1

Overview of protective clothing

W Z HO U , N R ED D Y and Y Y A N G ,
Univer5ity of Nebra5ka – Lincoln, USA

1.1 Introduction
Scientific advancement5 made in variou5 field5 have undoubtedly increa5ed the
quality and value of human life. It 5hould however be recognized that the
technological development5 have al5o expo5ed u5 to greater ri5k5 and danger
of being affected by unknown phy5ical, chemical and biological attack5. One
5uch currently relevant danger i5 from bioterrori5m and weapon5 of ma55
de5truction. In addition, we continue to be expo5ed to hazard5 from fire,
chemical5, radiation and biological organi5m5 5uch a5 bacteria and viru5e5.
Fortunately, 5imple and effective mean5 of protection from mo5t of the5e
hazard5 are available. Textile5 are an integral part of mo5t protective
equipment. Protective clothing i5 manufactured u5ing traditional textile
manufacturing technologie5 5uch a5 weaving, knitting and non-woven5 and
al5o by 5pecialized technique5 5uch a5 3D weaving and braiding u5ing
natural and man-made fiber5.
Protective clothing i5 now a major part of textile5 cla55ified a5 technical or
indu5trial textile5. Protective clothing refer5 to garment5 and other fabric-related
item5 de5igned to protect the wearer from har5h environmental effect5 that may
re5ult in injurie5 or death (Adanur, 1995). Today, the hazard5 that we are
expo5ed to are often 5o 5pecialized that no 5ingle type of clothing will be
adequate for protection. Exten5ive re5earch i5 being done to develop protective
clothing for variou5 regular and 5pecialized civilian and military occupation5
(Adanur, 1995; Bajaj et 4l., 1992; Holme5, 2000). Providing protection for
the common population ha5 al5o been taken 5eriou5ly con5idering the
anticipated di5a5ter due to terrori5m or biochemical attack5 (Holme5, 2000;
Ko5cheyev and Leon, 1997).

1.2 Market prospects

Protective textile5 are a part of technical textile5 that are defined a5 compri5ing
all tho5e textile-ba5ed product5 which are u5ed principally for their performance
or functional characteri5tic5 rather than their ae5thetic or decorative
1.1 Schematic classifications of protective textiles.
 Overview of protective clothing 5

characteri5tic5 (Byrne, 2000). In 2000, technical textile5 accounted for about

25% of all textile con5umption by weight (David Rigby A55ociate5, 2004).
Protective textile5 account for 1.4% of the total technical textile5 with an
e5timated value of US$5.2 billion.
Con5umption of protective clothing ha5 increa5ed linearly in the la5t ten
year5, and in 2010 it i5 expected that about 340,000 ton5 of protective clothing
will be con5umed, an increa5e of 85% over con5umption in 1995. The America5
(mainly USA and Canada) have the highe5t con5umption of protective clothing
per annum at about 91 300 ton5 followed by Europe with 78,200 ton5 and A5ia
with 61,300 ton5 (David Rigby A55ociate5, 2004). All other region5 con5ume
only 7,200 ton5, 3.0% of total protective textile con5umption.

1.3 Classification
Cla55ifying per5onal protective textile5 i5 complicated becau5e no 5ingle
cla55ification can clearly 5ummarize all kind5 of protection. Overlap of the
definition5 i5 common 5ince there are 5o many occupation5 and application5
that even the 5ame cla55 of protective clothing often ha5 different requirement5
in technique and protection. Depending on the end u5e, per5onal protective
textile5 can be cla55ified a5 indu5trial protective textile5, agricultural protective
textile5, military protective textile5, civilian protective textile5, medical
protective textile5, 5port5 protective textile5 and 5pace protective textile5.
Per5onal protective textile5 can be further cla55ified according to the end-u5e
function5 5uch a5 thermal (cold) protection, flame protection, chemical
protection, mechanical impact protection, radiation protection, biological
protection, electrical protection and wearer vi5ibility. Their relation5hip i5
illu5trated in Fig. 1.1. Unle55 indicated otherwi5e, thi5 cla55ification will be u5ed
in the following de5cription5.

1.3.1 Fire protection

It would have been impo55ible for human5 to 5urvive the primitive age
without the u5e of fire. However, fire could be dangerou5. Fire di5a5ter5 occur
frequently re5ulting in non-fatal and fatal ca5ualtie5. Of all the accidental fire5 in
dwelling5, occupied building5 and outdoor fire5, the great majority (79% of
the total in 1986) of death5 re5ulted from fire5 in dwelling5 although only
16% of fire5 happened in dwelling5 (Bajaj et 4l., 1992). The mo5t frequently
ignited material5 were the textile5, e5pecially uphol5tery and furni5hing5
(Bajaj et 4l., 1992). It 5hould, however, be noted that the main cau5e of death
in a fire accident i5 not direct burning but 5uffocation due to the 5moke and toxic
ga5e5 relea5ed during burning. In the UK, 50% of fatalitie5 in fire accident5
were directly attributable to thi5 cau5e (Bajaj et 4l., 1992). Therefore, the u5e
of non- or low-toxic burning material5 i5 very important for fire protection.
 6 Textiles for
Human ti55ue (5kin) i5 very 5en5itive to heat. It i5 reported that, at 45 ºC, the
5en5ation of pain i5 experienced, and at 72 ºC the 5kin i5 completely burnt (Bajaj
et 4l., 1992; Panek, 1982). The purpo5e of fire-protective clothing i5 to reduce
the rate of heating of human 5kin in order to provide the wearer enough time
to react and e5cape. The time that a wearer 5tay5 in flame circum5tance5 and
the amount of heat flux produced are important factor5 for de5igning the
protective 5tratagem. Under normal condition5, only 3–10 5econd5 are
available for a per5on to e5cape from a place of fire with a heat flux of about
130–330 kW/m2 (Holme5, 2000). Fiber5 commonly u5ed for textile5 are ea5ily
burnt. Untreated cotton will either burn (flaming combu5tion) or 5molder
(5molder combu5tion), whenever it i5 in the pre5ence of oxygen and the
temperature i5 high enough to initiate combu5tion (360–420 ºC) (Wakelyn,
1997).
Protective clothing de5igned for flame protection mu5t have two function5,
i.e., be flame-re5i5tant and form a heat barrier. The latter i5 a very important
factor if the wearer need5 to 5tay near flame5 for a fairly long time. In fact,
the danger of burning lie5 with the part5 of the body not covered by clothing,
confirmed by 5tati5tic5 5howing that 75% of all firefighter burn injurie5 in the
USA are to the hand5 and face (Holme5, 2000). Flame-retardant clothing i5
generally u5ed for occupation uniform5 (Holme5, 2000).
Increa5ing government regulation5 and 5afety concern5 nece55itate that
certain cla55e5 of garment5 and home textile5 5uch a5 children'5 5leepwear,
carpet5, uphol5tery fabric5 and bedding be made flame-retardant or re5i5tant
(Wakelyn et 4l., 1998). U5ing inherently flame-retardant material5 5uch a5
Kevlar and Nomex, applying a flame-retardant fini5h or a combination of
the5e method5 are commonly u5ed to make clothing and textile5 flame
retardant.

1.3.2 Heat and cold protection

Ba5ic metaboli5m5 occurring in5ide our body generate heat that can be life
5aving or fatal depending on the atmo5phere and circum5tance5 that we are in.
Normally, human bodie5 are comfortable to heat in a very narrow temperature
range of 28–30 ºC (82–86 ºF) (Fourt and Hollier, 1970). In 5ummer, we need the
heat from our metabolic activity to be tran5ferred out5ide a5 5oon a5 po55ible,
while in winter, e5pecially in extremely cold condition5, we mu5t find way5 to
prevent the lo55 of heat from our body. Heat 5tre55, defined a5 the 5ituation
where the body cannot di55ipate it5 exce55 heat to the environment i5 a 5eriou5
problem e5pecially during phy5ical working (Bajaj et 4l., 1992; McLellan, 1996;
Muza et 4l., 1996; Richard5on and Capra, 2001; Wa5terlund, 1998).
Ba5ically, heat i5 tran5ferred either a5 conductive, convective, radiant heat or
a combination of the5e mode5 depending on the 5ource of heat, the atmo5phere
the heat-ab5orbing material i5 in and the protection available again5t heat (Bajaj
et 4l., 1992; Fourt and Hollier, 1970). Any heat tran5fer will have at lea5t one of
the5e mode5 and heat protection i5 the method to decrea5e or increa5e the rate of
 Overview of protective clothing 7

heat tran5fer. For protection from conductive heat, fabric thickne55 and den5ity
are the major con5ideration5, 5ince air trapped between fiber5 ha5 the lowe5t
thermal conductivity of all material5 (Morton and Hearle, 1997). For
protection from convective heat (flame hazard in particular), the flame-retardant
propertie5 of the fabric are important. A5 for radiant heat protection, metalized
fabric5 5uch a5 aluminized fabric5 are preferred, 5ince metalized fabric5 have
high 5urface reflection and al5o electrical conductivity (Adanur, 1995; Bajaj et
4l., 1992). Ideal clothing for protection from heat tran5fer are fabric5 with
thermo- regulating or temperature-adaptable propertie5 (Bajaj et 4l., 1992;
Pau5e, 2003). Pha5e change material5 (PCM) are one 5uch example that can
ab5orb heat and change to a high-energy pha5e in a hot environment, but can
rever5e the proce55 to relea5e heat in cold 5ituation5 (Choi et 4l., 2004b).
Specifically de5igned protective clothing i5 nece55ary to 5urvive and operate
in temperature5 below —30 ºC. Such low-temperature condition5 are aggravated
in the pre5ence of wind, rain or 5now leading to cold 5tre55 that may be fatal
(Ri55anen and Rintamaki, 2000). The mo5t effective method of cold protection i5
to avoid or decrea5e conductive heat lo55. Clothing de5igned to protect from
cold i5 u5ually multi-layered, con5i5ting of a non-ab5orbent inner layer, a
middle in5ulating layer capable of trapping air but tran5ferring moi5ture, and
an outer layer that i5 impermeable to wind and water. Temperature-adaptable
clothing that can protect from both heat and cold ha5 been developed by
fixing poly- ethylene glycol to cotton at different curing temperature5 (Bajaj
et 4l., 1992).

1.3.3 Chemical protection

Fortunately, mo5t of u5 are not involved in handling dangerou5 and toxic
chemical5, 5ince no amount of protection can provide complete i5olation from
the hazard5 of chemical5. In recent year5, the chemical indu5try ha5 been facing
an ever-increa5ing degree of regulation to avoid worker5 being expo5ed to
chemical hazard5 (Bajaj et 4l., 1992). Chemical protective clothing (CPC)
5hould be con5idered the la5t line of defen5e in any chemical-handling operation
and every effort 5hould be made to u5e le55 hazardou5 chemical5 where po55ible,
or to develop and implement engineering control5 that minimize or eliminate
human contact with chemical hazard5 (Carroll, 2001, Adanur, 1995).
Protective clothing cannot be made generic for all chemical application5,
5ince chemical5 vary in mo5t ca5e5 and a particular CPC can protect only
again5t a limited number of 5pecific chemical5 (Perepelkin, 2001). Important
con5ideration5 in de5igning chemical protective clothing are the amount of
chemical permeation, breakthrough time for penetration, liquid repellency, and
phy5ical propertie5 of the CPC in 5pecific chemical condition5 (Carroll, 2001;
Mandel et 4l., 1996; McQueen et 4l., 2000; Vo et 4l., 2001; Park and Zeller5,
2000; Singh and Kaur, 1997a,b). Ba5ed on the 5pecific requirement5 and type of
clothing, CPC i5 cla55ified in different way5.
 8 Textiles for
Chemical protective clothing can be categorized a5 encap5ulating or non-
encap5ulating ba5ed on the 5tyle of wearing the clothing (Adanur, 1995). The
encap5ulating 5y5tem cover5 the whole body and include5 re5piratory protection
equipment and i5 generally u5ed where high chemical protection i5 required. The
non-encap5ulating clothing i5 a55embled from 5eparate component5 and the
re5piratory 5y5tem i5 not a part of the CPC. The Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) in the United State5 cla55ifie5 protective clothing ba5ed on the
level of protection from highe5t to normal protection. CPC i5 rated for four
level5 of protection, level5 A, B, ºC and D from highe5t protection to normal
protection (Adanur, 1995; Carroll, 2001). European 5tandard5 for CPC are ba5ed
on the ‘type' of clothing ba5ed on te5ting of the whole garment and are cla55ified
a5 type5 1 to 7, related to the type of expo5ure of the CPC 5uch a5 ga5-
tight, 5pray-tight, liquid-tight, etc. (Carroll, 2001). Traditionally, u5ed
di5po5able clothing al5o offer5 re5i5tance to a wide range of chemical5 and
5ome di5po5able clothing can be repaired u5ing adhe5ive patche5 and reu5ed
before being di5po5ed (Adanur, 1995; Carroll, 2001). Chemical5 that are in
liquid form are more often u5ed than 5olid chemical5. Therefore, chemical
protective clothing 5hould be repellent or impermeable to liquid5.
Developing pe5ticide-re5i5tant clothing ha5 received con5iderable attention
from re5earcher5 5ince expo5ure of 5kin to pe5ticide i5 a major health hazard to
farmer5 (Zhang and Raheel, 2003). Clothing currently u5ed for pe5ticide
protection doe5 not give adequate protection, e5pecially to the hand5 and thigh5,
even if farmer5 u5e tractor-mounted boom 5prayer5 with a clo5ed cabin and
wear protective clothing with glove5 and rubber boot5 (Fen5ke et 4l., 2002, Elmi
et 4l., 1998).
Other important function5 of chemical protective clothing are to protect from
chemical5 pre5ent in the air 5uch a5 toxic and noxiou5 ga5e5 or fume5 from
automobile5, du5t and microorgani5m5 pre5ent in the air. Safety ma5k5
containing activated carbon particle5 which can ab5orb the du5t pre5ent in the
atmo5phere are commonly u5ed again5t air pollution.

1.3.4 Mechanical impact protection

B4llistic protection
Balli5tic protection i5 generally required for 5oldier5, policemen and general
5ecurity per5onnel. Balli5tic protection involve5 protection of body and eye5
again5t projectile5 of variou5 5hape5, 5ize5, and impact velocitie5 (Adanur,
1995). Hi5torically, balli5tic protection device5 were made from metal5 and were
too heavy to wear. Textile material5 provide the 5ame level of balli5tic
protec- tion a5 metal5 but have relatively low weight and are therefore
comfortable to wear. Mo5t of the ca5ualtie5 during military combat or during
unintended explo5ion5 are from the fragment5 of matter cau5ed by the
explo5ion hitting the
 Overview of protective clothing 9

body (Scott, 2000). It i5 reported that during military combat, only 19% of
ca5ualtie5 are cau5ed by bullet5, a5 high a5 59% of ca5ualtie5 are cau5ed by
fragment5, and about 22% are due to other rea5on5 (Scott, 2000). The number
of ca5ualtie5 due to balli5tic impact can be reduced 19% by wearing helmet5,
40% by wearing armor and 65% by wearing armor with helmet (Scott,
2000).
High-performance clothing de5igned for balli5tic protection di55ipate5 the
energy of the fragment/5hrapnel by 5tretching and breaking the yarn5 and
tran5ferring the energy from the impact at the cro55over point5 of yarn5 (Scott,
2000). The balli5tic protection of a material depend5 on it5 ability to ab5orb
energy locally and on the efficiency and 5peed of tran5ferring the ab5orbed
energy (Jacob5 and Van Dingenen, 2001). One of the earlie5t material5 u5ed for
balli5tic protection wa5 woven 5ilk that wa5 later replaced by high-modulu5
fiber5 ba5ed on aliphatic nylon 6,6 having a high degree of cry5tallinity and low
elongation. Since the 19705, aromatic polyamide fiber5, 5uch a5 Kevlar ® (Du
Pont) and Twaron® (Enka) and ultra-high-modulu5 polyethylene (UHMPE) have
been u5ed for balli5tic protection (Scott, 2000).

Other imp4ct protection

According to the US Labor Department, each year, more than one million
worker5 5uffer job-related injurie5 and 25% of the5e injurie5 are to the hand5
and arm5 (Adanur, 1995). Glove5, helmet5 and chain-5aw clothing are the
main protective acce55orie5 u5ed by per5onnel working in the chemical,
con5truction and other indu5trie5 (Adanur, 1995). Some example5 of non-
combat impact protection are the 5eat belt5 and air bag5 u5ed in automobile5.
Air bag5 have reduced the death rate in accident5 by 28%, 5eriou5 injurie5
by 29% and ho5pitalization by 24% and 5eat belt5 can reduce fatal and 5eriou5
injurie5 by 50% (Adanur, 1995, Fung, 2000). A typical 5eat belt i5 required to
re5train a pa55enger weighing 90 kg in colli5ion with a fixed object at 50 km/h
(about 30 mph). The ten5ile 5trength of a 5eat belt 5hould be at lea5t 30
kN/50mm (Fung, 2000).
Although 5port5 and recreational injurie5 account for relatively few death5
(0–6% of death5 to tho5e under age 20), the5e activitie5 are a55ociated with 17%
of all ho5pitalized injurie5 and 19% of emergency room vi5it5 to ho5pital5
(Mackay and Scanlon, 2001). Child and adole5cent death5 due to 5port5 and
recreational injurie5 are a major cau5e of morbidity in Canada (Canadian
In5titute of Child Health, 1994). In 1995, Canada 5pent about $4.2 billion in
treating unintentional injurie5 (Mackay and Scanlon, 2001). More than half of
the total 5port5 and recreational injurie5 are attributed to eight activitie5: ice
hockey, ba5eball, ba5ketball, 5occer, jogging, cycling, football and volleyball.
Modern 5port5 clothing u5e5 high-performance fabric5 that are de5igned to
operate at high 5peed but are 5till 5afe and comfortable to wear (O'Mahony and
Braddock, 2002). The mo5t common protective textile5 u5ed in 5port5 are in
knee brace5, wri5t brace5, ankle brace5, helmet5 and guard5.
 1 Textiles for
1.3.5 Biological protection
Mo5t natural textile fiber5 5uch a5 wool, 5ilk and cellulo5ic5 are 5ubject to
biological degradation by bacteria, dermatophytic fungi, etc. Fortunately, variou5
chemical5 and fini5hing technique5 are available that can protect the textile and
the wearer from biological attack5. Textile5 de5igned for biological protection
have two function5: fir5t, protecting the wearer from being attacked by bacteria,
yea5t, dermatophytic fungi, and other related microorgani5m5 which cau5e
ae5thetic, hygienic, or medical problem5; 5econdly, protecting the textile it5elf
from biodeterioration cau5ed by mold, mildew, and rot-producing fungi and from
being dige5ted by in5ect5 and other pe5t5 (Bajaj et 4l., 1992; Vigo, 1983).
The antimicrobial propertie5 of 5ilk have been u5ed for many year5 in medical
application5 (Choi et 4l., 2004a). Natural fiber5 contain lignin and other
5ub5tance5 that have inherent antimicrobial propertie5. Generally, textile5 made
from natural fiber5 have better anti-microbial propertie5 than man-made fiber5
due to the pre5ence of 5ub5tance5 5uch a5 lignin and pectin. Chemical fini5hing
i5 mo5t commonly u5ed for imparting anti-microbial propertie5 to natural and
man-made textile5 by applying functional fini5he5 onto the 5urface of the fabric
or by making fiber5 inherently re5i5tant to microorgani5m5.
In high functional fiber5 that are inherently anti-microbial, the entire
5urface of the fiber i5 made from a bioactive material and the bioactivity
remain5 undimini5hed throughout the u5eful life of the fiber (Bajaj et 4l., 1992;
Patel et 4l., 1998, Rajendran and Anand, 2002). In 5ome ca5e5, ju5t providing
an anti- microbial fini5h to the fabric5 may not prevent the infection. For example,
fungi 5uch a5 Aspergillosis i5 fatal to about 80% of bone marrow and organ
tran5plant recipient5, even with inten5e ho5pital and 5trong antifungal drug
treatment (Curti5, 1998). To prevent 5uch tran5-infection through fabric5,
combined fluid- re5i5tant and anti-microbial fini5hing have been developed that
can avoid fluid penetration through the fabric and decrea5e the tran5-infection
(Anonymou5, 2003; Belkin, 1999; Ka5turiya and Bhargave, 2003; Shekar et
4l., 2001; Zin5,
1998).
Fabric5 de5igned for microbial protection 5hould act a5 barrier5 to bacteria
and other microorgani5m5 that are believed to be tran5ported from one location
to another by carrier5 5uch a5 du5t or liquid5 (Belkin, 1999, 2002; Leona5 and
Jinkin5, 1997). Film5 generally have high barrier propertie5 again5t microbe5
and chemical5. However, film5 when u5ed with fabric5 to provide antimicrobial
propertie5 make fabric5 impermeable to airflow leading to heat 5tre55 and other
phy5iological problem5 that may be fatal (Wilu5z et 4l., 1997). New membrane
5tructure5 called ‘perm-5elective' or ‘breathable' membrane5 have
been developed that can prevent airflow through the fabric layer but have
high water-vapor permeability. U5ing the5e membrane5 with fabric5
provide5 effective protection from hazardou5 material5 or microbe5 without
cau5ing heat 5tre55 (HAZMAT) (Schreuder-Gib5on et 4l., 2003).
 Overview of protective clothing 11

Ri5k5 and contamination5 cau5ed by HIV and other viru5e5 have increa5ed the
protective requirement5 for medical textile5 (Rajendran and Anand, 2002; Patel
et 4l., 1998). It i5 de5irable to have anti-microbial fini5hing even for
everyday textile5 5uch a5 underwear, baby 5uit5, diaper5, towel5, etc.

1.3.6 Radiation protection

Nucle4r r4di4tion protection
Special clothing to prevent expo5ure to radiation i5 needed for people working in
radioactive environment5. Alpha-, beta- and gamma-radiation are the major
mode5 of nuclear radiation. Irradiation injurie5 by alpha- and 5ome beta-
radiation can be prevented by keeping the radioactive dirt off the 5kin and out of
the eye5, no5e and mouth. Goggle5, re5piratory ma5k5, glove5 and lightweight
protective clothing may be adequate for protection from 5ome alpha- and beta-
radiation which have weak penetration (Adanur, 1995). However, gamma- and
5ome beta-radiation have 5ufficient energy to penetrate through textile5 and can
affect the human ti55ue even if the radioactive 5ub5tance doe5 not contact the
human 5kin. Protection from tran5mitted radiation depend5 on the level of
contamination control, expo5ure time, di5tance from radiation 5ource and the
type of radioactive 5hield available (Adanur, 1995). Shielding i5 done by placing
a den5e (heavy) radiation barrier 5uch a5 lead between the radioactive dirt and
the worker.
Woven cotton, polye5ter/cotton or nylon/polye5ter fabric5 with a twill and
5ateen weave are the major type5 of fabric form5 u5ed for nuclear protective
clothing (Adanur, 1995). Non-woven fabric5 u5ed a5 over- and tran5it garment5
in nuclear radiation protection act a5 a barrier again5t dangerou5 particle5,
5hield5 the main garment again5t contamination and are di5po5able when
contaminated (Bajaj et 4l., 1992).

UV r4di4tion protection
The wavelength of 5olar radiation reaching the Earth'5 5urface 5pan5 from 280
to 3,000 nm (Reinert et 4l., 1997). Ultraviolet (UV) light ha5 the highe5t energy
radiation con5i5ting of UV-A and UV-B, who5e radiation i5 from 320–340 nm
and 280–320 nm, re5pectively. Exce55ive expo5ure of the 5kin to UV-A radiation
can be carcinogenic re5ulting in chronic reaction5 and injury, accelerated ageing
of the 5kin, promotion of photodermato5i5 (acne) etc. (Reinert et 4l., 1997). An
overdo5e of UV-B can lead to acute and chronic reaction5, 5kin reddening
(erythema) or 5unburn, increa5ing the ri5k factor of per5on5 5u5ceptible to
melanoma and 5kin cancer (Gie5 et 4l., 1997, 1998; Reinert et 4l., 1997; Wang et
4l., 2001). In the la5t decade, attempt5 to reduce the incidence of 5kin cancer
were mainly focu5ed on decrea5ing 5olar UVR expo5ure (Gie5 et 4l., 1997).
 1 Textiles for
Tab/e 1.1 Main factors affecting UVR protection (Adanur, 1995; Gies et a/.,
1997, 1998; Reinert et a/., 1997; Xin et a/., 2004)

Factors Effectiveness

1. Fiber Cotton has high permeability to UVR, Wool has high

absorption, Polyester has high absorption to UV-B,
polyamides are fairly permeable to UVR.
2. Weave Fabric construction, which determines the porosity and
type of weave, is the most important factor affecting UV
protection. Tighter the weave, lesser the UVR
transmitted.
3. Color Dark colors absorb UVR more strongly and therefore
have high UPFs.
4. Weight Thicker and heavier fabrics transmit less UVR.
5. Stretch Greater the stretch, lower the UPF rating.
6. Water Depends on the moisture absorption capabilities of the
fibers/fabrics. Generally, fabrics provide less UVR
protection when wet.
7. Finishing UVR absorbing additives can be used to increase the
protection of lightweight summer garments.

Although many term5 5uch a5 SPF (5un protection factor), and CPF (clothing
protection factor) which are generally u5ed in the UK have been u5ed to
de5ignate the amount of 5olar UVR protection of fabric5, UPF (ultraviolet
protection factor) i5 the mo5t commonly u5ed index (Gie5 et 4l., 1997, 1998;
Hatch, 2002; Wang et 4l., 2001; Xin et 4l., 2004). The UPF for clothing with an
excellent UV protection 5hould be 40 to 50+ (Gie5 et 4l., 1997). But from a
clinical viewpoint, a UPF greater than 50 i5 entirely unnece55ary (Gie5 et 4l.,
1997). Sun5creen5, 5ungla55e5, hat5 and clothing are the main acce55orie5 u5ed to
protect from UVR. Textile5 are excellent material5 for UVR protection and mo5t
UV can be blocked by common clothing (Reinert et 4l., 1997). A5 5hown in
Table 1.1, the UVR protection of a fabric depend5 on fiber content, weave,
fabric color, fini5hing proce55e5, the pre5ence of additive5, and laundering (Gie5
et 4l., 1997, 1998; Wang et 4l., 2001; Xin et 4l., 2004).

Electrom4gnetic-r4di4tion protection
With the development of modern 5ociety, people greatly benefit from the
electrical and electronic device5 u5ed during work and everyday life. However,
the5e device5 are capable of emitting radio frequencie5 that are potential
hazard5 to health. Example5 are cell phone5 with frequencie5 from 900 to 1,800
MHz, microwave oven5 with 2,450 MHz, radar 5ignal communication 5y5tem5
 Overview of protective clothing 13

extending from 1 to 10,000 MHz, and 5o on (Cheng and Lee, 2001; Su and
Chern, 2004). Many countrie5 are legi5lating new regulation5 5o that the
manufacturer5 of electrical and electronic equipment comply with the
electromagnetic (EMC) requirement 5tandard5 (Cheng and Lee, 2001).
When electromagnetic wave5 enter an organi5m, they vibrate molecule5
producing heat that could ob5truct a cell'5 capability for regeneration of DNA
and RNA (Su and Chern, 2004). Furthermore, electromagnetic wave5 can cau5e
abnormal chemical activitie5 that produce cancer cell5 leading to leukemia and
other type5 of cancer (Su and Chern, 2004).
Traditionally, 5heet metal5 are u5ed for 5hielding radio frequencie5 (Cheng
and Lee, 2001). In recent year5, conductive fabric5 have been u5ed for 5hielding
electromagnetic and 5tatic charge5 in defen5e, the electrical and electronic
indu5trie5. General textile fiber5 have 5ufficient in5ulating propertie5 with
re5i5tivitie5 of the order of 1015 Λ/cm2, much higher than the de5irable re5i5tivity
for electromagnetic 5hielding application5 (Cheng and Lee, 2001). The de5ired
re5i5tivitie5 for anti-electro5tatic, 5tatically di55ipated and 5hielding material5 are
109 to 1013 Λ/cm2, 102 to 106 Λ/cm2 and lower than 102 Λ/cm2 re5pectively
(Cheng and Lee, 2001). Therefore, conductive fabric5 are de5igned according to
5pecific requirement5 u5ing variou5 technique5 5uch a5:
1. Laminating conductive layer5 onto the 5urface of the fabric by u5ing
conductive coating5, zinc arc 5pray5, ionic plating, vacuum metallized
5puttering, and metal foil binding (Adanur, 1995; Bajaj et 4l., 1992; Cheng
and Lee, 2001; Kirkpatrick, 1973; La5t and Thoule55, 1971).
2. Adding conductive filler5 5uch a5 conductive carbon black, carbon fiber5,
metal fiber5 (5tainle55 5teel, aluminum, copper) or metal powder5 and
flake5 (Al, Cu, Ag, Ni) to the in5ulating material (Bhat et 4l., 2004;
Cheng and Lee, 2001; Miya5aka, 1986).
3. Incorporating conductive fiber5 and yarn5 into a fabric. Thi5 method
provide5 flexibility in de5igning the conductive garment5 (Adanur, 1995;
Bajaj et 4l., 1992; Cheng and Lee, 2001, Su and Chern, 2004).

1.3.7 Electrical protection

Electrom4gnetic protection
Protection from electromagnetic 5ource5 i5 required becau5e people who work
clo5e to power line5 and electrical equipment have the po55ibility of being
expo5ed to electric 5hock5 and acute flammability hazard5. Generally, rubber
glove5, dielectric hard hat5 and boot5, 5leeve protector5, conductive Faraday-
cage garment5, rubber blanket5 and non-conductive 5tick5 are u5ed for
electromagnetic protection (Adanur, 1995). Conductive protective clothing
with flame re5i5tance, known a5 ‘Live line' garment5, i5 nece55ary for
people who work in the vicinity of very high-voltage electrical equipment. A
live-line
 1 Textiles for
garment which wa5 introduced in the early 19705 i5 5till in u5e (Adanur,
1995).
Radiation from electro-magnetic field5 (EMF) generated by power line5 i5
another potential ri5k to people working near power line5. There have been
report5 about the relation between expo5ure to electromagnetic field5 and health
hazard5 like leukemia and brain cancer (Adanur, 1995). A typical
electromagnetic protective fabric i5 woven from conductive material 5uch a5
5pun yarn5 containing a mixture of fire-retardant textile fiber5 and 5tainle55 5teel
fiber5 (8–12 micron diameter). It ha5 been 5hown that fabric5 made of 25%
5tainle55 5teel fiber/75% wool blend or 25% 5tainle55 5teel fiber/75% aramid fiber
blend can protect the wearer from electromagnetic field5 generated by voltage5
of up to 400 kV (Adanur, 1995). Protection at even higher voltage5 can be
obtained by u5ing a combination of the5e fabric5 in two or more layer5 (King,
1988).

Electrost4tic protection
Electro5tatic charge5 accumulate ea5ily on ordinary textile material5, e5pecially in
dry condition5 (Holme et 4l., 1998; Kathirgamanathan et 4l., 2000; Morton and
Hearle, 1997). Charge5 once accumulated are difficult to di55ipate. The di55ipation
of an electro5tatic-charge occur5 through 5hock5 and 5park5 which can be
hazardou5 in a flammable atmo5phere. Therefore, the pre5ence of a 5tatic charge in
textile5 can be a major hazard in explo5ive5, paper, printing, electronic5,
pla5tic5, and the photographic indu5try (Bajaj et 4l., 1992). Before the
advent of non- flammable anae5thetic5 and anti-5tatic rubber component5 in
operating theatre equipment there wa5 evidence of 5tatic electrically initiated
explo5ion5 in ho5pital5 (Scott 1981). The charge pre5ent in a garment can
probably be over 60 kV depending on the balance between the rate of
generation and the rate of di55ipation of the 5tatic charge5 and the body
potential (Holme et 4l., 1998).
The clinging of garment5 i5 a common problem cau5ed due to the pre5ence
of electro5tatic charge5. Electro5tatic attraction may impede the opening of
parachute5 and even lead to cata5trophic failure under certain circum5tance5
(Holme et 4l., 1998). Anti-electro5tatic fini5he5 are u5ed for textile5 both in
civilian and non-civilian application5. The ba5ic principle of making an
anti5tatic garment i5 to decrea5e the electrical re5i5tivity or the chance of
electro- 5tatic accumulation in a fabric. Example5 of the former are 5pinning
yarn5 containing conductive material5, producing a compo5ite fiber in which at
lea5t one element i5 a conductive material or a fiber containing a conductive
material 5uch a5 metallic or carbon coating5 (Holme et 4l., 1998). Example5 of
the latter are the addition of a mixture of lubricant5 and 5urfactant5 to the
textile5, or anti- 5tatic fini5hing (Holme et 4l., 1998). It 5hould, however, be
noted that electro5tatic5 can be very u5eful for practical indu5trial
application5. In the textile indu5try, electro5tatic5 are u5ed a5 a mean5 of
5pinning fiber5 and yarn5 (Holme et 4l., 1998; Morton and Hearle, 1997).
 Overview of protective clothing 15

1.3.8 Reduced visibility protection

Reduced vi5ibility contribute5 to fatal pede5trian accident5. It i5 reported that
night-time vehicle5 hit and kill more than 4000 pede5trian5 and injure more
than 30,000 pede5trian5 annually in the United State5 (Adanur, 1995). High-
vi5ibility material5 (HVM) are believed to be capable of a55i5ting in avoiding
worker and pede5trian death5 or 5eriou5 injurie5. HVM5 are u5ed by
pede5trian5, highway worker5, cycli5t5, jogger5, hiker5, policemen, firemen
and other profe55ional5.
Clothing i5 made highly vi5ible by 5ewing high-vi5ibility material5 or by
chemical fini5hing. There are three major type5 of high-vi5ibility product5:
1. Reflective material5 which 5hine when 5truck by light; e.g., reflective
micropri5m
2. Photolumine5cent material5 that can ab5orb daylight or artifical light, 5tore
the energy and emit a green yellow glow in darkne55
3. Fluore5cent material5 (Adanur, 1995).
In 5ome ca5e5, combination5 of the5e method5 are u5ed to provide optimum
vi5ibility during the night.

1.4 Materials and technologies

A5 di5cu55ed above, there exi5t5 a wide variety of per5onal protective clothing
manufactured to 5uit a particular end u5e requirement. Protectivity can be
imparted to clothing u5ing 5tandard textile manufacturing technologie5 or by any
applicable new technologie5. Except for a few item5 5uch a5 5afety belt5, air
bag5, 5afety rope5 and parachute5, mo5t per5onal protective material will be
made into apparel. Although the proce55ing technologie5 for 5pecific protective
clothing are different, the main proce55e5 a5 5hown in Fig. 1.2 generally include
(i) material manufacturing or 5election; (ii) producing fabric5 and other
related item5; (iii) fini5hing, and (iv) clothing engineering.

1.4.1 Fibers/yarn
Chemic4l structure
Generally, chemical 5tructure determine5 the propertie5 and performance of any
fiber. Natural fiber5 are one of the main fiber cla55e5 u5ed for protective clothing
(Adanur, 1995; Bajaj et 4l., 1992). However, with the emergence of man-made
fiber5 (regenerated and 5ynthetic fiber5, e5pecially high-performance fiber5), the
fiber family ha5 become 5o wide and re5ourceful that fiber5 are available to meet
virtually any requirement for protective clothing.
The mo5t important man-made fiber5 u5ed in per5onal protective clothing are:
1.2 Schematic of materials and technologies for manufacturing protective textiles.
 Overview of protective 1

1. Synthetic fibers with high mech4nic4l perform4nce. Fiber5 in thi5 category

have 5uperior 5trength and high modulu5 that make protective clothing
capable of 5u5taining high-velocity impact5 and retaining their 5hape during
and after impact. High performance polyimide fiber5 with common
commercial name5 5uch a5 Kevlar ® (Dupont) and Twaron® (Akzo, now
Acordi5) are polymerized from a monomer of p4r4-aramid5 u5ing liquid
cry5talline 5pinning (Miraftab, 2000; Weinrotter and Seidl, 1993; Doyle
2000). Polyimide fiber5 have excellent thermal re5i5tance with a high gla55
tran5ition temperature of about 370 ºC and do not melt and burn ea5ily but
are prone to photo-degradation (Miraftab, 2000). Another important high
mechanical performance fiber i5 ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene
(UHMWPE) fiber that ha5 a modulu5 in exce55 of 70 GNm—2 and 5trength
per 5pecific weight i5 claimed to be 15 time5 5tronger than 5teel and twice
a5 5trong a5 aromatic polyamide5. But, UHMWPE melt5 at around 150 ºC.
The5e fiber5 are now widely u5ed in 5trengthening compo5ite material5 for
mechanical impact protection. PBO (poly-paraphenylene benzobi5oxazole)
with the trade name Zylon ® i5 another important fiber that po55e55e5
5uperior heat re5i5tance and mechanical propertie5 (Doyle, 2000; Khakhar,
1998).
2. Combustion-resist4nt org4nic fibers. The limited oxygen index (LOI) i5 a
mea5ure of the re5i5tance of a fiber to combu5tion. Nomex and Conex,
which were produced from met4-aramid5 by Dupont in 1962 and Teijin
in 1972 re5pectively have a LOI of 29. Polybenzimidazole (PBI) produced by
Hoech5t-Celane5e ha5 a LOI of 42. The highe5t LOI of a fiber realized
till now i5 the PAN-OX, made by RK Textile5, with a LOI of 55. The5e
fiber5 can be u5ed in flame- and thermal-re5i5tant protective clothing
without any chemical fini5hing (Miraftab, 2000).
3. High-perform4nce inorg4nic fibers such 4s c4rbon fiber, gl4ss fiber 4nd
4sbestos. Carbon fiber ha5 high mechanical propertie5, i5 electrically
conductive and ha5 high thermal re5i5tance. Carbon fiber5 can be u5ed a5
reinforcing fiber5 in compo5ite5 and al5o for electromagnetic and
electro5tatic protection (Adanur, 1995; Bajaj et 4l., 1992; Doyle, 2000).
Fiber5 made from alumino5ilicate compound mixture5 of aluminum
oxide (Al2O) and 5ilicon oxide (SiO2) can tolerate temperature5 from
1,250 to 1,400 ºC depending on their compo5ition ratio (Miraftab, 2000).
Silicon carbide (SiC) fiber5 have an out5tanding ability to function in an
oxidizing condition of up to 1,800 ºC (Miraftab, 2000).
4. Novel fibers. The5e fiber5 were fir5t introduced by Japan in an attempt to
reproduce 5ilk-like propertie5 with additional enhanced durability (Miraftab,
2000). The fir5t generation novel fiber5 were microfiber5, fiber5 with a
denier 5imilar to the 5ilk filament. Currently, much thinner fiber5 have been
5ucce55fully made and by u5ing the5e fiber5, tight weave fabric5 with a
den5ity of 30,000 filament5/cm2 can be produced (Miraftab, 2000). The
 1 Textiles for

tight weave5 make the5e fabric5 impermeable to water droplet5, but allow
air and moi5ture vapor circulation. Tightly woven microdenier fabric5 are
an ideal material for waterproof fabric5 and outdoor protective clothing.
In addition to microdenier fiber5, many functional fiber5 with 5uperior
performance propertie5 can be produced by u5ing multi-component polymer
5pinning.

Physic4l structure
Ba5ed on their length, fiber5 can be divided into filament5 or 5taple5. Natural
fiber5 generally have an uneven phy5ical 5tructure both in 5taple and filament
(5ilk) form. The finene55, cro55-5ectional 5hape, mechanical propertie5 and
even the color are different and vary from fiber to fiber (Morton and Hearle,
1997). The variability among fiber5 and their non-homogeneity are
di5tingui5hing feature5 that provide unique propertie5 to natural fiber5. Even
man-made fiber5 are now being produced with propertie5 5imilar to natural
fiber5 by u5ing technique5 5uch a5 texturization.
Filament fiber5 can be directly u5ed for fabric manufacturing, or can be
textured prior to being u5ed for weaving. Texturing produce5 the 5o-called
‘bulked yarn5', ‘5tretch yarn5' and ‘crimped yarn5' that impart 5ynthetic fiber5
with phy5ical propertie5 5imilar to tho5e of natural fiber5 (Hearle et 4l., 2001).
By blending different fiber5, yarn5 can be made to have 5pecific and unique
functional propertie5. For example, blending 5tainle55 5teel fiber5 with other
fiber5 produce5 conductive yarn5. Yarn5 can al5o be produced from film by fir5t
5plitting the film and then twi5ting it into yarn5 (Tortora, 1978). Twi5ting can
al5o combine the different yarn5 to produce novel yarn5. Producing bi-
component yarn5 by twi5ting core yarn5 with an ela5tic fiber 5uch a5 lycra ha5
become one of the main method5 to produce ela5tic yarn5 and fabric5.

1.4.2 Fabric
Woven 4nd knitted f4brics
Traditional woven fabric5 are produced through interlacing of two 5y5tem5 of
yarn5 (warp and weft) at right-angle5. A wide variety of different fabric
con5truction5 can be made by varying the weave type, den5ity of the yarn5 and
the type of yarn5 them5elve5. In knitting, a 5ingle yarn or a 5et of yarn5 moving
in one direction are u5ed in5tead of two 5et5 of yarn5 a5 in weaving
(Tortora, 1978). Knitted fabric5 are of two type5, warp knit and weft knit.
Knitted fabric5 generally have a 5oft hand and higher heat-retaining propertie5
compared with that of woven fabric5 of a 5pecific thickne55 or weight. Knitted
5tructure5 generally have more poro5ity that can retain more air and therefore
provide more warmth. Traditional knit5 have poor 5hape retention and are
ani5otropic in
 Overview of protective 1

phy5ical performance when compared to woven fabric5. The propertie5 of both

woven and knitted fabric5 vary in the warp (wale), weft (cour5e) and diagonal
direction5 re5pectively.
The ani5otropic propertie5 of traditional woven and knitted fabric5 limit their
u5e in application5 where i5otropic propertie5 are required. Tri-axial and tetra-
axial fabric5 have been developed to obtain i5otropic propertie5. Tri-axial fabric5
were fir5t developed u5ing a tri-axial weaving machine by Barber Colman
Co. under licen5e from Dow Weave and have been further developed by
Howa Machinery Ltd., Japan (Road, 2001). I5otropic fabric5 have higher tear
and bur5t re5i5tance than traditional woven fabric5 becau5e 5train i5 alway5
taken in two direction5 (Road, 2001).

Non-crimp f4brics
In both woven and knitted fabric5, yarn5 are crimped due to their interlacing and
inter-looping. The crimped 5tructure of yarn5 make5 fabric5 change 5hape
relatively ea5ily when external force5 are applied to them. To avoid thi5, non-
crimp fabric5 have been developed in the la5t decade u5ing a LIBA 5y5tem, a
modification to multi-axial warp knitting (Adanur, 1995). In the LIBA 5y5tem,
5everal layer5 of uncrimped yarn5 are 5tacked and 5titched together along 5everal
axe5 by knitting needle5 piercing through the yarn layer5 (Adanur, 1995). Non-
crimp fabric5 are a relatively new cla55 of textile5. The5e fabric5 are a form
of reinforcement that have the potential to overcome ani5otropic deficiencie5
without affecting other propertie5 (Adanur, 1995).

Br4ided f4brics
A braid 5tructure i5 formed by the diagonal inter5ection of yarn5 without a
definite warp and filling a5 in woven fabric5 (Adanur, 1995). Braiding i5 one
of the major fabrication method5 for compo5ite reinforcement 5tructure5.
Traditional example5 of braided 5tructure5 for indu5trial application5 are
electrical wire5 and cable5, ho5e5, drive belt5, etc. (Adanur, 1995). Braiding i5
al5o commonly u5ed in manufacturing the acce55orie5 u5ed with normal
clothing.

Non-woven f4brics
Non-woven5 are textile 5tructure5 produced by bonding and/or interlocking of
fiber5 and other polymeric material5 5uch a5 film5 u5ing mechanical, chemical,
thermal adhe5ion or 5olvent5 or a combination of the5e method5 (Adanur, 1995;
Smith, 2000). For 5ome 5pecial application5, fabric5 and yarn5 are al5o u5ed a5
part5 of a non-woven material. Although there are 5ome exception5, non-woven5
are generally produced in one continuou5 proce55 directly from the raw material
 2 Textiles for

to the fini5hed fabric. Thi5 mean5 le55 material handling than in a traditional
textile proce55 and therefore non-woven5 are generally cheaper than woven and
knitted 5tructure5 (Smith, 2000). The quality of fiber5 required for non-
woven5 i5 generally not a5 high a5 that required for traditional fabric5. Co5t
advantage5 have been one of the major rea5on5 for the rapid development of
non-woven5 in the pa5t few decade5 (Adanur, 1995).
The u5e of non-woven5 i5 increa5ing at a rate of about 11% per annum.
Although non-woven5 were expected to partially replace woven fabric5 in both
civilian and non-civilian application5, the poor durability of non-woven5,
e5pecially when wa5hed ha5 limited it5 u5e for 5pecific application5 (Adanur,
1995). However, non-woven5 are now widely u5ed in indu5trial application5 5uch
a5 filtration, geotextile5 and medical textile5 (Adanur, 1995; Bajaj et 4l., 1992).

Composite textile m4teri4ls

Compo5ite5 can be defined a5 a combination of di55imilar material5 de5igned to
perform a ta5k that neither of the con5tituent material5 can perform individually
(Adanur, 1995). In the la5t few decade5, textile compo5ite5 have made great
progre55, by imparting novel function5 to fabric5 or by expanding the 5cope of
textile5, e5pecially in high-tech application5. Textile compo5ite5 are broadly
cla55ified a5 flexible and rigid material5. Example5 of flexible textile compo5ite5
are coated fabric5, automobile tire5 and conveyor belt5 (Adanur, 1995). More
often, textile reinforced compo5ite5 are u5ed a5 rigid textile material5.

Laminated and coated fabric5

Laminated fabric5 can be made by fabric to fabric, fabric to foam, fabric to
polymer and fabric to film bonding. Laminating film-like material5 to textile5
ha5 developed quickly in recent year5. Recently, membrane5 with micropore5
that are permeable to water-vapor molecule5 but impermeable to liquid5 and
other organic molecule5 have been developed. The5e membrane5 are called
‘perm-5elective' membrane5, due to the 5electivity they exhibit with re5pect
to molecular 5olubility and diffu5ion through the polymer 5tructure
(Schreuder- Gib5on et 4l., 2003; Wilu5z et 4l., 1997). When u5ed in clothing,
membrane5 are u5ed between the 5hell fabric and liner fabric providing the
clothing with water- vapor permeability but re5i5ting the permeation of organic
molecule5. Clothing developed u5ing membrane5 provide5 protection from
hazardou5 organic chemical5 without affecting the comfort propertie5.
In5tead of u5ing a membrane, foam5 are u5ed to make clothing with high
warmth retaining propertie5 and al5o having high vapor and air permeability
(Holme5, 2000).
A coated fabric i5 a compo5ite textile material in which the 5trength and other
propertie5 are improved by applying a 5uitably formulated polymer compo5ition
(Abbott 2001; Adanur, 1995). Coating5 u5ed for textile5 are largely limited to
 Overview of protective 2

vi5cou5 liquid5 that can be 5pread onto the 5urface of the 5ub5trate. The
5preading proce55 i5 followed by a drying or curing proce55 which harden5 the
coating 5o that a non-blocking product i5 produced (Hall, 2000b). Coated fabric5
are widely u5ed in chemical or liquid protective clothing, and al5o in bio-
protective clothing (Adanur, 1995, Voronkov et 4l., 1999).

Textile-reinforced compo5ite material5

Textile-reinforced compo5ite material5 are one of the general cla55 of engineering
material5 called compo5ite5 (Ogin, 2000). A textile reinforced compo5ite i5 made
from a textile reinforcement 5tructure and a matrix material. Textile
reinforcing 5tructure5 can be made of fiber, yarn5 and fabric5 (which include
woven, braided, knitted, non-woven, non-crimp) that can be preformed into
variou5 5hape5 and form5 either a5 molded material5 or 3D textile5 (Khokar,
2001). Matrix material5 can be thermopla5tic or thermo5et polymer5,
ceramic5 or metal5.
Textile reinforced compo5ite5 are mo5t commonly u5ed a5 technical
material5. Main characteri5tic5 of a rigid textile compo5ite are high 5tiffne55,
high 5trength and low den5ity. Therefore, textile 5tructural compo5ite5 have a
higher 5trength-to-weight ratio than metal compo5ite5. Another advantage of
textile compo5ite5 i5 that they can be made ani5otropic (Adanur, 1995). With the
u5e of oriented fiber5 or yarn5 in bundle5 or layer5, textile compo5ite5 can be
made ani5otropic 5o that they exhibit different propertie5 along different axe5.
Textile compo5ite5 have 5ucce55fully replaced metal5 and metal alloy5 in
many application5 5uch a5 automotive5, aero5pace, electronic5, military and
recreation (Adanur, 1995; Ogin, 2000). Whatever the5e material5 are u5ed for,
mo5t of them are de5igned to protect people from being injured again5t
mechanical impact. The mo5t typical textile compo5ite5 u5ed for protection are
made from high-5trength and high-modulu5 fiber5 for application5 5uch a5
lightweight armor, balli5tic helmet5 and ve5t5, and add-on car armor (Jacob5 and
Van Dingenen, 2001). Low-den5ity, high-5trength and high-energy ab5orption
capability are the notable characteri5tic5 of the5e product5 (Jacob5 and Van
Dingenen, 2001). The US army u5e5 helmet5 reinforced with Kevlar that are
about 15% lighter by weight and have 5ub5tantially increa5ed protection
(balli5tic limit (V50) more than 2000 ft/5ec) when compared to conventional
helmet5 (Adanur, 1995). Laminating and molding are commonly u5ed
technique5 to manufacture protective compo5ite5, but 3D textile5 which are
produced via 3D weaving are gaining more importance in reinforcing textile
5tructural material5 with improved propertie5 (Khokar, 2001).

1.4.3 Finishing
Textile fini5hing can be roughly divided into mechanical and chemical fini5hing.
Example5 of mechanical fini5hing are calendering, rai5ing, cropping,
 2 Textiles for

compre55ive 5hrinkage and heat 5etting. Chemical proce55e5 are tho5e that
involve the application of chemical5 to the fabric5 (Hall, 2000a). Although fiber5
having inherent functional propertie5 are being commercialized, chemical
fini5hing i5 5till a major technology u5ed for protective clothing due to it5
co5t effectivene55 and technological ver5atility. Chemical fini5hing can be u5ed
to impart fabric5 with flame-re5i5tant, liquid-proof, anti-electro5tatic, high-
vi5ibility, anti-microbial and chemical-protective function5 (Adanur, 1995;
Bajaj et 4l., 1992).

1.4.4 Sewing or assembling

Sewing or a55embling protective material part5 onto clothing i5 u5ually the la5t
but a very important proce55 for protective clothing. Mo5t of the protective
clothing ha5 5pecific function5 and the requirement5 for protective clothing may
be different even with the 5ame kind of functional protection. De5igning
protective clothing i5 a profe55ional job that could determine the level of
protection. The mo5t advanced de5ign of protective clothing i5 probably 5pace
5uit5, which are high-tech integrated 5y5tem5 a55embled with many functional
part5. The de5ign of a 5pace 5uit i5 5o perfect that no problem5 have been
related to 5pace 5uit5 5o far. Protective function, comfort and co5t effectivene55
are the main criteria in de5igning a protective clothing 5y5tem.
In any protective clothing, all acce55orie5 u5ed to make the garment 5hould
match the protective requirement5. For example, in flame-protective clothing, all
the acce55orie5 5uch a5 button5 and thread5 need flame- or thermal-re5i5tance
(Bajaj et 4l., 1992). Profe55ional de5igner5 and equipment are needed to
manufacture protective clothing 5uited for a particular application. For example,
in 5ewing, 5erged 5eam i5 the normal 5eam for expo5ure to non-hazardou5
condition5 and bound 5eam i5 u5ed a5 reinforcement with the binding providing
5trength and tear re5i5tance, and taped 5eam5 are reinforced with an adhe5ive
film tape which i5 capable of re5i5ting water and liquid chemical5. Sealed
5leeve5 and collar5 are de5igned to give more protection for operative5 during
pe5ticide application (Fen5ke et 4l., 2002).

1.5 Future of personal protection

1.5.1 Highly functional clothing with physiological comfort
Protective clothing guard5 the wearer again5t the vagarie5 of nature and again5t
abnormal environment5 (Fourt and Hollier, 1970). In addition to protection,
clothing mu5t al5o be comfortable 5o that an energy balance can be maintained
within the limit5 of tolerance for heating or cooling the body (Fourt and
Hollier, 1970). When wearing protective clothing while doing hard phy5ical
work, metabolic heat i5 generated by the body that develop5 heat-5tre55 in the
wearer.
 Overview of protective 2

Heat-5tre55 or comfort problem5 have been of great intere5t to 5cienti5t5 in recent

year5 (Cho et 4l., 1997; Gib5on et 4l., 2001; McLellan, 1996; Richard5on and
Capra, 2001; Wa5terlund, 1998). Heat-5tre55 increa5e5 the rate of heartbeat,
body (aural) temperature, blood pre55ure and fluid lo55, that are potential
hazard5 for a wearer'5 health (McLellan, 1996; Richard5on and Capra, 2001).
Newer technologie5 and material5 have made the production of protective
clothing with high protective function5 and good comfort a reality. The mo5t
typical example i5 the application of breathable membrane5 in protective
clothing (Holme5, 2000; Schreuder-Gib5on et 4l., 2003). Nanotechnology,
biotechnology and electronic technology have contributed to developing
protective clothing that i5 more comfortable to wear.

1.5.2 Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology allow5 inexpen5ive control of the 5tructure of matter by working
with atom5 (Wil5on et 4l., 2002). Nanomaterial5, 5ometime5 called nanopowder5,
when not compre55ed have grain 5ize5 in the order of 1–100 nm in at lea5t one
coordinate and normally in three (Wil5on et 4l., 2002). Nanomaterial5 include
nanopowder, nanofiber, nanotube and nanofilm5. Nanomaterial5 are not new.
Carbon black i5 a natural nanomaterial that i5 u5ed in car tire5 to increa5e the
life of the tire and provide5 the black color. Fumed 5ilica, a component of
5ilicon rubber, coating5, 5ealant5 and adhe5ive5 are al5o nanomaterial5,
commercially available 5ince the 19405 (Wil5on et 4l., 2002). However, it wa5
only in the la5t decade that people began to better under5tand the ba5ic
5cience of nanotechnology and tried to apply them in engineering (Wil5on et
4l., 2002). Nanomaterial5 can be made by pla5ma arcing, chemical vapor
depo5ition, 5ol- gel5, electrodepo5ition and ball milling (Fan et 4l., 2003;
Wil5on et 4l., 2002).
Nanomaterial5 are 5o 5mall in 5ize that mo5t atom5 are at the 5urface. Such
5tructure5 will exhibit completely different propertie5 from the normal material5
in which the atom5 are buried in the bulk of the 5ub5tance (Wil5on et 4l., 2002).
Propertie5 of material5 change dramatically when made into nano5ize. Silicon
made into nanotube5 will have conductivity 5imilar to metal5 (Bai et 4l., 2004).
A nanotube fibre made from carbon i5 tougher than any natural or 5ynthetic
organic fiber de5cribed 5o far (Dalton et 4l., 2003). Nanomaterial5 5uch a5
nanotube5 developed either from 5ilicon or carbon would be very u5eful for
producing highly functional protective clothing.
Initial re5earch ha5 proved that nanotechnology will be beneficial to
textile5 and ha5 tremendou5 pro5pect5. Nanomaterial5 can be added to
polymer5 to produce nano-modified polymer fiber or applied during fini5hing to
make nano- fini5hed textile5 (Qian, 2004). Polymer-clay nanocompo5ite5 have
emerged a5 a new cla55 of material5 that have 5uperior propertie5 5uch a5
higher ten5ile 5trength, heat re5i5tance, and le55 permeability to ga5 compared
with traditional compo5ite5 (Kri5hnamoorti et 4l., 1996; Tanaka and
Goettler, 2002). Poly-
 2 Textiles for

propylene (PP) fiber i5 one of the main fiber5 u5ed for textile5 but PP i5
highly hydrophobic and i5 inherently undyeable. Fan et 4l. (2003) added
nanoclay (montmorillononite, (OH)4Si8Al4O20 nH2O) into polypropylene and
5ucceeded in producing a modified nanoPP which could be dyed with acid
and di5per5e dye5. Nano5tructural material5 5uch a5 nanofiber and film5 5how
great pro5pect5 for u5e in textile5 (Qian, 2004). A lightweight multifunctional
membrane made from electro5pun nanofiber exhibit5 high breathability,
ela5ticity and filtration efficiency (Gib5on et 4l., 2001). U5ing 5ol-gel, one of the
common method5 for manufacturing nanomaterial5, a nanolayer of titanium wa5
depo5ited onto the 5urface of cotton fiber5 that gave excellent UV protection.
Nanoparticle coating5 are al5o very u5eful to produce textile5 fabric5 with
5pecial 5urface effect5 (Wil5on et 4l., 2002).
Although nanotechnology ha5 provided novel propertie5 to polymer5,
practical application5 in textile5 are not yet well e5tabli5hed. Nanomaterial5
have far higher 5urface-to-bulk ratio than normal material5 (Wil5on et 4l., 2002).
The high 5urface energy make5 nanomaterial5 agglomerate, which could greatly
reduce the 5trength of compo5ite5. Al5o, the agglomeration decrea5e5 the
5urface-to-bulk ratio and nanomaterial5 will have reduced propertie5.

1.5.3 Biotechnology
Animal5 have their own effective way of protecting them5elve5 from
predator5 and abnormal climatic condition5. An intriguing example of
protection adopted by animal5 i5 the changing of color by chameleon5 to
match the color of their 5urrounding environment. A chameleon ha5 5everal
layer5 of cell5 beneath it5 tran5parent 5kin, of which 5ome layer5 contain
pigment5 while other5 ju5t reflect light to create new color5 (Rohrlich and Rubin,
1975). The mo5t often changed color5 of chameleon5 are between green, brown
and gray, which coincidently, often match the background color5 of their
habitat. Although we are yet to produce a fabric that can change it5 color
with the changing background, camouflage-patterned clothing i5 an effective
way to conceal 5oldier5 in their 5urrounding environment5 (Scott, 2000).
Another intere5ting a5pect of color in nature i5 the vivid and extraordinary
fa5tne55 of color in the feather5 of peacock5. Color production in nature i5 either
due to 5tructural coloration or pigmentation (Zi et 4l., 2003). The color of
peacock feather5 i5 due to the 2D photonic-cry5tal 5tructure that ha5 the 5ame
5ize a5 the wavelength of light. Thi5 cry5tal i5 arranged in lattice5 in a number of
layer5 called period5 that can reflect light to produce color5. The variation5
in the lattice con5tant5 or the number of period5 produce the diver5ified color5
(Zi et 4l., 2003). We are 5till unable to 5imulate either the chameleon or peacock
color to perfection. Studie5 on dye5 that can change color with changing
condition5 5uch a5 temperature and light have partially 5ucceeded, but the
change in the magnitude of color i5 very narrow.
 Overview of protective 2

Natural material5 are renowned for their relatively higher 5trength and
toughne55. Spider dragline 5ilk ha5 a breaking energy per unit weight two order5
of magnitude greater than that of high-ten5ile 5teel (Dalton et 4l., 2003; Smith et
4l., 1997). Spider 5ilk i5 5tronger than Kevlar and 5tretche5 better than nylon, a
combination of propertie5 5een in no other fiber (Service, 2002). Spider 5ilk
i5 con5idered an ideal material for protective balli5tic material5 (Dalton et
4l., 2003, O5aki, 1996). Spider 5ilk ha5 been artificially produced by u5ing
liquid cry5talline 5pinning (Vollrath and Knight, 2001). By 5ucce55fully
copying the 5pider'5 internal proce55ing mechani5m5 and with preci5e control
over protein folding combined with knowledge of the gene 5equence5 of it5
5pinning dope5, indu5trial production of 5ilk-ba5ed fiber5 with unique
propertie5 can be commercialized (Vollrath and Knight, 2001).

1.5.4 Electronic technology

Wearable electronic 5y5tem5 are a promi5ing area for textile5 (Adanur 1995;
Barry et 4l., 2003; Park and Jayaraman, 2003). Wearable electronic5 are part of
the 5o called ‘5mart textile5' or ‘5mart clothing'. A 5mart material i5 that
which will change it5 characteri5tic5 according to out5ide condition5 or
according to a predefined 5timulu5 (Adanur, 1995). Wearable electronic5 have
been 5ucce55- fully u5ed in 5ome area5 5uch a5 5pace 5uit5 and in military
5uit5 equipped with a GPS (global po5itioning 5y5tem) (Adanur, 1995; Barry
et 4l., 2003; Park and Jayaraman, 2003).
Wearable electronic 5y5tem5 are being de5igned to meet new and innovative
application5 in military, public 5afety, healthcare, 5pace exploration, 5port5 and
in fitne55 field5 (Park and Jayaraman, 2003). Development5 in electronic
technology have made it po55ible to integrate innovation, intelligence and
information into a wearable and comfortable infra5tructure in a new generation
of interactive textile5 (Park and Jayaraman, 2003; Barry et 4l., 2003). An
interactive garment called the wearable mother board, or 5mart 5hirt ha5 been
developed at Georgia In5titute of Technology, Georgia, USA. The 5mart 5hirt
provide5 an extremely ver5atile framework for incorporation of 5en5ing,
monitoring and information-proce55ing device5 (Park and Jayaraman, 2003).
Application of electronic technology will 5urely make protective clothing more
reliable, 5afe and comfortable in future.

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