.

3.1.4 Power distribution

The basic system design should, by means of load division and circuit and equipment
redundancy, ensure that any system fault or overload trip affects an acceptable
minimum number of instrument loads.
Circuit protection and a disconnect means for each instrument device supply should
be provided.
All over-current and short-circuit protective devices must be coordinated so that the
device c losest to lhe fault trips first to isolate the fault from the rest of the system.

3.2 Grounding

3-2-1 General
Instrument power supply, equipment and signal ground should not be interconnected.

3-2.2 Instrument power supply grounding

Transformer with Y-connected secondary is usually used for instrument power
supply.
The neutral should be grounded. Tins keeps phase to neutral voltage constant and
provide a return path for a phase to ground fault that allows ground fault sensing
devices to quickly isolate the faulted circuit

3.2.3 Equipment grounding

To prevent shock hazard when unintentional contact between an energized circuit and
enclosures occur, equipment must be grounded.

3.2.4 Signal grounding

To reduce the effect of electrical interference upon the signal.
Manufacturers recommendation must be reviewed before design.

33 Instruments Air Supply

3.3.1 Dew point of instrument sir:

Al least 10° C below minimum ambient temperature at operating pressure.

33.2 Capacity*
1) Sizing by normal air consumption rate :
A ir consumption rate 14 Nl/min.
System capacity’ 2x14 Nl/min. x No. of pilots

2) Where system provided with a buffer tank suitably sized

System capacity (I. I to 1.3) x 14 Nl-’min. x No. of pilots

Page 21 of 29
3,3.3 Distribution
The size of header shall be determined in accordance with the following table.
Number of Air Pilots Piping Size (in,)
1 1/4
4 1/2
10 3/4
25 1
80 1-1/2
150 2
300 3

4 PROTECTION AGAINST ENVIRONMENT

4,1 Explosion Prukdion

4.1,1 hazardous Area Classifications

(1) Codes and Standards
[EC 79-10 Electrical Apparatus for Exploding Gas Aliltospbcrc
NFPA497 ClassificaticEi of Class I Hazardous Locations for Electrical
installations
API RP5D0A Classification of Areas lor Electrical Installation in
Petroleum Refinery

(2) Defi nitron of Hazardous Area

IEC Zone 0 : explosive gas-air mixture is continuously present oi present tor long
period,
Zone I : explosive gas-air mixture is likely to occur ill normal operation.
Zone 2: explosive gas-air mixture is not likely to occur, and if it occurs it will
only exist tor a short time.

NEC Class L Division I : Hazardous concentrations exist continuously, intennitlently,

or periodically under normal operating conditions-
Class L Division 2: Hazardous concentrations exist only in case of accidental
rupture or breakdown of the systems.

(3) Gas grouping

[EC Group 1 Below -ground where methane may be present (for a coal
mine)
Group BIA : Aboveground installations where hazards due to propane
may exist.
Group IJB : Aboveground installations where hazards due to ethylene
may exist.
Group I1C . Aboveground installations where hazards due to hydrogen
may exist.

NEC Group A : Atmosphere containing acetylene.

Group D : Atmosphere containing hydrogen ar gases or vapors of
equivalent hazard.
Group C : Atmosphere containing ethylene or gases or vapors or
equivalent hazard.
Group D : Atmosphere containing propane or gases or vapors of
equivalent hazard.

Note If A> fl R and JlC are also used for classification of electrical equipments which

Page 22 of 29
 are associated with flame proof or intrinsic safety design.

(4} Temperature Classification

(Classification of gasus based on ignition temperature)
Tl ; 450° C
T2 : 300° C
TJ 200" C
T4 ; 135°C
T5 ; 100°C
T6 8S*C

Note : The same Ls also used for classification of maximum surface temperatures of
electrical equipment,

4.1.2 Type of Protection

Type of Protection for Zone 1 and 2

(1) “d” Flameproof enclosure
This type of prolection can be used for Division [ (but not used for ZoncO).

Principle i Any flame paths from the inside to outside are dimensioned to cool any
products of an internal explosion to a level which can not ignite the Specific outside
flammable environment.

(2) "e" Increased Safely

This type may not be used for North America, since Division [ encompasses
both Zone (I and Zone I.

Principle : Electrical apparatus produces no sparks in normal operation, and is

conservatively designed to reduce changes of abnormal occurrences which could cause sparks
of temperatures with sufficient energy to ignite a specific flammable atmosphere.

(3) “i” Intrinsic Safety

ia : intrinsic safely for Zone 0 and Zone I
ib: intrinsic safety for Zone 1 only

Principle : Electrical apparatus and its associated wiring which is located in the hazardous
area has insufficient electrical or thermal energy under normal of ahnonnaJ condition 1o ignite
the specific hazardous atmospheric mixture.

“Simple Apparatus" is defined ns an apparatus which does not generate power exceeding 1.2
Vu 100mA, 25 mW or 20 p. J, such as thermocouples- RID, Contact terminal strips, junction
boxes, etc. They arc not required to be certified and connected to the intrinsic safety loops
without approvals.

(4) “p” Pressurized Apparatus (Purged Apparatus)

Principle : By maintaining positive pressure of clean air or inert gases inside an

instrument enclosure with respect to an external atmosphere, lhe external atmosphere
can not come in contact with sources if ignition inside.

Type of Protection for Zone 2 only

(5) "ri” Normal ly non-sparking (Ncminccndive) Circuits

Principle :

Payt 23 of 29
 NouinccndirvE circuits may contain components which spark under normal operation,
but The energy released by such components limited in normal operation io values
incapable of causing ignition.

Non-sparking circuits contain no open sparking components (such as provided with

hermetic sealing) during normal operation.

4.LJ I heli ng of Equipment

Example I : Ex ib IIC T6
Intrinsic safety equipment designed for use in the gases classified IIC
and Intrinsic safety equipment surface temperature is limited to 85 C.

Example 2: Ex c 11 T3
increased safety equipment designed for use in explosive atmosphere
and equipment surface temperature is limited to 200 C.

Example 3 : ExdHBT4
Flame proof equipment designed for use in (he gases classified SIB
and equipment surface temperature is limited to 135 C.

Note I : LA, I IB and IIC used in the equipment labeling arc classification of
hardware design of i ntrinsic safety and flameproof equi pment (but not far
eus grouping).

Note 2 : T1 through 16 used in Lhe equipment labeling are classification of maximum

surface temperature of electrical equipment used in explosive atmosphere.

4,2 Electrical interference

4.2.1 Nube
(]) Common mode noise :
Unwanted voltages between the signal line and ground.

(2) Normal mode noise:

Unwanted voltages between the signal Lines caused by cledrumagnetic coupling
clectrosLaiic or capacitive coupling, etc.

4.2.2 Sou rev of electrieul i r i terference

(1) Electromagnetic coupling :
Unwanted voltages caused by inductive pick-up from alternating c urrent
fields.

(2) Electrostatic or capacitive coupling :

Unwanted voltages from capacitive coupling between the external voltage
source and the transmission lines.

(3) Direct coupling by leakage path :

Spurious signals from current leaking from one circuit tn another caused by
reducing insulation resistance.

(4) Direct coupling by ground ing current loop :

Unwanted voltages from ground ing current flowing through a transmission

24 of 29
 circuit.

(5) Direct coupling by common reLum lead :

A single wire be serving as a return lead for several circuits conducts current
for each circuit. Each current causes a resistive voltage drop that appears in all
the other circuits as an unwanted voltage.

4,2.3 Protection against electrical Interference

(1) Electromagnetic coupling :
Use twisted-pair wires.
Route the signal wires away from AC fields,
Reduce AC field by twisting the power conductors.

(2) Electrostatic nr capacitive coupling :

Use shielded cables.

(3) Direct coupling by leakage path :

Ensure high-quality insulation of wires, terminals, etc.

(4) Direct coupling by grounding current Loop :

Remove multiple grounds from the circuit

(5) Direct coupling by common return lead :

Use separate pair of wires for each signal.

4.3 Signal Transmission

4.3.1 Ca blc sepa ration

In case of vertically stacked trays, the circuits should be arranged as follows in order
to avoid interference of electric field that exists between voltage lines and ground.
Top to bottom order:
Computer cables
Signals
Light capacity power circuits
High voltage feeders

4.3.2 Signa I segregation

All the signals in one cable or conduit should be of Lhe same magnitude.
Sharp voltage pulses, such as solenoid valves, relay coils, contacts, etc. should be
segregated from other signals.
Thermocouple wiring should not be mixed with rnitti-ampere signals., because of big
difference in electrical potential.
When wiies for a wide range of signals must be placed in the same cable or conduit,
the cables (individual pairs) should be shielded.

4.3.3 Cable shield

Cable shield should be grounded aL only one place. The shield ground is usually
icrminaltd at ground bar on panel board, however, for grounded junction
thcnncxzouples. this means at the thermocouple head.

4.3.4 Multi-cunduetor Cables

Page 25 of 29
 It is recommeiKied that all spare conductors in a multi-conductor cable be grounded
so that they do not induce large voltage surges on signal circuits when nearly
lightning strikes occur.

The same ls also required by several regulations of intrinsic safety installation.

4.4 Seal Purge and Healing

4.4.1 General
Seal and Purge : to prevent the process fluid from entering the instrument line,
Heating to prevent formation of ice, solidification and undesirable
condensation.

4.4.2 Seal
Diaphragm seals: Diaphragm seal with or without capillary instruments
Check charauterisctcs of filled liquids to ensure proper
operation against process fluid temperature and lowest
ambient temperature.

Liquid seals : Wet legs (Sclf-staled or use seal ing 1 iq u ids)

Use seal {condensate) pots in case of high displacement type
instruments.

4-4.3 Purge
Application solid-bearing stream
stream subject to choking or solidification
currostve fluid

Purge fluid clear and compatible or non-contaminating to process fluid.

Purge connection: should be close to the process connection to minimize

pressure drop due lo the flow rate of the purging medium.

Rate of flow must be continuous at the control led rate.

RotameLers. restrictions. differential press. Regulators are
usually used to regulate the purge flow.

4.44 Healing
(1) Steam heating
Type Heavy tracing (tracer contacts instrument lines)
Light tracing (keep space between tracer and lines by
insulators)

Materia] Copper or stainless steel tube

Bundle lube (both for steam and electrical heating available)

Hook-up
a) Tracing should slope downward continuously
b) Provide shut-olT valve for each tracer.
c) Provide individual trap and condensate isolation valve for each tracer.
d) Joint of tracing tubing should be avoided. Where necessary,, they should be
made outside the insulation with expansion loops to prevent slress on the
fitting.

Page 26 of 29
 Important : If pockets exist in the tracing line, total stun of height of pockets is
limited by Total height of pockets (cm) /1 CKte Steam header press (kgtanlg)

(2) Electrical heating

The advantage of electrical heating is easy control of heat inpul

4.5 JProleclia a of Enclosure

4.5.1 IEC 529-1976 C la ssifka I ion of Degree of Protection Pro v Ided by EncIosd re

Numeral Degree of Protnliuii

1a characteristic numeral 2’d characteristic numeral
0 Non-protectcd Ncm-protected
i Protected against solid objects greater Protected against dripping water
than 50mm
2 Protected against solid objects greater Protected against dripping water when
than 12mm tilled Up to 15 degrees
3 Protected against solid objects greater Protected against spraying waler
than 2.5 mm
4 Protected against solid objects greater Protected against splashing water
than 1-0 mm
5 Dust-protected Protected against water jets
6 Dust-light Protected against heavy seas
7 - Protected against (he effects of
immersion
8 - Protected against submersion

Eunmple : TP 541 - Dust-tight and protected against heavy seas

4.5.2 N EMA 1CS1-110-1973 Industrial Controls and Systems / Enetosure

Type Description
Type 1 Crcneral Purpose - Indoor
Type 2 Drip - proof - Indoor
Type 3 Dust ■ tight. Rain - tight and Sleet (Ice) - resist - Outdoor
Type 3R Rain - proof and Sleet (Ice) - resistant - Outdoor
Type 38 Dust - tight, Rain - tight and Sleet (Ice) - proof-Outdoor
Type 4 Waler - tight and Dust - tight - Indoor and Outdoor
Type 4X Water - tight Dust - tight and Corrasion resistant - Indoor and Outdoor
Type 5 - Superseded by Type 12 for contra 1 apparatus -
Type 6 Submersible, Waler - tight, Dust - tight and Stect (Ice) - resistant - Indoor and
Outdoor
Type 7 Class I. Group A, B, C or D - Indoor Hazardous Locations, Air Break Equipment
Types Class 1. Group A. B, C or D - Indoor Hazardous Locations, Oil ■ immersed
Type 9 Class IL Group E, F or G - Indoor Hazardous Locations, Air Break Equipment
Type 10 Bureau of Mines
Type 11 Corrosion - resistant and Drip - proof Oil - immersed - Indoor Equipment
Type 12 Industrial use, Dust - tight and Drip - light - [nrkior
Type 13 Oil ■ tight and Dust - tight - Indoor

Example Enclosure for Outdoor Non-hazarduus Locations

Provide protection against 3 3R 38 4 4X 6
Ram, snow & sleet yes yes yes y« yes yes

Page 27 of 29
 Wind-blow dust yes yes yes yes yes
Hose-down - yes yes yes
Corrosive agents — ■ yes -
Occasional sutnuerstun - - - yes

5 ALARM AND EMERGENCY SYSTEMS

54 Alarms

54.1 System ] Dcdklled iiJarm systems (self-contained hard-wired alarms)

Integrated alarm systems ( DCS shims, etc.)

5.1 u2 Alarm !>eq utnCC :

(1) ISA SI 84 one of standard for operating sequence,
(2) First-out sequence to identify the point that initiates shutdown,
(3) Sequence of events to indicate exact sequence in which any alarms are
actuated.

Nate : First-out and sequence of events are usually implemented by dedicated alarm
systems, because integrated systems may not be capable of providing the
required! time discrimination for a true sequence of Events.

5.13 Audible indication :

Audible signals should be differentiated so that either the locution of plant area (or
process unitsjor the seriousness of the condition can be acknowledged.

5.1.4 Circuit design :

(1) Normally energized system : fail-safe system
bum-out of solenoid an d relay coil
(2) Normally de-energszed system : reduction of nuisance alarms

5.2 Emergency Systems

Emergency systems shall mean those required far initiating automatically such action
as valve closure, to prevent or reduce further operation upset.

5.24 System
(1) Hard-wired logic systems
(2) Solid state logic systems
(PLC with redundant nr fault tolerant controller configuration)

5.2.2 Circuit design

(1) Emergency systems ne. an most case, the same as these used for alarm systems
(2) Separate direct connected instruments shall be used for emergency systems
(3) Lock-up system (i.e. mechanical or electrical Latching arrangement) shall be provided

5.2.3 Testing (provisions for checking of Emergency system during plant operation)
(1) Shut-off valves with bypass by c ar-sealed close valves
(2) Electrical bypass switches for motor control circuit
(3) Electrical bypass switches for sensors

PiLjie 2K Lif 2V
Paj-c 39 ul’24