Lecture 22

Bone Physiology I

C. Mupfiga
University of the Western Cape
Characteristics of Bone:
1. Dense matrix packed with calcium salts.
2. Osteocytes in lacunae, organized around
blood vessels.
3. Canaliculi for exchange of nutrients and
waste.
4. Periosteum covers external surface of
bone except for articular surfaces;
endosteum lines the medullary cavity.
Compact Spongy
Matrix:
98% of bone tissue.
⅓ = osteoid i.e. organic part consisting of
collagen fibres and ground substance; tough
and flexible but cannot resist compression.
⅔ = densely packed crystals of
hydroxyapatite (calcium salts, mostly calcium
phosphate); hard but inflexible and brittle.
Cells:
2% of bone.
4 types: osteoprogenitor, osteoblasts,
osteocytes, & osteoclasts.
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Bone resembles steel-reinforced concrete.
 BONE CELLS

Canaliculi Osteocyte Matrix

Matrix Osteoid Osteoblast

Osteocyte: Mature bone cell Osteoblast: Immature bone

that maintains the bone matrix. cell that secretes organic
components of matrix.

Osteoprogenitor cell Osteoclast Matrix

Medullary Medullary
cavity cavity
Endosteum

Osteoprogenitor cell: Stem cell Osteoclast: Multinucleate cell

whose divisions produce osteoblasts. that secretes acids and enzymes
to dissolve bone matrix.

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STRUCTURE OF COMPACT BONE

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STRUCTURE OF SPONGY BONE

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 PERIOSTEUM AND ENDOSTEUM

Circumferential
lamellae

Endosteum
Fibrous layer
of periosteum Osteoclast

Cellular layer Bone matrix

of periosteum
Osteocyte
Canaliculi
Osteoprogenitor
cell
Osteocyte
in lacuna Osteoid

Perforating Osteoblast
fibers

The periosteum contains outer (fibrous) and The endosteum is an incomplete

inner (cellular) layers. Collagen fibers of the cellular layer containing
periosteum are continuous with those of the osteoblasts, osteoprogenitor
bone, adjacent joint capsules, and attached cells, and osteoclasts.
tendons and ligaments.
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 Bone Development
• Bony skeleton begins to form 6 weeks after
fertilization, embryo ~ 12mm long.
– At this stage, all skeletal components are cartilaginous.
– During subsequent development bones undergo
tremendous increase in size.
– Bone growth continues through adolescence; portions
of skeleton don’t stop growing until ~ 25 years.
• Ossification
– Process of bone formation; also called osteogenesis.
• Calcification
– Deposition of calcium salts which occurs during
ossification; can also occur in other tissues.
• 2 types of ossification:
– (i) Endochondral (ii) Intramembranous.
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 Bone Development
• Endochondral Ossification
• Most bones originate as hyaline cartilages that are
models of the corresponding adult bones…
– e.g. by 6 weeks, humerus present but composed entirely
of cartilage.
• The cartilage model grows by expansion of the
cartilage matrix (interstitial growth) and by
production of new cartilage at the outer surface
(appositional growth).
• Cartilage models are slowly replaced by bone from
the inside out (endo-, inside + chondros, cartilage).
• There are 6 steps in endochondral ossification.

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 Epiphyseal Cartilage Epiphysis

Epiphysis

Diaphysis

Epiphyseal cartilage (or epiphyseal plate) is a hyaline

cartilage plate in the metaphysis at each end of a Diaphysis

long bone. The plate is found in children and

adolescents. Cartilage is formed on the epiphyseal
side of the plate. Adjacent to the diaphysis,
chondrocytes are replaced by osteoblasts which
form osteoid which later calcifies into mature bone.
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 Epiphyseal Cartilage
• Epiphyseal plate closure
– At puberty, a combination of rising levels of sex
hormones, growth hormone, and thyroid hormone
stimulate bone growth dramatically.
– Osteoblasts begin to produce
bone faster than chondrocytes
are producing new epiphyseal
cartilage.
– As a result, osteoblasts “catch up” and the epiphyseal
cartilage gets narrower until it disappears.
– In adults, the former location of this cartilage is
detectable in x-rays as a distinct epiphyseal line.
– The completion of epiphyseal growth is called
epiphyseal closure.
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Epiphyseal plate Epiphyseal line

Epiphyseal
plate
Epiphyseal line

As bones achieve normal adult size,

growth in bone length ceases because
the epiphyseal cartilage (plate) is
ossified and becomes the epiphyseal
line. This event, called epiphyseal
closure, occurs between 12 and 25
years of age, depending on the bone
and the individual. 13
 Bone Development
• Intramembranous ossification
• Bone develops from mesenchyme or fibrous
connective tissue.
• Also called dermal ossification because it
normally occurs in deep layers of the dermis of
skin.
• Bones that result are called dermal bones e.g.
flat bones of the skull, mandible & clavicle.
• There are 3 main steps in intramembranous
ossification.

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QUESTIONS?

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 Bone Development
• Cartilage grows by interstitial & appositional
growth.
– Interstitial growth:
• continuous cell division of chondrocytes accompanied by
secretion of extracellular matrix; growth in length.
– Appositional growth
• chondroblasts develop from periosteum and add
extracellular matrix on periphery; growth in thickness.
• Bone grows by appositional growth
– In developing bone, cells of inner layer of periosteum
differentiate into osteoblasts & deposit matrix >>
become osteocytes >> adding outer layers of lamellae.
– While bone matrix is added on outer surface,
osteoclasts remove bone from inner surface (at
slower rate) >> medullary cavity gradually enlarges as
bone diameter increases. 18
 Cartilage Growth
Interstitial growth: increase
in length; chondrocytes
divide and secrete
extracellular matrix around
their lacunae.

Appositional growth: increase

in width; chondroblasts
deposit extracellular matrix
on surface of pre-existing
cartilage model.

Appositional Growth In Bone

Bone resorbed
by osteoclasts

Bone deposited
Infant by osteoblasts
Child Young adult Adult
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 Formation of New Osteons
1

Osteoblasts beneath periosteum lay down

bone to form ridges separated by grooves.
Blood vessels in periosteum lie in the
grooves.

The groove is transformed into a tunnel

when the bone ridges meet. The periosteum
of the groove becomes endosteum.

Appositional growth by osteoblasts from the

endosteum results in formation of a
concentric lamella.
4

The production of additional concentric

lamellae fills in the tunnel and completes the
formation of the osteon.
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 Blood Supply To Bone
• Blood Supply of Mature Bones
1.
1 Nutrient Artery and Vein
• A single pair of large blood vessels. 2
• Enter the diaphysis through the
nutrient foramen.
• Femur has more than one pair. 3

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2. Metaphyseal Artery and Vein 1

• Supply the epiphyseal cartilage.

• Where bone growth occurs.
3. Periosteal Artery and Vein
3
• Blood to superficial osteons. 2

• Secondary ossification centers.

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 Bone Remodelling
• Bone is not static, it is constantly being made &
broken down >> remodelling.
– 5% to 7% of skeleton recycled per year.
• Osteoclasts
– Secrete lysosomal enzymes >> digest osteoid.
– HCl >> dissolves calcium salts.
• Osteoblasts
– Secrete osteoid (organic matrix) and alkaline
phosphatase (induces mineralization of osteoid).
• Bone adapts…
– Stresses bone grows thicker; inactivity weakens bone
– Bumps & ridges for muscle attachment enlarge when
muscles are used heavily. Heavy metal ions e.g. lead, cobalt, uranium. 22
 Factors Affecting Bone Growth
• Nutrition
– vitamin D (Ca2+ absorption), vitamin A (osteoblast &
osteoclast activity), vitamin C (collagen synthesis);
calcium, phosphate, sodium, magnesium, iron etc.
• Exposure to sunlight
– important for vitamin D production >> calcium absorption.
• Hormones
– growth hormone (stimulates cartilage cells); thyroxine
(stimulates replacement of cartilage in epiphyseal plates
of long bones); parathyroid hormone (increases number &
activity of osteoclasts); sex hormones (promote bone
formation).
• Physical activity
– exercise promotes bone growth: stressed bone generates
minute electrical fields >> attract osteoblasts >> produce
bone.
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QUESTIONS?

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 Study Questions
1. Describe intramembranous ossification. What are
centres of ossification?
2. During intramembranous ossification, which type of
tissue is replaced by bone?
3. Describe endochondral ossification.
4. In endochondral ossification, what is the original source
of osteoblasts?
5. Define (i) primary ossification centre (ii) epiphyseal plate
(iii) articular cartilage (iv) secondary ossification centre.
6. How could x-rays of the femur be used to determine
whether a person has reached full height?
7. Describe bone remodelling? What cells are involved?
8. Explain how heavy-metal ions could be incorporated into
bone matrix.
9. List the factors that affect bone growth.
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