Skeletal System

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the discussion the

student is expected to:
1. discuss the functions of the
skeletal system
2. classify bones on the basis of
their shape and location
3. describe the histological
features of bone tissue
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
3. group the bones of the body

into axial and appendicular
divisions
4. name the cranial and facial
bones, vertebral column,
thorax, shoulder, upper limb,
pelvis, and lower limb
Is this the correct anatomical
position?
osteology
Five Main Functions of the
Skeletal System
Muscle attached to bones!!
1. Movement:
Skeletal system
provides points
of attachment
for muscles.
Your legs and
arms move when
the muscles pull
on the bones.
Skeletal System
2. Support:
The
backbone is the
main support
center for the
upper body. It
holds your head
up and protects
your spinal cord.
Skeletal System
3. Protection:
The bones of
your skull
protect your
brain. Your
ribs protect
your lungs and
heart from
injury.
Skeletal System
4. Makes Blood:
Red and white
blood cells are
formed by
tissue called
marrow, which is
in the center of
the bone.
Skeletal System
 5. Storage: Bones
store minerals,
such as calcium and
phosphorus, for use
by the body
The Skeletal System
 Parts of the skeletal system
• Bones (skeleton)
• Joints
• Cartilages
• Ligaments
 Two subdivisions of the skeleton
• Axial skeleton
• Appendicular skeleton
Bones of the Human Body
 The adult skeleton has 206 bones
 Two basic types of bone tissue
• Compact bone
– Homogeneous
• Spongy bone
– Small needle-like
pieces of bone
– Many open spaces
Figure 5.2b
Classification of Bones on the
Basis of Shape
Figure 5.1
Classification of Bones
 Long bones
• Typically longer than they are wide
• Have a shaft with heads at both ends
• Contain mostly compact bone
• Example:
– Femur
– Humerus
Figure 5.1a
 Short bones
• Generally cube-shape
• Contain mostly spongy bone
• Example:
– Carpals
– Tarsals
Figure 5.1b
 Flat bones
• Thin, flattened, and usually curved
• Two thin layers of compact bone surround a
layer of spongy bone
• Example:
– Skull
– Ribs
– Sternum
Figure 5.1c
 Irregular bones
• Irregular shape
• Do not fit into other bone classification
categories
• Example:
– Vertebrae
– Hip bones
Figure 5.1d
Anatomy of a Long Bone
 Diaphysis
• Shaft
• Composed of compact bone
 Epiphysis
• Ends of the bone
• Composed mostly of spongy bone
Figure 5.2a
 Periosteum
• Outside covering of the diaphysis
• Fibrous connective tissue membrane
 Sharpey’s fibers
• Secure periosteum to underlying bone
 Arteries
• Supply bone cells with nutrients
Figure 5.2c
 Articular cartilage
• Covers the external surface of the epiphyses
• Made of hyaline cartilage
• Decreases friction at joint surfaces
 Epiphyseal plate
• Flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in young,
growing bone
 Epiphyseal line
• Remnant of the epiphyseal plate
• Seen in adult bones
Figure 5.2a
 Medullary cavity
• Cavity inside of the shaft
• Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in adults
• Contains red marrow (for blood cell formation)
in infants
Figure 5.2a
Bone Markings
 Surface features of bones
• Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and
ligaments
• Passages for nerves and blood vessels
 Categories of bone markings
• Projections or processes—grow out from the
bone surface
• Depressions or cavities—indentations
Bone Markings
Table 5.1 (1 of 2)
Bone Markings
Table 5.1 (2 of 2)
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
 Osteon (Haversian system)
• A unit of bone containing central canal and
matrix rings
 Central (Haversian) canal
• Opening in the center of an osteon
• Carries blood vessels and nerves
 Perforating (Volkmann’s) canal
• Canal perpendicular to the central canal
• Carries blood vessels and nerves
Figure 5.3a
 Lacunae
• Cavities containing bone cells (osteocytes)
• Arranged in concentric rings
 Lamellae
• Rings around the central canal
• Sites of lacunae
Figure 5.3b–c
 Canaliculi
• Tiny canals
• Radiate from the central canal to lacunae
• Form a transport system connecting all bone
cells to a nutrient supply
Figure 5.3b
Formation of the Human Skeleton
 In embryos, the skeleton is primarily
hyaline cartilage
 During development, much of this cartilage
is replaced by bone
 Cartilage remains in isolated areas
• Bridge of the nose
• Parts of ribs
• Joints
Bone Growth (Ossification)
 Epiphyseal plates allow for lengthwise
growth of long bones during childhood
• New cartilage is continuously formed
• Older cartilage becomes ossified
– Cartilage is broken down
– Enclosed cartilage is digested away, opening up a
medullary cavity
– Bone replaces cartilage through the action of
osteoblasts
Bone Growth (Ossification)
 Bones are remodeled and lengthened until
growth stops
• Bones are remodeled in response to two
factors
– Blood calcium levels
– Pull of gravity and muscles on the skeleton
• Bones grow in width (called appositional
growth)
Long Bone Formation and Growth
Articular
cartilage
Hyaline Spongy
cartilage bone
New center of
bone growth New bone
Epiphyseal forming
plate
cartilage Growth
Medullary in bone
cavity width
Bone starting
Blood
to replace Growth vessels
cartilage in bone
length New bone
forming
Bone collar
Hyaline Epiphyseal
cartilage plate cartilage
model
Figure 5.4a
In an embryo In a fetus In a child
(a)
Bone starting
to replace
cartilage
Bone collar
Hyaline
cartilage
model
In an embryo Figure 5.4a, step 1
(a)
Hyaline
cartilage
New center of
bone growth
Medullary
cavity
Bone starting
Blood
cartilage in bone
length
Bone collar
Hyaline
cartilage
model
In an embryo In a fetus Figure 5.4a, step 2
(a)
Articular
cartilage
Hyaline Spongy
cartilage bone
New center of
bone growth New bone
Epiphyseal forming
plate
cartilage Growth
Medullary in bone
cavity width
Bone starting
Blood
cartilage in bone
length New bone
forming
Bone collar
Hyaline Epiphyseal
cartilage plate cartilage
model
In an embryo In a fetus Figure 5.4a, step 3
In a child
(a)
Figure 5.4b
Types of Bone Cells
 Osteocytes—mature bone cells
 Osteoblasts—bone-forming cells
 Osteoclasts—bone-destroying cells
• Break down bone matrix for remodeling and
release of calcium in response to parathyroid
hormone
 Bone remodeling is performed by both
osteoblasts and osteoclasts
Bone Fractures
 Fracture—break in a bone
 Types of bone fractures
• Closed (simple) fracture—break that does not
penetrate the skin
• Open (compound) fracture—broken bone
penetrates through the skin
 Bone fractures are treated by reduction
and immobilization
Common Types of Fractures
Table 5.2
Repair of Bone Fractures
 Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed
 Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a
callus
 Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony
callus
 Bony callus is remodeled to form a
permanent patch
Stages in the Healing of a Bone
Fracture
Hematoma
External Bony
callus callus of
spongy
bone
Internal
callus
(fibrous New
blood Healed
tissue and fracture
cartilage) vessels
Spongy
bone
trabecula
Figure 5.5
Hematoma Fibrocartilage Bony callus Bone remodeling
formation callus formation formation
Fracture
Hematoma
Figure 5.5, step 1

Hematoma
formation
Fracture
Hematoma
External
callus
Internal
callus
(fibrous New
tissue and blood
cartilage) vessels
Spongy
bone
trabecula
Figure 5.5, step 2

Hematoma Fibrocartilage
formation callus formation
Fracture
Hematoma
External Bony
callus callus of
spongy
bone
Internal
callus
(fibrous New
tissue and blood
cartilage) vessels
Spongy
bone
trabecula
Figure 5.5, step 3

Hematoma Fibrocartilage Bony callus
Fracture
Hematoma
External Bony
callus callus of
spongy
bone
Internal
callus
(fibrous New
tissue and blood Healed
cartilage) vessels fracture
Spongy
bone
trabecula
Figure 5.5, step 4

Hematoma Fibrocartilage Bony callus Bone remodeling
2 Divisions of
Skeletal System
GENERAL DIVISIONS OF THE
SKELETON
Skeletal system
is divided into
two general
divisions. Axial
& appendicular
skeleton.
Axial skeleton supports and
protects organs of head, neck
and trunk
Axial skeleton:
-forms the longitudinal axis of the
body
*skull (cranium and facial bones)
*vertebral column (vertebrae and
disks)
*bony thorax (ribs and sternum)
Appendicular skeleton includes bones
of limbs and bones that anchor them to
the axial skeleton
Appendicular skeleton:
*pectoral girdle (clavicles and
scapulae)
*upper limbs (arms)
*pelvic girdle (sacrum, coccyx)
*lower limbs (legs)
22 bones in skull
6 in middle ears
1 hyoid bone
26 in vertebral column
25 in thoracic cage
4 in pectoral girdle
60 in upper limbs
60 in lower limbs
2 in pelvic girdle
206 bones in all

The Skull
Two sets of bones
*Cranium
*Facial bones
Bones are joined by sutures
Only the mandible is
attached by a freely
movable joint
Human Skull, Lateral View
Figure 5.7
Posterior View
Human Skull, Anterior View
Figure 5.11
Human Skull, Superior View
Figure 5.8
Human Skull, Inferior View
Figure 5.9
Paranasal Sinuses
Hollow portions of bones
surrounding the nasal cavity
Functions of paranasal
sinuses
• Lighten the skull
• Give resonance and
amplification to voice
Paranasal Sinuses
Figure 5.10a
Paranasal Sinuses
Figure 5.10b
Frontal Sinus
Ethmoid Sinus
Sphenoid Sinus
Maxillary Sinus
• Warm and moisten air

• Lighten the skull
• Enhance voice resonance
The Hyoid Bone
The only bone that does not

articulate with another bone
Serves as a moveable base
for the tongue
Aids in swallowing and
speech
The Hyoid Bone
Figure 5.12
The Fetal Skull
 The fetal skull is large compared to
the infant’s total body length
 Fontanels—fibrous membranes
connecting the cranial bones
• Allow the brain to grow
• Convert to bone within 24 months
after birth
The Fetal Skull
Figure 5.13a
The Fetal Skull
Figure 5.13b
The Vertebral Column
 Each vertebrae is given a name
according to its location
• There are 24 single vertebral bones
separated by intervertebral discs
–Seven cervical vertebrae are in the
neck
–Twelve thoracic vertebrae are in the
chest region
–Five lumbar vertebrae are associated
with the lower back
Nine vertebrae fuse to

form two composite
bones
•Sacrum
•Coccyx
Cervical Vertebrae
(7)
Thoracic Vertebrae
(12)
Lumbar Vertebrae
(5)
Sacrum
Coccyx
 The spine has a normal curvature
• Primary curvatures are the spinal
curvatures of the thoracic and sacral
regions
–Present from birth
• Secondary curvatures are the spinal
curvatures of the cervical and lumbar
regions
–Develop after birth
Figure 5.15
Figure 5.16
A Typical Vertebrae, Superior
View
Figure 5.17
Regional Characteristics of
Vertebrae
Figure 5.18b
Cervical Vertebrae
Vertebrae
Figure 5.18c
Vertebrae
Figure 5.18d
Sacrum and Coccyx
 Sacrum
• Formed by the fusion of five
vertebrae
 Coccyx
• Formed from the fusion of three to
five vertebrae
• “Tailbone,” or remnant of a tail that
other vertebrates have
Sacrum and Coccyx
Figure 5.19
Sacrum & Coccyx
The Bony Thorax
 Forms a cage to protect major organs
 Consists of three parts
• Sternum
• Ribs
–True ribs (pairs 1–7)
–False ribs (pairs 8–12)
–Floating ribs (pairs 11–12)
• Thoracic vertebrae
The Bony Thorax
Figure 5.20a
The Thoracic Cage
Sternum
True Ribs (7)
False Ribs (3)
Floating Ribs (2)
Chest
5
9
Bones of the Pectoral Girdle
Humerus
Ulna
Radius
8 Carpals
5 Metacarpals
14 Phalanges
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
Formed by two coxal bones

Composed of three pairs
of fused bones
• Ilium
• Ischium
• Pubis
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
The total weight of the upper
body rests on the pelvis
It protects several organs
• Reproductive organs
• Urinary bladder
• Part of the large intestine
The Pelvis
Figure 5.24a
Pelvis
Pelvis (lateral view)
Ilium
Acetabulum
Obturator
foramen
Ischium Pubis
Ischium
The Pelvis: Right Coxal Bone
Figure 5.24b
Gender Differences of the Pelvis
 *The female inlet is larger and
more circular
*The female pelvis as a whole
is shallower, and
 The bones are lighter and
thinner
 *The female ilia flare more laterally
 *The female sacrum is shorter and less
curved
 *The female ischial spines are shorter

and farther apart; thus the outlet is
larger
 *The female pubic arch is more
rounded because the angle of the
pubic arch is greater
Gender Differences of the
Pelvis
Figure 5.24c
Male Pelvic Girdle Female Pelvic Girdle
Bones of the Lower Limbs
The thigh has one bone
•Femur
–The heaviest, strongest
bone in the body
Figure 5.25a–b
The Lower Limb
(Legs)
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Fibula
7 Tarsals
5 Metatarsals
14 Phalanges
The lower leg has two bones
• Tibia
–Shinbone
–Larger and medially oriented
• Fibula
–Thin and sticklike
Figure 5.25c
 The foot
• Tarsals
–Two largest tarsals
–Calcaneus (heelbone)
–Talus
• Metatarsals—sole
• Phalanges—toes
Bones of the Lower Limb
Figure 5.26
Arches of the Foot
Bones of the foot are
arranged to form three
strong arches
• Two longitudinal
• One transverse
Arches of the Foot
Figure 5.27
phalanges
metatarsals
tarsals
tarsals
metatarsals
phalanges
Joints
 Articulations of bones
 Functions of joints
• Hold bones together
• Allow for mobility
 Ways joints are classified
• Functionally
• Structurally
Functional Classification of
Joints
 Synarthroses
• Immovable joints
 Amphiarthroses
• Slightly moveable joints
 Diarthroses
• Freely moveable joints
Structural Classification of
Joints
Fibrous joints
• Generally immovable
Cartilaginous joints
• Immovable or slightly moveable
Synovial joints
• Freely moveable
Summary of Joint Classes
[Insert Table 5.3 here]
Table 5.3
Fibrous Joints
 Bones united by fibrous tissue
 Example:
• Sutures
• Syndesmoses
–Allows more movement than
sutures
–Example: Distal end of tibia and
fibula
Fibrous Joints
Figure 5.28a–b
Immovable Joints
(synarthrosis)
suture
pubis symphisis
Cartilaginous Joints
Bones connected by cartilage

Example:
• Pubic symphysis
• Intervertebral joints
Cartilaginous Joints
Figure 5.28c–e
Slightly Movable Joint
(ampharthrosis)
Synovial Joints
Articulating bones are

separated by a joint
cavity
Synovial fluid is found in
the joint cavity
Synovial Joints
Figure 5.28f–h
Features of Synovial Joints
 Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage)

covers the ends of bones
 A fibrous articular capsule encloses
joint surfaces
 A joint cavity is filled with synovial
fluid
 Ligaments reinforce the joint
Structures Associated with the
Synovial Joint
 Bursae—flattened fibrous sacs

• Lined with synovial membranes
• Filled with synovial fluid
• Not actually part of the joint
 Tendon sheath
• Elongated bursa that wraps around a
tendon
The Synovial Joint
Figure 5.29
Types of Synovial Joints
Figure 5.30a–c
Types of Synovial Joints
Figure 5.30d–f
(diarthrosis)- freely moveable
pelvis
ligaments
femur
joint
capsule pelvis
hyaline
cartilage synovial
cavity
femur
Synovial Joint Movement
Extension
Rotation
Flexion
Adduction
Abduction
Ossification Centers in a 12-
week-old Fetus
Figure 5.32
Skeletal Changes Throughout
Life
 Fetus
• Long bones are formed of hyaline
cartilage
• Flat bones begin as fibrous membranes
• Flat and long bone models are converted
to bone
 Birth
• Fontanels remain until around age 2
Life
 Adolescence
• Epiphyseal plates become ossified and long
bone growth ends
 Size of cranium in relationship to body
• 2 years old—skull is larger in proportion to the
body compared to that of an adult
• 8 or 9 years old—skull is near adult size and
proportion
• Between ages 6 and 11, the face grows out from
the skull
Life
Figure 5.33a
Life
Figure 5.33b
Life
 Curvatures of the spine
• Primary curvatures are present at birth
and are convex posteriorly
• Secondary curvatures are associated
with a child’s later development and are
convex anteriorly
• Abnormal spinal curvatures (scoliosis
and lordosis) are often congenital
Life
Figure 5.16
Life
 Osteoporosis
• Bone-thinning disease afflicting
– 50% of women over age 65
– 20% of men over age 70
• Disease makes bones fragile and bones can
easily fracture
• Vertebral collapse results in kyphosis (also
known as dowager’s hump)
• Estrogen aids in health and normal density of a
female skeleton
Life
Figure 5.34
Life
Figure 5.35

Skeletal System

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Skeletal System

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the discussion the

3. group the bones of the body

Figure 5.5, step 1

Figure 5.5, step 2

Figure 5.5, step 3

Figure 5.5, step 4

206 bones in all

• Warm and moisten air

The only bone that does not

Nine vertebrae fuse to

Formed by two coxal bones

 *The female inlet is larger and

 *The female ischial spines are shorter

[Insert Table 5.3 here]

Bones connected by cartilage

Articulating bones are

 Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage)

 Bursae—flattened fibrous sacs

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