SPPP1042-03 - Instructional Design

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Educational Technology
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Theories of Learning
&
Instructional Design
SPPP1042 : EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY

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If we wish to know how to teach, we first must understand

how people learn. Only then can we understand both how we
should conduct instruction and why.
….we believe the art of teaching should also be informed by a robust

understanding of the learning sciences so that teachers can align their
decisions with our profession's best understanding of how students
learn..
How instructors view the role of media and technology in the classroom
depends very much on their beliefs about how people learn.
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Learning Theories

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Learning Theories
Learning Theories are conceptual frameworks that

describe the manner in which the information is absorbed,
processed and retained during learning.
Often, the same content can be presented in different ways.

Learning Theories provide a framework for such learning
solutions.
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LEARNING THEORIES
three basic components of learning theory
The inputs : What

The results : What are triggers the processes
these changes in to occur? What are
performance to be the resources or
explained by the experiences that form
theory? the basis for learning?
The means : What are the

processes by which the
results are brought about
(including any hypothesized
structures that these
processes are assumed to
operate on)?

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LEARNING THEORIES
There are three main theories used in the field of Instructional Design as
guidelines for understanding how to develop instruction.
1. Behaviourism
2. Cognitivism
3. Constructivism

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LEARNING THEORIES : BEHAVIORISM
Behaviorism
Based on behavioral changes. Focuses on a new behavioral

pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic
A theory that equates that learning with changes in

observable behavior

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Pavlov (1849- Thorndike (1874- Watson (1878- Skinner (1904-

1936) 1949) 1958) 1990)
Conducted Studied human Behaviour is Developed the
experiments psychology and established principles of
involved food, a developed through stimulus- operant
dog and a bell. Connectionism response conditioning
Known for his theory (where associations function including
work in classical learning was the through positive
conditioning or formation of a conditioning. reinforcement
stimulus connection Conducted (reward), negative
substitution. between stimulus experiment using reinforcement,
and responses) a young boy and a non-
rat. reinforcement
(extinction) and
punishment
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BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE
• B. F. Skinner
• Observable behavior
• Reinforcement or rewards
• Foundation for computer assisted
instruction
• Does not reinforce higher-level skills
• Basic knowledge or skills

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LEARNING THEORIES : COGNITIVISM
Cognitivism
Cognitivism is based on the thought
process behind the behaviour.
Changes in behaviour are observed, but only as an
indicator to what is going on in the learner's head.
Key players :
Jean Piaget, and Miller and Brunner.

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COGNITIVIST PERSPECTIVE
• Jean Piaget
• How learners receive, process, and manipulate
information
• Mental models
• Cognitive strategies
• Independent learners
• Compromise between teaching the required
standards and the metacognitive approach to
teaching the 21st century learner
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Key concepts of Cognitive Theory
Three-Stage
Schema Information Mnemonic Effects
Processing Model
• The mental • Input first enters a • Mnemonics are
structures by which sensory register, strategies used by
individuals organise then is processed in learners to organize
their perceived short-term memory, relatively
environment - an and then is meaningless input
internal knowledge transferred to long- into more
structure. New term memory for meaningful images
information is storage and or semantic contexts
compared to retrieval.
existing cognitive
structures called
"schema“.

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Key concepts of Cognitive Theory –cont.

• Assimilation
• Accommodation
• Meaningful Effects
• Serial Position Effects
• Transfer Effects
• Levels of Processing Effects
• Schema Effects
• etc

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LEARNING THEORIES : CONSTRUCTIVISM
Constructivism
Learners are active creators of

knowledge who learn by observing,
manipulating, interpreting the world
around them
This is because knowledge is not

received from outside, instead, we
construct knowledge in our head

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CONSTRUCTIVIST PERSPECTIVE
• Engagement of students in meaningful experiences

• Active problem solving and discovery
• Interpret information for their own understanding
• Authentic tasks
• Use of knowledge to facilitate thinking in real life
• 21st century learners will need solve problems and
seek information or skills to finding effective
solutions
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In creating educational environment, constructivist educators suggest designers should

facilitate the construction of knowledge.
Emphasise learning Emphasis active Use discovery or guided

rather than teaching learning discovery
Encourage learners
Support learners’ construction of
reflections information and projects

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SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY PERSPECTIVE
• Robert Slavin
• cooperative learning
• Social organization of the classroom
• independent study
• small groups
• whole group
• Student control
• Reward structure
• 21st century learners arrive with skills developed from
technology-based social networking

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LEARNING THEORIES
But remember
In reality, those who cling to a single approach (behavioral,

cognitive, or constructivist) are relatively few, and the majority of
learning psychologists, educators and instructional designers prefer
to merge various principles of behavioral, cognitive, and
constructivist paradigm into one integrated approach (Alessi and
Trollip, 2001).
• Good site to visit :

https://sites.google.com/site/2012ide621disun/home

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Instructional
Design??

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INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
Instructional Design is the science of

Instructional Design is defined as “ creating detailed specifications for
a systematic process that is the development, implementation,
employed to develop education and evaluation, and maintenance of
training programs in a consistent situations that facilitate the learning
and reliable fashion” (Reiser, of both large and small units of
Dempsey, 2007). subject matter at all levels of
complexity.
Instructional Design is the systematic development of

instructional specifications using learning and instructional
theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It is the of analysientire
process s of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery
system to meet those needs. It includes development of instructional
materials and activities; and tryout and evaluation of all instruction and
learner activities. Source: www.umich.edu
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Why do we have to Design the Instruction?
To increase and enhance the possibility of learning
To make the acquisition of knowledge and skill more

efficient, effective, and appealing
To encourage the engagement of learners so that

they learn faster and gain deeper levels of
understanding

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Instructional design (ID) is based on three psychological
principles of learning: behavioral, cognitive and constructivist.
Behavioral psychology
• advocates repetition and reinforcement in learning

material to create a “behavior” in the learner
Cognitive psychology
• focuses on engaging the learner’s senses to create a

learning process,
Constructivism
• emphasizes the learner’s own experience and personal

interpretation.

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What is Instructional Design Models??

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INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN MODELS
WHAT IS AN INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) MODEL?
• An Instructional design model is a method, for example, a general design

rule on how to teach/bring to learn.
• Usually restricted to a given class of subjects and contexts.
• Instructional design models usually have a stronger focus on learning
theory than instructional design methods.

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INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN MODELS
There have been multiple instructional design models developed

and implemented over the years. For example:
• ASSURE model
• Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction
• ADDIE Model
• ARCS
• Kemp
• Dick & Carey
• ….
• .
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN MODELS 30
ASSURE’S MODEL
(Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, D. J., & Smaldino, E. S., (2002))

ASSURE MODELS 31
Analyse Learners
•The audience can be analyzed in terms of their general characteristics (grade level, age) and specific entry competencies
(prior knowledge, skills, and attitudes about the topic, and learning styles).
State Standards and Objectives

•State the objectives for the lesson or presentation. Objectives must be stated in terms of what the learner will do (stated
in behavioral terms) as the result of instruction, the conditions under which the performance will be observed, and the
degree to which the new knowledge or skills must be mastered (ABCD of objective)
Select Strategies, Technology, Media and Materials

•Choose strategies, technology, and media, and materials to achieve the objectives You may select available materials,
modify existing materials, or design new materials to help accomplish this task.
Utilise Technology, Media and Materials

•Decide how the materials will be used by the students; Preview the technology, media, and materials; Prepare the
technology, media, and materials; Prepare the environment; Prepare the learners; and Provide the learning experience
Require Learner Participation

•Learners need to practice what they have learned. Describe how the learners will actively use the materials you have
selected. Provide feedback before any type of evaluation is administered.
Evaluate and Revise

•After instruction, evaluate the entire instructional process.
•Did the learners meet the objectives? Did the media/materials assist the learners in reaching those objectives?
•If there are discrepancies between what you intended and what actually happened during the lesson, make appropriate
revisions
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ID MODEL : ASSURE MODEL
GAGNE’S 9 EVENTS OF INSTRUCTIONS

Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction 33
1 • Gain Attention
2 • Inform learners of objectives
3 • Stimulate recall of prior learning
4 • Present the content
5 • Provide “learning guidance”
6 • Elicit performance (practice)
7 • Provide feedback
8 • Assess performance
9 • Enhance retention and transfer to the job

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ID MODELS : GAGNE’S 9 EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION
Gain Attention
• Obtain students’ attention so that they will watch and listen while the
instructor presents the learning content.
• e.g. present a good problem, a new situation, use a multimedia
advertisement, ask questions.
• This helps to ground the lesson, and to motivate
Inform learner of objectives

• e.g. state what students will be able to accomplish and how they will be able
to use the knowledge, give a demonstration if appropriate.
• Allows students to frame information, i.e. treat it better.
Stimulate recall of prior learning

• e.g. remind the student of prior knowledge relevant to the current lesson
(facts, rules, procedures or skills). Show how knowledge is connected,
provide the student with a framework that helps learning and remembering.
Tests can be included.

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ID MODELS : GAGNE’S 9 EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION
Provide the Content

• Utilize a variety of methods including lecture, readings, activities, projects,
multimedia, and others
Provide learning guidance

• Provide students with instructions on how to learn, such as guided activities. With
learning guidance, the rate of learning increases because students are less likely
to lose time or become frustrated by basing performance on incorrect facts or
poorly understood concepts.
• e.g. presentation of content is different from instructions on how to learn. Use of
different channel (e.g. side-boxes)
Elicit performance
• Allow students to apply knowledge and skills learned.
• let the learner do something with the newly acquired behaviour, practice skills or
apply knowledge.

ID MODELS : GAGNE’S 9 EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION 36
.
Provide feedback
• Allow students to receive feedback on individualized tasks, thereby
correcting isolated problems rather than having little idea of where
problems and inconsistencies in learning are occurring.show
correctness of the trainee's response, analyse learner's behaviour,
maybe present a good (step-by-step) solution of the problem
Assess performance
• Allow students to see content areas that they have not mastered.
• if the lesson has been learned. Also give sometimes general
progress information
Enhance retention & transfer

• Allow students to apply information to personal contexts. This
increases retention by personalizing information.
• e.g. inform the learner about similar problem situations, provide
additional practice. Put the learner in a transfer situation. Maybe let
the learner review the lesson.

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ID MODELS : ADDIE
ADDIE’S MODEL

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ID MODELS : ADDIE
Analysis
Evaluation Design
Implimentation Develop
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ID MODELS : ADDIE
Analysis Phase
• Analysis phase is where you will gather all of the

information you have at the outset of the project to
define your approach. This information includes:
• Instructional objectives, or what you wish to teach to
the students
• Who the learners are, their abilities and circumstances
• The setting and model of information delivery (online,
classroom, workplace?)
• Teaching considerations and barriers to learning
• The timeline you’re working with

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ID MODELS : ADDIE
Design
• Design is a systematic method for putting various teaching tools in

place to create an overall approach to individual lessons and subject
matter as a whole. In the ADDIE model design phase, you will begin
to define concrete components of the instruction you will develop.
• These include:
• Learning objectives: detail what the student should learn rather
than what the materials should teach
• Assessment instruments, or what you will use to ensure student
learning is on track (i.e. written tests, reflections, performance
tests)
• Content and exercises
• Lesson planning
• Media selection, or how you will get the information to the student
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ID MODELS : ADDIE
Development
• Development phase builds on the design step , Developers will build out
the prototype, creating actual materials as planned in the previous phase.
If instructional designers fail to create appropriate materials for students
to use and learn from, they may fail in meeting their learning objectives.
Even if a design reads fabulously on paper unless it is executed well, the
entire training process may flop. ADDIE development includes:
• Creating the actual content that learners will receive throughout the
course of instruction
• Creating storyboards of how content will be presented
• Building out exercises and other materials that students will use to aid in
their learning
• Creating e-learning materials, if distance or online learning is involved
• Building the technological platforms that will be used
• Planning for and integrating all technology intended for inclusion in the
training program
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ID MODELS : ADDIE
Implementation
• Implementation is the phase in which learners actually receive

the instruction and materials prepared for them throughout the
previous three steps of the ADDIE model.
• the most important step because it is where the learning actually
occurs
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ID MODELS : ADDIE
Evaluation
• Evaluation happens in many ways throughout the course

of this model, and not just in the final stage. 2 types of
evaluation
• Formative evaluation happens in every step. This is
where you ask questions related to the content you’re
developing with the goal of ensuring that it is meeting
your objectives and building successfully on previous
steps.
• Summative ADDIE evaluation is more formal, and it can
really help you see where your process needs more
work.
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ID MODELS : ADDIE
ADDIE Model, Diagram by: Steven J. McGriff,
Instructional Systems, College of Education, Penn State University

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Conclusion
• In order to teach we need to know how people learn

– we need to know learning theories
• To create effective instruction, the instruction should
be planned and designed
• There models that can be used as guide to design
instruction
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Online discussion task :

Find out about ARCS Model and discuss it in E-
Learning
What is?
Implications on teaching and learning?
etc…..
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1

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

If we wish to know how to teach, we first must understand

….we believe the art of teaching should also be informed by a robust

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

Learning Theories are conceptual frameworks that

Often, the same content can be presented in different ways.

The inputs : What

The means : What are the

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

Based on behavioral changes. Focuses on a new behavioral

A theory that equates that learning with changes in

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

Pavlov (1849- Thorndike (1874- Watson (1878- Skinner (1904-

LEARNING THEORIES : BEHAVIORISM

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

LEARNING THEORIES : BEHAVIORISM

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

LEARNING THEORIES : COGNITIVISM

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

LEARNING THEORIES : COGNITIVISM

LEARNING THEORIES : COGNITIVISM

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

Key concepts of Cognitive Theory –cont.

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

LEARNING THEORIES : CONSTRUCTIVISM

Learners are active creators of

This is because knowledge is not

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

LEARNING THEORIES : CONSTRUCTIVISM

• Engagement of students in meaningful experiences

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

LEARNING THEORIES : CONSTRUCTIVISM

In creating educational environment, constructivist educators suggest designers should

Emphasise learning Emphasis active Use discovery or guided

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

LEARNING THEORIES : CONSTRUCTIVISM

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY PERSPECTIVE

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

In reality, those who cling to a single approach (behavioral,

• Good site to visit :

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

Instructional Design is the science of

Instructional Design is the systematic development of

To increase and enhance the possibility of learning

To make the acquisition of knowledge and skill more

To encourage the engagement of learners so that

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

• advocates repetition and reinforcement in learning

• focuses on engaging the learner’s senses to create a

• emphasizes the learner’s own experience and personal

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

What is Instructional Design Models??

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN MODELS

WHAT IS AN INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN (ID) MODEL?

• An Instructional design model is a method, for example, a general design

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global