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VERTEBRAL COLUMN

Subject: Anatomy
Student: Athina Eleftheria Demenega
Professor: Dr. Cristina Chiriloaie
Date: 08/10/2022

~ INTRODUCTION ~
·The structure and the shape
The vertebral column is also known as the spinal column or spine. It is the central pylon of the human body.
It consists of 33 – 34 small bony pieces which are called vertebrae. Each vertebra is separated and united by
an intervertebral disc. Together, the vertebrae and intervertebral discs form the vertebral column. The column
can be divided into five different regions, with each region characterized by a different vertebral structure.
According to the regions, the vertebrae are called: cervical vertebrae, thoracic or dorsal vertebrae, lumbar
vertebrae, sacral ( fused together to form sacrum ) and the coccygeal ( fused together to form the coccyx ). The
cervical vertebrae are 7 in number and form the bony axis of the neck of the human body. The thoracic ones are
12 forming the posterior part of the thoracic cage and the lumbar vertebrae are 5 in number. In addition, the
sacrum consists of five sacral vertebrae fused together to form a triangular, wedged – shaped, median,
asymmetrical bone. Last but not least, the coccyx ( tailbone ) is a median, symmetrical and unpaired bone,
formed by the fusion of 4 or 5 coccygeal vertebrae. The vertebral column is curved, with two primary
curvatures, the thoracic and sacrococcygeal curves, and two secondary curvatures, the cervical and lumbar
curves. These curves increase the vertebral column’s strength, flexibility, and ability to absorb shock.
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·Functions
The vertebral column has four main functions:
a. Protection: It encloses and protects the spinal cord within the spinal canal.
b. Support: It supports the head, neck and body and carries the weight of the body above the pelvis.
c. Axis: It forms the central axis of the human body.
d. Movement: It has roles in both posture and movement.

·General Characteristics of Vertebrae

A vertebra is composed of two parts, the anterior vertebral body and the posterior vertebral arch which
are connected by two bony bridges called the pedicles.
a. Vertebral body: It is the heavy anterior part of a vertebra presenting two surfaces ( superior and
inferior ), two margins and a circumference. The circumference is divided into two parts, the anterior
and the posterior one, the latest forms the anterior wall of the vertebral foramen.
b. Vertebral arch: It forms the lateral and posterior aspect of each vertebra. In combination with the
vertebral body, the vertebral arch forms an enclosed hole – the vertebral foramen. The foramina of all
the vertebrae line up to form the vertebral canal, which encloses the spinal cord. The vertebral arch has
several bony prominences:
 The articular processes: They are four in number, two superior and two inferior and they arise near
the junction of pedicles and laminae.
 The transverse processes: They are two in number, right and left and project laterally from the
junction of the pedicles and laminae.
 The spinous process: It projects posteriorly, in a median plane, from the place of union of the two
laminae.
 The vertebral laminae: They are two thin plates, right and left and complete the vertebral arch
between the base of spinous process and the base of articular and transverse processes.
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·Gender Differences in vertebral column

According to the study of V Gilsanz, M I Boechat, R Gilsanz, M L Loro, T F Roe and W G Goodman which
was published online on March 1, 1994, cancellous and cortical bone densities and dimensions of three lumbar
vertebrae in 25 women and 18 men were measured with quantitative computed tomography (CT) and
statistically analyzed. The results showed that neither cancellous nor cortical vertebral bone densities differed in
healthy adults. Vertebral bodies in women had lower cross-sectional areas (8.22 cm2 +/- 1.09 [standard
deviation] versus 10.98 cm2 +/- 1.25, P < .001) and volumes (22.42 cm3 +/- 2.40 versus 30.86 cm3 +/- 2.6, P
< .001). These differences also were evident in men and women matched for age, weight, vertebral bone
density, and vertebral body height. Overall cross-sectional areas of vertebral bodies are 25% smaller in
women than men. Vertebral bone densities do not differ between sexes. Estimates of mechanical stress
within vertebral bodies are 30%-40% higher in women than men for equivalent applied loads. In
conclusion, smaller vertebral bodies in women confer biomechanical disadvantages that may contribute
to more vertebral fractures in elderly women.

·Disorders and Diseases of the Vertebral Column

In humans the structure and function of the vertebral column can be affected by certain diseases, disorders,
or injuries. Examples include scoliosis, lordosis, and kyphosis, which are deviations from the normal spinal
curvature; degenerative diseases, such as osteoarthritis and Baastrup disease (kissing spine syndrome); and
tuberculosis of the spine (Pott disease), which is caused by infection of the vertebral column by Mycobacterium
tuberculosis.
a. Disorders: Examples include scoliosis, lordosis and kyphosis which are deviations from the normal
spinal curvature.
 Scoliosis: It is an abnormal, lateral curvature, accompanied by twisting of the vertebral
column. Compensatory curves may also develop in other areas of the vertebral column to help
maintain the head positioned over the feet. Scoliosis is the most common vertebral abnormality
among girls. The cause is usually unknown, but it may result from weakness of the back muscles,
defects such as differential growth rates in the right and left sides of the vertebral column, or
differences in the length of the lower limbs. When present, scoliosis tends to get worse during
adolescent growth spurts. Although most individuals do not require treatment, a back brace may be
recommended for growing children. In extreme cases, surgery may be required.
 Lordosis or swayback: It is an excessive anterior curvature of the lumbar region and is most
commonly associated with obesity or late pregnancy. The accumulation of body weight in the
abdominal region results an anterior shift in the line of gravity that carries the weight of the body.
This causes in an anterior tilt of the pelvis and a pronounced enhancement of the lumbar curve.
 Kyphosis or humpback or hunchback: It is an excessive posterior curvature of the thoracic
region. This can develop when osteoporosis causes weakening and erosion of the anterior portions
of the upper thoracic vertebrae, resulting in their gradual collapse.
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b. Diseases: Degenerative diseases, such as osteoarthritis and Baastrup disease (kissing spine syndrome);
and tuberculosis of the spine (Pott disease), which is caused by infection of the vertebral column by
Mycobacterium tuberculosis can affect the vertebral column.
 Osteoarthritis: Osteoarthritis of the spine is a breakdown of the cartilage of the joints and discs
in the neck and lower back. Sometimes, it produces spurs that put pressure on the nerves leaving the
spinal column. This can cause weakness and pain in the arms or legs.
 Baastrup disease: It is a relatively common disorder of the vertebral column, characterized by low
back pain arising from the close approximation of adjacent posterior spinous processes and
resultant degenerative changes, most commonly at L4-L5.
 Pott disease: Pott disease, also known as tuberculous spondylitis, is a classic presentation of
extrapulmonary tuberculosis (TB). It is associated with significant morbidity and can lead to
severe functional impairment.

Osteoarthritis Baastrup disease

Pott disease
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·Bibliography
a) Dr. Cristina’s Chiriloaie Notes from Anatomy laboratories
b) https://www.britannica.com/science/vertebral-column
c) https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-ap1/chapter/the-vertebral-column/
d) https://teachmeanatomy.info/back/bones/vertebral-column/
e) https://pubs.rsna.org/doi/10.1148/radiology.190.3.8115610
f) https://www.webmd.com/osteoarthritis/spinal-osteoarthritis-degenerative-arthritis-of-the-spine
g) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4762769/