Self-Aerated Flow on Corps of Engineers Spillways Technical Report

Water Quality Technical ReportW~94~2
Research Program. May 1994
Self-Aerated Flow on Corps

of E~gineers Spillways
by Steven C, Wilhelms
U,S. Army Corps of Engineers
Waterways Experiment Station
3909 Halls Ferry Road
Vicksburg, MS 39180~6199
John S, Gulliver
st. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Laboratory
Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, MN 55455
Final Report
Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited
Prepared for U,S, Army Corps of Engineers

Washirigton,DC' . 20314~1 000, ..
US Army Corps
of Engineers
N
Waterways Experiment
Station
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Waterways Experiment Station Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Wilhelms, Steven C.
Self-aerated flow on Corps of Engineers spillways / by Steven C.
Wilhelms, John S. Gulliver; prepared for U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
112 p. : ill. ; 28 cm. - (Technical report; W-94-2)
Includes bibliographical references.
1. Water - Aeration - Testing. 2. Spillways - Design and construc-
tion - Environmental aspects. 3. Channels (Hydraulic engineering)
4. Hydraulics. I. Gulliver, John S. II. United States. Army. Corps of
Engineers. III. U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station.
IV. Water Quality Research Program. V. title.' VI.;Series: Technical
report (U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station) ; W~94-2 ..
TA7 W34 no.W-94-2
Contents
Preface . . . , . , , , . , , , , , , , I , • , , , • , , , , • , '.' I , • , , ~ , , , • , , , • f •• vi
Conversion Factors, Non-SI to SI Units of Measurement ...... ,',.," vii
I-Introduction , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . , , , , , .' , , . , ... , . , , . , , , . , . , . . 1
Background .... , " ' , .. , .. " ......... ,', .. , . , " " " " ' , . 1
Objective and Scope . . . , " " " , . , " , . " . . . . , " " . " ' , . . " . 2
Concepts and Theory , , , , , , , . , , . , . , , , , , , , , , . , , . . , , , . . , . . , , 3
Historical perspective .. , ....... , .......... , .. ,",., .... 3
New concepts, .. , .... , ..... , ..... , .. , .. , , , , , ......... 5
Entrained air and gas transfer . . . . . . . . . , , . . . . . , , . , , . . , , , . . , 6
Entrained air and cavitation, ........ , . , .. , ... , . , .... , .... 8
2-Data and Analysis ,.,....".,....,..,.,. '. . . , . , , . , . , . . .; 10
Analysis of Killen's Observations .... , . , ..... , .. , . , . , ....... 10
Separation of entrained and entrapped air , . " . , ' , . . " . . " . . . 10
Mean concentrations . . . . , . . , . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11
Constant entrapped air concentration ..... , .. , .............. 12
Developing flow: Location of the point of inception ..... ,", .. 16 I
Dimensionless terms . , . , . . . . . ',' . . . . . . . . . . . ,. . '.' . . . . . .. 18
Nondimensionalizing Killen's tests ... , ....... , . , , , ....... , 19
Application of Results for Developing Flow . . . . . . , . , . . . , . , . . . , . 20
Location of points of inception . . . . . , . . . , . , , . . . . , , , . . . . . . . 21
Developing aerated flow from Straub and Anderson's tests ." .... 22
Mathematical description of air entrainment . . . ,', . . ,', , . , , . . . .. 24
Verification and application , , , , ' . , '.' ............. , . , .... 25
3-Summary and Conclusions. , , , , " ... , , , .. , . , .. , .... , . , .... 33
References .,."... .• ,.,...,....................".."..; 37
Appendix A: Killeri's, Measurements of Self-Aerated Flow, .
Graphical Fom . , ... '.....,., , , .. ~. , ..".. , . , , ... , , ': •. , . , .. , .. A1
Appendix B: Killen's Measurements of Self-Aerated Flow,
Tabular Form ..',. '. . .' . '. . . . . '.' . . '.' .. . , , , , . . , , '.' , . . . . . . . . . . B 1
Appendix: C: Investigation of Integration Limit for Entrapped
Air Concentration ..... , ......... ,',.,"',." .... , ....... C1
Appendix D: Calculation of Inception Point Location .. , , . , ...... , . , D1
iii
Appendix E: Straub and Anderson's Unpublished Measurements of
Self-Aerated Flow on 30- and 45-Deg Slopes, 35-Ft Distance
Along Flume, Graphical Form .............................. E1
Appendix F: Straub and Anderson's Unpublished Measurements of
Self-Aerated Flow on 30- and 45-Deg Slopes, 35-Ft Distance
Along Flume, Tabular Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ ,~ . . . . . . . ~1
SF 298
List of Figures
Figure 1. Self-aerated flow on an OGEE crest .................. ~ 2

Figure 2. Region of developing flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Figure 3. Ehrenberger's (1926) concept of air transport ............. 4
Figure 4. Air concentration distribution measured by Straub and
Anderson (1958) ............................. '.... 4
Figure 5. Water surface of self-aerated flow ..................... 5
Figure 6. Concepts of entrained and entrapped air ................ 6
Figure 7. Air concentration profile after Killen (1968) ............. 11
Figure 8. Results of reanalysis of Killen's (1968) data ............ 14
Figure 9. Entrapped air concentration distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15
Figure to. Boundary layer turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16
Figure 11. Intersection of a turbulent boundary layer with a
density interface ................................ 17
Figure 12. Schematic of flume with gate op~ning and measurement
location and variables used in dimensionless
analysis ...................................... 19
Figure 13. Gate opening versus normal depth of flow for Killen's
(1968) tests .... :.; ......................... '..... 20
Figure 14. Suggested relationship between do/Go and
Xl (calc/Xl (obs) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • '•••••••••••. ~ • • • • • •• 21
Figure 15. Replot of Figure 8 in dimensionless terms: Mean con-
centrations of profiles from Test No.3 of Killen's
(1968) data versus dimensionless distance along the. .
flume......................................... 22
Figure 16. Gate opening versus normal depth of flow for Straub
. and Anderson's (1958) tests on 30- and 45-deg
slopes ....................................... 25
iv
Figure 17, Mean concentration of total conveyed air versus unit
discharge for Straub and Anderson's (1958) tests on
30- and 45-deg slopes , , .. , . , .. , , . , , , , , . , , , , , . , , , , 26
Figure 18, Mean concentration of entrained air versus dimension-
less distance from point of inception for Straub and
Anderson's (1958) and Killen's (1968) tests on a
30-deg slope . , " ' , . , " " ' , . " . , . , ' , . , . , " " ' , . 27
Anderson's (1958) tests on a 45-deg slope " " " " " ' " 28
Anderson's (1958) tests 01) a 45-deg slope and Cain's
(1978) observations on Aviemore Spillway , , , , , , , , , , , , , 29
Figure 21. Relationship between entrained air concentration and
air concentration at the spillway or flume surface
for Straub and Anderson's (1958) data, Killen's
(1968) data, and Cains (1978) data, . , ....... , . , , ..... 32
v
~
l
I
1 Introduction
Background
Self~aeration is a phenomenon seen in high-velocity flows on a spillway or

in a channel. The flow on the spillway turns frothy and white when self-
aeration is initiated (Figure 1) because of entrained air. From studies of self-
aerated spillway flows, it was concluded that the turbulent boundary layer,
caused by the spillway surface, initiated air entrainment when its thickness
was approximately the depth of flow. Keller, Lai, and Wood (1974)
presented the definitions used today for the developing regions of aerated flow
(Figure 2). The "point of inception" is the location where aeration starts,
which is also where the turbulent boundary layer intersects the water surface.
For some distance, the flow is developing, i.e., there is a net flux of air into
the water. When the air bubbles are transported to their maximum depth in
the water, the flow is considered fully aerated, but may continue to entrain
more air and thus would be still developing. At some long distance along the
spillway, uniform conditions are established. Thereafter, there is no change
in the hydraulic or air transport characteristics.
The process of self-aeration in spillways and steep chutes has historically

been of interest to· hydraulic engineers because of the effects the entrained air
has on the depth of flow. The amount of "bulking" of the flow is a necessary
design parameter in determining the height of spillway or chute sidewalls.
Engineers have also been interested in eliminating or minimizing cavitation
damage to high-velocity spillways, chutes, and channels. To accomplish this,
aerators have been designed to aspirate air into the flow. The location on the
spillway where sufficient air from the self-aeration process becomes available
to prevent or reduce the damage caused by cavitation is required by the design
engineer when siting these aerators or determining if aerators are required.
More recently,' this highly aerated flow has been recognized for its gas trans-
fer characteristics with the transfer of atmospheric gases (oxygen and nitro-
gen) into the water and the volatilization of toxic pollutants.
Many hydrauUcians and experimentalists have examined the phenomenon

;. of self-aerating flows on spillways and in.hig:h.:velocity channels over the last
six decades. Ehrenberger (1926) was the first to investigate the concentration
1
Chapter·1 Introduction
and distribution of air in self-aerated flow. Straub and
Anderson (1958) performed an award-winning experimen-
tal study of the distribution of air in self-aerated flow.
More recently, Cain and Wood (1981) measured air con-
centration in the flow on the Aviemore Spillway in
New Zealand. As recently as 1988, Ruze (1988) con-
ducted laboratory expe.riment~ on self-~erated flow. Falvey
and Ervine (1988) recently reviewed 'past work, discussed
the hydrodynamic processes affecting aeration, and identi-
fied areas where understanding must be improved. It is
hoped that the effort reported herein will aid in describing
self-aeration.
Objective and Scope

Figure 1. Self-aerated flow
on an OGEE crest.
The objective of this effort was to improve the descrip-
tion of self-aerated flow. Because entrained air contributes
greatly to absorption of oxygen aneJ, the transfer of other gases and can sig-
nifi,cantly reduce cavitation damage, being able to estimate the amount of air
entrained in spillway flows is important. To achieve this objective, the con-
ceptuaJ eJescriptions of the aeration process, proffered by past researchers,
Developing.
fully-aerated
flow
Fully developed
aerated flow
(equilibrium state)
Figure 2. Region of dev~loping flow (after Keller, Lai, and Wood 1974)
2 Chapter 1 Introduction
were closely examined. New concepts were proposed regarding the concep-
tual definition of entrained air. Data from selected past efforts were anal-
·yzed within this new framework to estimate the air entrainment at Corps of
Engineers (CE) spillways.
Concepts and Theory
Historical perspective
Ehrenberger (1926) is usually cited as the first study of self-aeration in

open-channel flow. Although not described in his paper, the hydraulic per-
formance of the Rutz Works high-veloci(y chute was apparently unaccept-
able. It is presumed that the problem was related to the self-aeration phe-
nomenon, where the entrained air caused the flow depth to be greater than
expected and the side walls were too low. At that time, knowledge about
self-aerated flow was essentially nonexistent, as Ehrenberger described the
"".science of flow in steep chutes ... " a,s " ... an almost unexplored field..... "
The 'major contributions of Ehrenberger's effort were (a) recognition of the
significant influence that entrained air has on hydraulic characteristics and
(b) although not completely correct, the physical description of highly
· aerated flow, which was as follows: "At the top, droplets of water inter-
spersed through air are first noticed. Below this layer, there is a layer con-
: sisting of a mixture of air and water, which in turn covers a layer of water
'containing individual air bubbles, and finally there is a layer of unaerated
water adjacent to the bottom" (Figure 3), This "layered" description ulti-·
· mately developed into the concept ora continuum of air/water from the bot-
· tom to the surface,
In a benchmark article on self-aerated flow, Straub and Anderson (1958)

showed measurements of air concentration (Figure 4) that seemed t() indicate'
that this was the case inasmuch as the air concentration varied in a continu-
ous fashioil over the depth of flow, They conducted extensive tests in a
laboratory flume at slopes from 7.5 to 75 deg with unit discharges from 1.47
to 10.0 cfs. I In agreement with Ehrenberger's (1926) description, they
conceptualized air- entrained flow as having an upper region, wl1ere water is .
transported with air, and a lower region, where air is transported· with water.
Killen (1968), however, showed in high-speed photos taken during flume

· experiments ih the nlidfifties, that the water surface reniained"intact but
vel:y contOlted" (Figure ,5) with a very small quantity of flying droplets over
the surface. Hence, a well-mixedcontinuul11 of increasing air and decreasing
: water over the depth did not appear to exist. This was in contrast to the
entrainment concept proposed by Ehrenberger (1926) and Straub and
Anderson ,(1958). ,
I A table of factors for converting non-SI units of measurement to SI units is presented on

page vii.
Chapter 1 . Introduction 3
Individual air bubbles in water
Water
Figure 3. Ehrenberger's (1926) concept of air transport
O.S
"i
···············r..···········1..······....··-:--..·····.. ···'1'"..·...........l····..·········r········.. ··r·. ·. ·. ·. r············T··············
0.4 ................ 1.............. • .................. ..;. ................................. 1•••••••••••••••• , ........... ·····~··.··· ......... olo ••••••••••••••• , ••••••••••••••••
i i : Ii! ! ! i
"....
1.&.1 0.3
-....
1.&.1
.....
: J:
11. 0.2
1.&.1
C
~-::::0y:~[:::r:~::f~~:::I~--r~-1::::r:~]-~::-
0.1
0. : : : : : : : :
; ~ ~ l l 1 I ~ l
0.0
o so 100
CONCENTRATION (PERCENT)
Figure 4. Air concentration distribution measured by Straub and Anderson

(1958)
Figure 5. Water surface of self-aerated flow (Courtesy of st. Anthony Falls
Hydraulic Laboratory, University of Minnesota)
New concepts
Based upon Killen's (1968) observations, the concepts of "entrained" and

"entrapped" air (Figure 6) are introduced. Entrained air is being transported
along with the flow in the form of air bubbles that, at so~e point, have been
pulled into the flowing water through the process of air entrainment.
Entrapped air is the air above the water surface that is being transported
along with the flow because it is trapped in the surface roughness. Entrained
and entrapped air together are the "total conveyed air" being transported with
the flow, which, for past researchers, was defined as entrained air.
Obviously, for bulking interests, total conveyed air is of prime impor-

tance, and the differentiation of entrained and entrapped air is of no conse-
quence. However, for cavitation prevention, entrained air, i.e., air bubbles,
must be present at the spillway surface. Thus, in evaluating the potential for
cavitation prevention, entrained air must receive stronger consideration than
total conveyed air or entrapped air. For characterizing gas transfer on the
spillway face, the entrained air is of more significance than the entrapped air
because of the tremendous surface area available for transfer in a bubble
flow. When the flow plunges into a pool below the spillway, then the total
conveyed air will be important since most of the entrapped air will become
,] entrained at the spillway/pool plunge point.
~
I
I' Chapter 1 Introduction
5
- - - --------------------------------- - - ------------------ ----

0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0
0 o ENTRAINED AIRO(BUBBLES)
0
... 0
0
o
0
0
0
0
0
° 0
FLOW 0
0
o o o o o
WZOV/OO71//ll/lllllll/Z0ZV7l//lllIZZ7l7/llllllllllIWvvmomzZZWVVVVlllli.
Figure 6. Concepts of entrained and entrapped air
Entrained air and gas transfer
The flux of a volatile gas, such as oxygen and nitrogen, across the airwater
interface should be written as
(1)
where
J = mass flux rate per unit area

kL = liquid film coefficient
Cs = saturation concentrationl
C = ambient concentration in water

D = saturation deficit
IHenry's Law defines a "saturation concentration" as
where
C, =saturation concentration for gas

H =proportionality or equilibrium constant for gas
p =partial pressure of gas in the atmosphere
Henry's Law states that at a given temperature, a liquid can absorb an amount of gas that is proportional to the partial
pressure of that gas in the overlying atmosphere. Thus, there exists an "equilibrated" state at the saturation concentration
where the partial pressure of the gas in the water is equal to the partial pressure of the gas in the atmosphere.
Several pl).ysical processes or effects are described by the mathematical
formulation presented above. TQe impacts of these processes are governed
mainly by the fluid mechanics and flow conditions. The follo»,ing provides a .
general description of these processes and their effect on gas transfer.
a. Increased mass transfer because of increased interfacial area resulting

from air that has been entrained into the flow. When air is entrained
into the flow either from the surface or at a plunge point, the surface
area available for gas transfer can increase dramatically. Gulliver,
Thene, and Rindels (1990) estimated that entrained air because of free
surface aeration increased the air-water surface area by a factor of
nearly 500 compared with the unit area of surface exposed to the.
atmosphere in a 0.3-ft-deep spillway flow. Thus, if air is entrained, gas
transfer will increase significantly for a given flow condition.
b. Turbulent mixing at the water surface and within the body of the
flowing water. It would seem logical that the rate of turbulent mixing
would significantly affect gas transfer because of the concept of water-
surface renewal (water surface that is swept away from the surface and
"renewed" with water from below) (Danckwerts 1951) causing
increased gas transfer.
c. Mass transfer enhancement by pressure resulting from the hydflJstatic

pressure of tailwater. In addition to the contribution that air bubbles
make to the air-water surface area, absorption of atmospheric gases
from the air bubbles can be increased because of the increased pressure
that the bubbles experience as they are transported into the depth of the
structure's stilling basin. Increased hydrostatic pressure on entrained air
causes an increase in the saturation concentration (see Equations 1 and
2) arid thereby increases the saturation deficit (Wilhelms et al. 1987;
Wilhelms and Gulliver 1990).
Each of the above is included either directly or indirectly in Equation 3. Tur-

bulent mixing is characterized by the liquid film coefficient kv The effects of
pressure on mass transfer results in an increased saturati'on concentration and
thus, an increased saturation deficit D. The increase in mass transfer because
of greater interfacial area because of entrained air bubbles is included in the
interfacial area term A.
Entrained air and cavitation
The damaging effects of cavitation can be minimized or eliminated if suffi-

cient air can be introduced to the flow upstream of and near the cavitating
surface. For spillways, this problem has led to the design and installation of
aerators on the spillway slope. These aerators may be sited more effectively if
the location can be estimated where sufficient air from self-aeration re'aches the
spillway face to prevent -cavitation damage. In addition', oversizing aerators
(designing the aerator to introduce more air than th6 flow dm carry) will not
8 Chapter 1 IntrodtJction
result in more entrained air being transported, because the carrying capacity of
the flow would be exceeded and excess air would be lost to the atmosphere.
Peterka (1953) conducted water tunnel experiments and detennined that

damage caused by cavitation could be minimized if an air concentration of at
least 8 percent was introduced upstream of and near the cavitating surface.
Thus, in developing aerated flow on a spillway, once the entrained air near the
spillway surface reaches 8 percent, then the placement of an aerator is unwar-
ranted. However, if cavitation is occurring upstream of this location, then
aerators may be needed to help decrease cavitation damage.
Chapter 1 Introduction 9
2' Data and Analysis
Analysis of Killen's Observations
Separation of entrained and entrapped air
Most data collected in experimental studies of aerated flow consist of

concentration profiles of total conveyed air (Straub and Anderson 1958; Killen
1968). To make use of the entrained or entrapped air concepts, each must be
separated from total conveyed air. Killen (1968) was interested in the surface
characteristics of aerated flow and measured "surface roughness" in addition
to the total conveyed air concentration profile. He measured the total
conveyed air (entrapped and entrained air) content with an air concentration
probe (Lamb and Killen 1950). He characterized the surface with a
conduction probe that dipped in and out of the surface roughness as flow
passed the probe. The signal from the probe was maximum when it was in
the water and at zero when out of the water. At a given elevation above the
flume bottom, the signal from the probe showed that it was in the water (in
contact with a wave on the rough surface) some portion of time and out of the
water (between the roughness of the surface) for the remainder of time spent
at that elevation. Further analysis of these observations showed that the
time-average of this signal was, in reality, the concentration of air that was
trapped within the surface roughness and transported along with the flow, i.e.,
the entrapped air. The difference between the total conveyed air concentration
and the entrapped air concentration is the entrained air concentration.
Killen collected these data at several locations along the length of a

1.5-ft-wide flume for several flow rates and two slopes. An example of his
observations is shown in Figure 7 for a unit discharge q of 4.3 ft 3/sec per ft,
channel slope () of 30 deg, and a distance X along the flume of 34 ft. All of
Killen's observed profiles are presented in graphical form in Appendix A;
corresponding digital profile data are presented in Appendix B. The total
conveyed air at the channel bottom represents the concentration of entrained
air, since the water surface roughness does not extend to the bottom. At the
lower limit of roughness penetration, the total conveyed air consists only of
entrained air bubbles. However, above this limit, entrapped and entrained air
contribute to total conveyed air. Entrained air gradually decreases in
proportion to entrapped air until the entrapped air and total conveyed air
10 Chapter 2 Data and Analysis

0.4 ...--.....---r----,.--r---"'T"'""--r----,.--r--"T"""--'
0.3
lL
~ 0.2
o
0.1
o ~L-~_~_~ ___ ~ __ ~ __ ~_~ ___ ~_~_~
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
CONCENTRATION, PERCENT
Figure 7. Air concentration profile (percent by volume) (after Killen (1968))
concentrations are equal to 100 percent, where the probe is completely out of
the water.
Mean concentrations
The mean concentration of entrapped and total conveyed air can be deter-
mined by integrating these two profiles over depth and dividing by depth
(4)
where
C = mean concentration of entrapped or total conveyed air
cry) = concentration profile of the entrapped or totalconveyed air,

respectively, as a function of depth, y
Yc = the integration limit
Ohapter 2 Data and Analysis

The mean concentration of entrained air is the difference between entrapped
and total conveyed air.
Because of difficulty in defining the upper limit of flow, which should be

the upper limit of integration, Straub and Anderson (1958) suggested integrat-
ing the profiles to a depth where the total conveyed air concentration was 0.95
or 0.99. Cain and Wood (1981) adopted an integration limit where total con-
veyedair is 0.95. In a later analysis, Wood (1985) used the depth where total
conveyed air concentration was 0.90. The mean entrapped air concentration
was determined for several integration limits and is presented in Appendix C.
It was observed that there was less variability in the entrapped air concentra-
tions as the integration limit increased. The depth, denoted by Y98 (Figure 7),
where total conveyed air equals 0.98 was easily identifiable on concentration
profiles and was selected for use in calculating mean values.
Mean concentrations for total conveyed air and entrapped air were
calculated for all of Killen's observed profiles with Equation 4. Mean
entrained air concentration was the difference between total conveyed air and
entrapped air. The results of integrating these profiles are given in Table 1
and shown in Figure 8. This figure shows mean concentration as a function of
distance along the flume for Killen's slopes and discharges. As one might
expect, in the developing flow region, the total conveyed air concentration
gradually increased, approaching an "equilibrium" concentration. Entrained air
concentration followed a similar trend. It was anticipated that the entrapped
air concentration would do likewise. However, the data show essentially a
constant value for entrapped air concentration, suggesting that the mean
entrapped air concentration is constant over a relatively wide range of
discharges and slopes.
Constant entrapped air concentration
The question of why the entrapped air concentration should be constant

immediately arises. Killen (1968) experimentally found that a Gaussian error
function (cumulative normal distribution) described tqe surface roughness
characteristics and, thus, also described the shape of the entrapped air profile.
The difference between the depths doo. and d98 (Figure 9), where the entrapped
air concentrations are 0.02 and 0.98, respectively, represents 4.1 (JEntrapped'
where (JEntrapped is the standard deviation of the cumulative normal distribution.
With much difficulty, it can be shown that since the entrapped air concentra-
tion distribution is cumulative normal, then the entrapped air (numerator of
Equation 4) is equal to a constant [(' times (JElHlapped' Through Equation 4, this
results in a mean entrapped air concentration CEntrapped of
cEntrapped
= K *0 = K * ( d98
-d 41d
- d02 ) (5)
98 • 98

Table 1
Mean Concentrations of Entrapped, Entrained, and Total
Conveyed Air for Killen's 1968 Observations
I· Profile I Entrapped I Entrained I Total I Xft I

1
Test No.1, e = 30 deg, q ;: 4.3 ft3/ sec -ft
I
H 0.253 0.036 0.209 12
1-2 0.262 0.093 0.355 18
1-3 0.246 0.094 0.340 20
1-4 0.243 0.118 0.361 24
1-5 0.236 0.196 0.432 34
1
Test No.2, e = 30 deg, q = 8.5 ft3/ sec -ft I
2-1 0.179 0.052 0.230 20
"
2-2 0.187 0.100 0.287 24
2-3 0.215 0.134 0.349 30
2-4 0.232 0.151 0.348, 38
I Test No.3, e = 52.5 deg, q = 4.3 fe/sec-ft I

3-1 0.241 0.078 0.319 7
3-2 0.247 0.150 0.396 9
3-3 0.212 0.269 0.480 12
3-4 0.223 0.255 0.478 14
3-5 0.174 0.372 0.546 20
3-6 0.224 0.374 0.598 25
3-7 0.294 0.349 0.643 30
3-8 0.256 0.390 0.646 35
1
Test No.4, e = 30 deg, q = 2.1 ft3/sec-ft
I
4-1 0.203 0.265 0.468 12
4-2 0.258 0.292 0.550 18
4-3 0.217 0.267 0.484 35
13
Chapter 2 ,Data and Analysis
80~------~-------r------~--------r-----~
60
.-...
I-
Z
W
~
ENTRAINED ..•••.•.••. 0 .•••
40 o .............Q ~
••••••••••
~
0
W
...... ........ " ~""
-z
a..
0 20
. ' ENTRAPPED 8g.·6
4._8_.-;_-------8--------
.' 8 u
8
••••• b.
~ .. Q
a: :r;J.....
I-
z.
W 0
(J
Z A Test No. 1
g 40 •II Test
Test
No.2
No.3
Z 0 Test No.4
<l:: 6 ENTRAPPED AIR II II
LU
-L.A-a.;.-~_6----. .- - - - - - - .
:E. 20 • • 0 a
oL--------L--------~------~--------~------~
o 10 20 30 40 50
X, ft
Figure 8. Results of reanalysis of Killen's (1968) data. Mean concentrations

of profiles from Test NO.3 (above). Mean concentration of
entrapped air for all of Killen's data versus distance along the
channel (below)
For the entrapped air concentration to be constant, the ratio of (JEntrapped or

(dg8 - d02 ) to depth of flow d 98 must be constant, implying that the surface
roughness is related to the overall depth offlow. This is reasonable when one
considers the cause of the surface roughness: turbulent eddies being generated
by shear at the floor of the channel. In a steep channel, the strength of these
eddies is sufficient to greatly deform and contort the water surface. Further-
more, the size of these eddies determines the magnitude of the surface rough-
ness; the size of the turbulent eddies is a function of depth in a turbulent
open-channel flow.
To illustrate this phenomenon, one can consider the distribution of turbu-

lence at the "surface" of a turbulent boundary layer (Figure 10). The
0.5 ..----r----,.--,..---;---,.--.----r--;--...,--,
o ~~~-~---~-~--~---~--~---~-~-~
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
CONCENTRATION, PERCENT
Figure 9. Entrapped air concentration distribution (percent by volume)
turbulence generated within the boundary layer causes the "surface" of the
boundary layer to be "highly contorted" (Tennekes and Lumley 1972). Mea-
surements of turbulence in this region have resulted in the concept of an
"intermittency factor," which is the proportion of time at some location in the
interfacial region that the fluid is turbulent. Hinze (1959) reported that the
distribution of the intermittency factor across this interfacial region was
described by a Gaussian error function (a cumulative normal distribution).
Further, the extent (thickness) of the intermittent region of turbulent and non-
turbulent fluid was proportional to the boundary layer thickness.
With these characteristics of a boundary layer, one can consider the condi-
tions where the boundary layer intersects an interface between two fluids of
different densities (Figure 11). Prior to intersecting the interface, the only
constraining force on the bursts of turbulence in the intermittent region is
15
Chapter 2 Data and Analysis
caused by fluid viscosity. Once at the interface, however, the gravitational
force caused by the density difference also acts to constrain the extent of the
turbulent bursts of fluid. However, the added force of gravity because of the
density difference will not change the functional character of the interface, i.e.,
the Gaussian error function distribution across the interfacial region. Although
the width of the distribution may change, it will remain Gaussian in nature.
Close examination of this phenomenon clearly shows that it is analogous to

the water surface characteristics measured by Killen (1968). In fact, Killen
discussed the similarity of the roughened surface distribution and the intermit·
tency of boundary layer turbulence. Typically, hydraulicians have not consid-
ered the aeration process in this light. Most have disregarded the fact that the
boundary layer, generated by the spillway, propagates through the depth of
flow, manifests itself as the roughened water surface, and actually continues
into the air mass above the flowing water. Thus, the characteristics of the
water surface are a direct reflection of the turbulence generated by the spill-
way. Through analogy with the roughened surface of a boundary layer, it can
be concluded that the surface roughness should be related to the depth of flow.
Therefore, a constant entrapped air concentration would be expected.
Developing flow: Location of the point of inception
As shown in Figure 8, Killen's observations illustrate the developing nature

of self-aerated flow. At many, if not at most spillways, the flow conditions
will still be in a developing stage rather than having achieved uniform equili-
brated flow over the length of the spillway. Thus, the developing nature of
aerated flow must be examined, and the location where uniform flow is
approached must be defined. To accomplish this, the inception point must
Figure 10. Boundary layer turbulence

p Density
v (Interface
v
p+f1p
A>;A>;AY)'Y)'Y;A>,)'%'~~;>';/;>>>>-;;>'~'~A'>>~' ~/"Y)'Y;A>;AY/"'«:";;)'>Y)':Y)''y/''Y;AY/''>;AY)-;Y;A'h''y;'
Boundary Layer
Figure 11. Intersection of a turbulent boundary layer with a density interface
also be detennined and the location of downstream flow characteristics defined

relative to the point of inception. For three of Killen's tests, the point of
inception can be accurately located from the plots in Figure 8, but the points
of inception are not available from the Straub and Anderson (1958) data. A
method to estimate the location of tile point of inception and the depth of flow
at inception must therefore be developed.
Upstream of the point of inception, ilie local depth of flow gradually

increases as the boundary layer develops. Bauer (1954) essentially added
10 percent of the boundary layer thickness to the potential flow depth to deter-
mine the local depth of flow, i.e., for high Reynolds numbers, 10 percent of
the boundary layer iliickness is approximately the displacement thickness. The
point of inception was the location where the boundary layer intersected the
gradually varying water surface. For Killen's tests, to detennine tile depth of
flow at the point of inception, methods presented by Blevins (1984) were used
to compute its location based on boundary layer growth on a hydraulically
rough plate. This analysis is presented in Appendix D. Table 2 gives
observed and calculated locations in flume dimensions for Killen's three tests.
Table 2
Location for Point of Inception for
Killen's (1968) Tests
Unit Distance Along Flume Distance Along Flume
Slope Discharge to Observed Point to Calculated 1 Point
degree ft3_ s'1·ff1 of Inception, ft of Inception, ft
30 4.3 10.0 6.1
30 8.5 16.2 10,7
52.5 4.3 . 6.0' 4.8
1 Calculated with Blevins' (1984) method.
17
~,~ - ------- - .... _ - - - - - - -

Although few tests are available, it appears that Blevins' (1984) method
underestimates the distance required for the emergence of the boundary layer
to the water surface. The reason for this is not clear, but one can speculate
with some justification about the potential causes. In setting the opening of
the control gate on the flume, the intent was to set an opening such that flow
would not have to accelerate or decelerate to achieve normal depth of flow. If
the gate opening was too large and the flow had to accelerate (Figure 12), then
boundary layer development would be retarded and the calculated point of
inception would be less than the observed. If the gate opening was too small
and the flow had to decelerate, then boundary layer development would be
accelerated and the calculated point of inception would be greater than
observed. Figure 13 shows the relationship between gate opening Go and
normal depth of flow do for Killen's tests. Obviously, the gate opening was
larger than normal depth, resulting in retardation of boundary layer develop-
ment. The control gate on the flume should have been set with an opening
less than normal depth by an amount equal to the boundary layer displacement
thickness. The dashed line represents these ideal conditions.
Clearly, for these tests the gate opening was too large and the flow acceler-
ated when discharged to the flume. Argument can be made that if the gate
opening was set for ideal conditions, then the calculated location for the point
of inception would be equal to the observed. Further, it would seem to follow
that for larger gate openings, relative to the ideal depth, there would be a
larger difference between calculated and observed inception points. Thus, as
the ratio do/Go approaches 1.0 from the lower side, the ratio Xllealc/Xllobs) like-
wise approaches 1.0 from the lower side, where XII calc) and XIIObs) are the cal-
culated and observed locations of the point of inception. Because the data are
so few, a linear relationship (Equation 6) between these two ratios (Figure 14)
is suggested to advance this analysis.
X I(eale)
__ = 1.37 _do - 0.375 (6)
X l(obs) Go
Dimensionless terms
To compare the many observed profiles, several hydraulic variables were

considered for dimensionless terms that describe aerated flow characteristics.
Past efforts proposed nondimensional terms that have included a "distance
Reynolds Number" (Keller, Lai, and Wood 1974), where the critical dimension
was distance along the direction of flow. Cain (1978) used the depth of flow
at the point of inception Y1 to introduce a dimensionless distance parameter
X'/YI , where X· is the distance from the point of inception (Figure 12). This
particular variable has the convenient characteristic of implicitly including the
unit discharge. At the point of inception, regardless of discharge, the hydraulic
character of the flow is completely developed, and hence the discharge can be
described in terms of the depth of flow. It follows that the dimensionless

Figure 12. Schematic of flume Witll gate opening and measurement location
and variables used in dimensionless analysis
distance parameter X'/Y, should be an appropriate term for analysis of devel-

oping flow.
Nondimensionalizlng Killen's tests
For each of Killen's tests, the depth of flow at the PQint of inception Y, is
available from Table Dl (Appendix D). The observed location of the point of
inception Xl is presented in Table 2. The developing character of aerated flow
depicted in Figures 1, 2, and 8 can benondimensionalized. with
(7)
where
X· :::: distance along the flume from the point of inception'
X:::: actual distance from the flume control gate to location (Figure 12)

19
0.4-
0
0 52.5 Slope, q = 4.3
0
• 30.0 Slope, q = 4.3
0
v 30.0 Slope, q = 8.5 v
0.3
+J
'+- G0 =
A
01
C
C
(J)
0...
0.2 • ~
0 ~
~
~
(J) ~
+J 0 ~
0
(.9
0.1 ~
~
~; ' - Ideal
gate-setting
.-
'G 0
= d0 - £5 •
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Normal Depth of Flow, ft
Figure 13. Gate opening versus normal depth of flow for Killen's (1968) tests
At the point of inception, x* equals zero. Using Equation 7 and the data pre-
sented in Appendix B, Figure 8 can be replotted in nondimensional form as
shown in Figure 15.
Application of Results for Developing Flow
As mentioned earlier, Straub and Anderson (1958) made extensive measure-

ments of aerated flow for a large variety of slopes and discharges. Their
observations, however, consisted only of total conveyed air concentration pro-
files. Using the analysis presented in previous paragraphs, entrained air con-
centrations were calculated for Straub and Anderson's profiles by subtracting
the constant entrapped air concentration of 23 percent from total conveyed air.
By describing the location of Straub and Anderson's profiles relative to the
point of inception, their data provide a basis for describing the character of
20 Chapter 2 Data arid Analysis

1.2
1.0
x
~,--....
u
0.8 •
o
u
.......,
x
•
0.6 •
0,4 L -_ _ _ _ _ _~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~_ _ _ _ _ _~
0.4 0.6 1.0 1.2
Figure 14. Suggested relationship between djGo and X, (ca/c) / X, (obs)
developing aerated flow. Although Straub and Anderson tested several slopes,
this effort examines their data from a 30-deg slope for direct comparison with
Killen's (1968) observations and then concentrates on describing flow condi-
tions for a 45-deg slope, which is most appropriate for-application to CE
spillways.
Location of points of inception
Table 3 and Figure 16 show the relationship between the gate opening and
the normal depth of flow for the Straub and Anderson tests. For many of their
tests, as with Killen's (1968) tests, the gate opening was greater than required
for the ideal setting~ Thus, to estimate the location of the point of inception
for their tests, the analysis of Killen's observations is reversed:
a. Using the normal depth offlow from Table 3, determine the location of
the point of inception for the ideal gate setting from Table D 1.
Chapter 2 Data and An1:ilysls

21
- ------- - - -
~
I-
80 r----------------------------------------------,
Z
W
o.
a::
w 60 -
0..
'-'
ENTRAINED
G
A
ENTRAPPED
200 250
Figure 15. Replot of Figure 8 in dimensionless terms: Mean concentrations of

profiles from Test No.3 of Killen's (1968) data versus dimension-
less distance along the flume
b. With Equation 6 and the ratio of do/Go, estimate the ratio Xl(calc/Xl(obs)'
from which the "observed" or actual location of the point of inception
can be determined.
Table 4 gives these values for Xl(obs) for Straub and Anderson's 30- and 45-deg
tests.
Developing aerated flow from Straub and Anderson's tests
Straub and Anderson (1958) intended to measure tke entrained aircharac-

teristics for uniform equilibrated flow conditions. Wood (1983, 1985), how-
ever, showed that only some of their measurements were made in equilibrated
uniform flow (Figure 17). In general, for low discharges, their observations
were in equilibrated uniform flow. But for higher discharges,' aeration was not
fully developed. Wood also argued that similarity exists between concentra-
tion profiles for different discharges on the same slope.
Ordinarily, if interest was in developing flow (as was Killen's (1968», then
observations would be made at several locations along the developing portion
of the flow. Although the intent of Straub and Anderson's tests wastodeter-
mine the fully developed air concentration profile, a closer examination shows
that as discharge increased, the locatiori where the profile was taken was closer
to the point of inception in terms of nondimensional distance (relative to the
depth of floW). This observation and the arguments presented in the previous
Table 3
Gate Openings and Normal Depths, of;,Flow for Straub and
Anderson's Test on 30- and 45-Deg Slopes
30·Deg Slope 45·Deg Slope
Gate, Normal Gate Normal

Test No. Opening, ft Depth, ft Opening, ft Depth, ft
1 0.065 0.077 0.045 0.064
2 0.11 0.098 0.057 0.082
3 0.13 0.118 0,075 0.098
4 0.15 0.136 0.09 0.113
5 0.2 0.156 0.105 0.13
6 0.2 0.169 0.125 0.141
7 0.225 0.184 . 0,15 0.153
8 0.26 0.204 0,18 0.17
9 NfA 0.213 NfA 0.177
10 0.28 0.227 0.22 0.189
11 0.34 0.248 0.27 0.206
12 0.36 0.275 0.39 0.229
paragraph suggest that Straub and Anderson's (1958) observations, if non-

dimensionalized appropriately, may be used to describe the characteristics of
developing flow. By using the dimensionless distance described in the previ-
ous section to locate these profiles, then all of the profiles for one slope can be
analyzed as profiles of developing flow at different locations along the flume.
Straub and Anderson (1958) published profiles, which they considered to be

under equilibrated conditions, that were taken at a location approximately 45 ft
down their flume from the control gate. In addition, they collected profiles at
a location 35 ft along the flume that were not published., These data ate pre-
sented in graphical and tabular form in Appendices E and F, respectively:
Using the methodology outlined in the previous section to estimate the

location of the rough-surface inception point XI and using the normal depth of
flow to define fl = do, a dimensionless distance )(*IfI along the flume can be
calculated for Straub and Anderson's 35- and 45-ft observations. Integrating
the total conveyed air profiles with Equation 4 and subtracting the constant
concentration of entrapped air (Centrapped = 0.23 by volume) gives the entrained
air concentration. Figure 18 shQ,ws the developing nature of entrained air
concentration' from observations on a 30-deg slope from Straub and Anderson's
and Killen's tests. This analysis of Straub and Anderson's tests; when
Ch apter 2· Data and Analysis

23
Table 4
Estimated Values for the Inception" Point Location for Straub
and Anderson's Test on 30" and 45"Deg Slopes
30·0eg Slope 45·0eg Slope
Test No', X'lolulpft X,lalulpft
1 2.35 1.54
2 4.55 1.97
3 5.45 2.68
4 6.22 3.29
5 9.05 3.91 '
6 8.78 4.81
7 10.17 6.04
8 12.32 7.52
9 N/A N/A
10 13.00 9.76
11 16.98 ' 12.85
12 17.49 22.66
compared with Killen's observations of developing flow, clearly shows the

validity of the approach. Hence, this approach was used to develop Figure 19',
showing results of applying this procedure to' Straub and Anderson's tests on a
45-deg slope.
Mathematical description of air entrainment
Most CE dams are designed with a sloping face of ~5 deg, thus, a regres-
sion analysis was performed for the data shown in Figu~e 19. This resulted ill
the following relationship between dimensionless distance from the point of
inception and the entrained air concentration:
C entrainea
_
- 0.48 - 0.48 e
( - 0.01081 .f ) (8)
where
Cen/rained = mean entrained air concentration express~d in terms of void

ratio
}(IY1 = dimensionless distance from the point of inception
24 Chapter 2 [)ata and Analysis

0.4 v
•- 30 0 •
v - 4S
...
P
•
0.3
+'
'+- •
.
en
.-
c
c
Q}
0.2 .. ."
,v
,
0-
0
Q}
...
+'
{) ,,
t.') • v '
0.1 ,1"" " " Ideal "
,,'I" ' gate-setting
,~
.'
, , V~
1V
' " G = d· -
P 0
o·
0.0 ..
~. .
,·0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3,
Normal Depth of Flow, ft
Figure 16, Gate opening versus normal depth of flow for Straub and
An.derson's (1958) tests on 30- and 45-deg slopes,
This relationship' can "be used, to' estimate the entrained air concentration at any
location along the flow'path on a spillway. , Theconcentratiori of total con-
veyed air can be estimated by adding the void fraction (:If entrapped air, which
is constant at 0.23.
'.", "
. , ..
Verification and ,application '
, "
To, verify "the relationships developed in the previous sections, observations

in aerated flow from the Avh;~more Spillway (Cain 1978) we~,used. Although
the Aviemore.Spi1~wayjs ,not a CE project, it has a4S-deg sloping face. Cain'
measured· total conveyed ~ir at several locations along the, flow path; 'Thus,
these data represent me~surements' of developing flow. Cain's observed pro-,
file~pftotal conveyed air'concentration were integrated to 'determine mean
concentrations of total conv.eyed ,air. From these total conveyed air concentra-
tions, 23 .percent was subtracted for mean entrapped air leaving mean concen-
trations of entrained air. Figure 20 shows the mean along,the spillway face for

25
1.0 r----r--...,.--,..---,----,.--,.---,..--,--,----,
~
75° ... ~ ~
J:
~"''''4
.,
0.8 A A ~
~
60° A A /'/l.
I /l.
45°
iii = • •
/l.
A
37.5· ~
<»
10
~
n EI
h
1
• [J
•
Z 0.6 \ [J
[J
•
0 \
\ \.
.,
[J
•
~
[J [J
, 30' y y
I-
z
y " Y
,yo y y
"
.•
w y y y
0 22.5' lZ ~ ~
z V V V', Y
0 0.4 V
~ ....
0
Z
• • • • • ........V V
c(
w
, 15'
;',
::::E
7.5'
0
0 0
0
" ....~
6 0 0 0
0.2
LEGEND
----- NON-EQUILIBRATED
FLOW
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
UNIT DISCHARGE, q, CFS
Figure 17. Mean concentration of total conveyed air versus unit discharge for
Straub and Anderson's (1958) tests on 30- and 45-deg slopes
(after Wood 1983, 1985)
the two discharges Cain tested. Clearly, this comparison demonstrates the
appropriateness of the arguments made in earlier sections regarding the non-
dimensional terms. The comparison also indicates that the eqUilibrium concen-
tration is accurately predicted. In the values for entrained air concentration as
a function of dimensionless distance region of developing flow, the comparison
shows that the equation overpredicted the entrained air concentration by 5 to
6 percent. The reason for this discrepancy is 'unclear, other than it being the
result of measurement uncertainty. However, this error does not negate the
usefulness of the relationship for estimating the entrained air concentration in
developing flow; Further, it seems likely that this formulation should be appli-
cable to most spillways: even though the relationships were developed from
observations made in a laboratory flume, the results reasonably predicted
observations from a full-scale project.
80r---~r----'-----'----~----~----~-----r----,
~
I-
Z 60
UJ
0
D:
UJ
...,
D...
Z
0 40
~
I-
Z
UJ
0
z 20
0
0
o~----~--~~--~----~----~----~----~----~
o 200 600 800
Figure 18. Mean concentration of entrained air (percent by volume) versus

dimensionless distance from point of inception for Straub and
Anderson's (1958) and Killen's (1968) tests on a 30-deg slope
As described earlier, there are two areas of concern that benefit greatly
from the foregoing analysis: (a) prediction of gas transfer rates (oxygen and
nitrogen absorption at spillways) and (b) prediction and minimization of cavita-
tion damage. As mentioned in the section where entrained and entrapped air
were defined, entrained air on the spillway face contributes to increased sur-
face area for gas transfer that occurs as the water flow passes down the spill-
way. If the nappe of water and air (entrained and entrapped) plunges into a
stilling basin at the foot of the spillway, then total conveyed air contributes to
the interfacial area of bubbles in the stilling basin, greatly increasing the gas
transfer. Minimizing cavitation damage requires that air concentration in
excess of about 8 percent be present near the cavitating surface. At some loca-
tion along the spillway (in the region of developing flow), air bubbles will
reach this concentration near the spillway surface. This can be defined in
terms of the dimensionless di~tance )(/Yr •
To estimate the surface area contributed by entrained air bubbles, the vol-
ume of entrained air and the size and number of air bubbles under a unit area
of surface must be determined. Equation 9 shows the calculation of this
entrained air volume:
(9)
~
Chapter 2 Data and Ahatysis
27
80~--~----~----~----~----~----~----~---,
.- ..- ._ ..... _./ ..

"'"
ffi 80 --- --..-.-.-. I-
o
It: !
W
. Q.~ •
~
~ 40 I
,
~ I ....... -..
!Z
w
.··1···
I
... Too
o~ 20
l.
I
o
.I.I -'" . . . _ ....
200 800 800

Anderson's (1958) tests on a 45-deg slope
where
VmtrlliMd =volume of entrained air
do = normal depth of flow
Gulliver, Thene, and Rindels (1990) developed a method of estimating the

maximum bubble diameter in turbulent flow. From photographs of air
entrained flow, they developed 'bubble. size distributions from which the mean
bubble diameters, weighted by volume and surface area, were detennined.
With observations from flow on a 12-deg'slope (S 0.20), unit discharge of=
5.7 ff/sec per ft, and a normal depth of flow of 0.20 ft, they determined that
the maximum bubble diameter d", was approximately 2.7 mm. They also
detennined that the mean bubble diameter, weighted for bubble volume, was
0.62 d",. The mean bubble diameter, weighted for surface area, was 0.52 d", .
Gulliver, Thene, and Rindels (1990) used a relationship between surface

tension and the shear on the bubble surface proffered by Hinze (1955) to scale
the bubble size to other types of flows:
(10)
1 Diameter below which lie 9S percent of the air bubbles.

80~--~~--~~--~----~----~----~----~-----,
200 800 800

Anderson's (1958) tests on a 45-deg slope and Cain's (1978)
observations on Aviemore Spillway
where
dm = maximum bubble diameter, rom
k =. constant
p = density of the liquid
0' = surface tension
£ =rate of turbulent kinetic energy dissipation per unit mass

Hinze found k = 0.725 in rotating concentric cylinders; Sevik and Park (1973)
found k = 1.15 for water jets entering a plunge pool; and Killen (1982) found
k = 1.01 for a boundary layer flow.
If Killen's (1982) boundary layer work is followed and £;;' U//do is used,
where U. is the shear velocity defined by
U. = 19dfi
and g is the acceleration of gravity, do is channel depth, and S· is channel slope,

then Equation 10 becomes as follows for spillways:
Chapter2 Data and Analysis 29

d
,
m
=k ( , 0-
pgSd~3
J '6
(11)
The measurements of Gulliver, Thene, and Rindels (1990) on chute flow with
a dm = 2.7 mm gives k = 0.71 in Equation 10, which is within the range estab-
lished by Hinze (1955), Sevik and Park (1973), and Killen (1982).
Given the entrained air volume (Equation 9), the maximum bubble diameter
(Equation 11), and the mean bubble diameter based on bubble volume, the
number of bubbles making up the entrained air volume can be estimated with
the following:
N= _ __
Ventrained Ventrained
(12)
Vaverage
where
N = number of bubbles
Ventrained = volume of entrained air

Vaverage = volume of mean bubble (based on volume)
With the number of bubbles in the flow and mean bubble diameter weighted
with surface area, the total surface area can be calculated with the following:
(13)
where As is the total surface area contributed by the bubbles under a unit area
of surface.
In the mathematical description of gas transfer (Equation 2), the bubble

surface area is one of the key parameters defining the "specific area" AN
The specific area can be computed using the total surface area As and the vol-
ume of water under the unit area of surface of surface:
A A A
(14)
V do a do
where a is unit area.

To illustrate these calculations, one can consider flow on a 45-deg slope
with a unit discharge of 4 fe/sec per ft, a Manning's n of 0.018, and a nor-
mal depth of flow of 0.17 ft (for water only, no consideration of bulking
because of entrained air). For equilibrated flow, the entrained air concentration
(Figure 19) would be approximately 48 percent by volume. Equation 9 gives
0.28 ft3 or 7.97 (106) mm 3 as the entrained air volume under 1.0 fe of surface.
Equation 10, with k = 0.71, gives a maximum bubble diameter dm of 1.0 mm,
which can be used in Equation 12 to estimate the total number of bubbles in
the entrained air volume:
N:= Venlrained:= 7.97 (10 6) := 6.39 (10 7)

(15)
Vaverage !: ( 0.62 (1.0)) 3
6
The surface area of the bubbles under 1.0 f12 of flow surface can be computed
from Equation 13:
where a equals 1.076 (10-5) ft2/mm 2 • The specific area A/V from Equation 2 is
calculated with Equation 14:
A := As := 583 := 3,433 jt-1 (17)

V -;r;, 0.17 .
As discussed in Chapter 2, cavitation damage can be minimized or elimi-

nated if near the surface where the cavitation occurs, a minimum air concentra-
tion of about 8 percent exists. Figure 21 shows the relationship of entrained
air concentration and the concentration of air at the spillway face or flume
bottom for all of Killen's (1968) and Straub and Anderson's (1958) observa-
tions (measurements made within 0.02 ft of the surface). This figure indicates
that for developing flow, a minimum concentration of entrained air of approxi-
mately 20 percent is needed to provide an 8-percent entrained air concentration
at the surface of the spillway. For a 45-deg slope, this occurs at a dimension-
less distance K/Y, along the spillway face of about 75. For the Aviemore
Spillway, this translates into distances from the point of inception of approxi-
mately 38 and 45 ft for the two flows tested.
Chapter 2 Data and Analysis 31

100
I I I I I
-
I-
Z
W
• Straub and Anderson (1958)
• Killen (1968);
• Cain (1978) I
I
.
•
-
oa::
w
-
a.
Q !I~
II
>-
@)50
, •
z •
o ••
~
a:: GI
tI'!!.W'
•
8.
I-
Z •••
W I
oz
o
o .•
.~
.~
.~
• e
~~~
· !
o
o 50 100
Figure 21. Relationship between entrained air concentration and air concentra-
tion at the spillway or flume surface for Straub and Anderson's
(1958) data, Killen's (1968) data, and Cain's (1978) data

3 Summary and Conclusions
Hydraulic engineers have historically been interested in self-aerated flow

because of bulking and the resulting need for higher sidewalls on spillways
and chutes. They have also had interest in this phenomenon because entrained
air bubbles can reduce or eliminate cavitation damage if the air bubbles are
near the cavitating surface. Further, the air that is transported in self-aerated
flows can contribute significantly to oxygen uptake and the transfer of other
gases.
The concepts of entrained, entrapped, and total conveyed air were intro-
duced and used to redefine the air concentrations being transported by self-
• through the surface of
aerated flows. Entrained air is that which is insufflat'ed
the flow and transported as bubbles. Entrapped air is the air transported
within the roughened water surface of the flow. Total conveyed air is the sum
of these. For bulking interests, the total conveyed air concentration is the
important parameter. For cavitation, the concentration of entrained air at the
spillway surface determines the extent of cavitation damage. For gas transfer,
entrained air bubbles greatly increase the interfacial area available for gas
transfer. If the flow on the spillway plunges into a downstream pool, then
some proportion of the entrapped air would become entrained and contribute
to the gas transfer.
Killen's (1968) flume measurements of surface characteristics and total

conveyed air concentrations provided a basis for sep;rating total conveyed air
and entrapped air. The analysis of Killen's measurements of developing
aerated flow showed a gradual increase in the concentration of total conveyed
air and entrained air, approaching an equilibrium as the flow moved down the
experimental chalmel. However, entrapped air concentration was essentially
constant ata concentration of approximately 23 percent. Further, the
entrapped air was distributed over the extent of the surface roughness accord-
ing to a Gaussian error function (cumulative normal distribution). Additional
analysis showed, because of this distribution, that if the entrapped air concen-
tration was constant, then the extent of the surface roughness had to be pro-
portional to the depth of flow.
An analogy was drawn between the surface of a turbulent boundary layer

and the characteristics of the roughened surface of aerated flow. The surface
of the turbulent boundary layer possesses similar characteristics; i.e., the
Chapter 3' Summary and Conclusions

33
- ------- - - -
boundary layer roughness is distributed according to a cumulative normal
distribution, and the extent of this distribution is proportional to the thickness
(depth) of the layer. Indeed, the surface roughness of self-aerated flow is a
manifestation of the turbulence of the boundary layer caused by the spillway
or flume surface. This analogy implies that the entrapped air concentration
should be a constant and the extent of the surface roughness is proportional to
the depth offlow. Entrained air concentration can thereby be computed from
observations of total conveyed air by substracting the constant entrapped air
concentration of 23 percent.
For Killen's (1968) observations of developing flow, the distance along the
flow path between the point of surface roughness inception and the location of
the measurements was nondimensionalized by dividing that distance by the
depth of flow at the point of inception (POI). This formulation has the unique
characteristic of implicitly including discharge: at the POI, the velocity distri-
butions over depth are self-similar, regardless of discharge, when nondimen-
sibnalized with the depth of flow. This procedure of nondimensionalization
and the concept of self-similarity permit entrained air observations for several·
discharges to be analyzed together as measurements of developing flow.
Using Killen's (1968) observations, the following procedure was developed

to calculate the location of the point of surface roughness inception for other
flows in the test flume, specifically Straub and Anderson's. (1958) tests.
a. Use Manning's Equation to calculate the normal depth of flow do,

shown in Table D2.
h. Using the normal depth, solve Equation D9 or use Table D3 for the
distance from the flume control gate to the theoretical point of surface
roughness inception Xl(calc)'
C. For most of Killen's (1968) and Straub and Anderson's (1958) tests,
the flume control gate was set with openings larger than normal depth
. causing a retardation of boundary layer development. Thus, adjust the
theoretical point of inception with Equation 6 10 determine Xl(obs)'
d. Given Xl(obs)' compute K, the distance along the flow path relative to
the POI, with Equation 7.
e. Calculate the dimensionless distance along the flow path with K /~,
where.~ = do.
The results of applying the procedure described above to Straub and

Anderson's (1958) observations for a flume slope of 30 deg agreed closely
with Killen's (1968) observations of developing flow (Figure 18). Based on
this success, the analysis technique was applied to Straub and Anderson's
observations for a flume slope of 45 deg (Figure 19), a common slope for CE
spillways. Equation 8 was developed through regression analysis and relates
entrained air concentration to dimensionless distance along the flow path.
34 Chapter 3 Summary and Conclusions

Straub and Anderson's observations and the equation were compared with
Cain's (1978) observations of developing flow on the Aviemore Spillway in
New Zealand (Figure 20). The comparison showed that the equation overpre-
dieted the entrained air concentration by. 5 to 6 percent. The reason for this
discrepancy is unclear, other than it being the result of measurement uncer-
tainty. However, this error does not negate the usefulness of the relationship
for estimating the entrained air concentration in developing flow.
The following steps illustrate a method to apply Equation 8 for estimating

the entrained air concentration at any location along the flow path of spillway
with a 45-deg slope:
a. Estimate the depth of flow Y/ and the location X/ of surface roughness

inception with procedures outlined by Keller, Lai, and Wood (1974).
b. Detennine the distance to the POI with Equation 7 and nondimensional-

ize with x"IY/.
C. Calculate the entrained air concentration with Equation 8 or Figure 19.
For cavitation prevention, a minimum air concentration of 8 percent is

required near the cavitating surface to minimize the pitting and surface damage
caused by cavitation. An analysis of observed profiles showed that a mini-
mum entrained air concentration of about 20 percent was required to provide
that minimum concentration near the spillway or flume surface (Figure 21).
The analysis also indicated that this would be achieved on a 45-deg slope at a
dimensionless distance of approximately 75 nonnal depths of flow. For Cain's
(1978) tests on the Aviemore Spillway, this translates to distances from the
POI of about 38 and 45 ft for the two discharges Cain tested.
The interfacial area contributed by entrained air for inclusion in the mathe-
matical description of gas transfer (Equation 2) can be calculated with the
following steps:
a. Use Manning's Equation to calculate the nonnal depth of flow do.
b. With the entrained air concentration from the previous procedure, calcu-
late the volume of entrained air under a unit area of surface with
Equation 9.
c. Estimate the maximum bubble diameter dm with Equation 11.
d. Use Equation 12 to detennine the number of bubbles by dividing the

volume of entrained air by the volume of the average bubble based on
volumetric weighting.
,-) e. Calculate the total bubble surface area under the unit area of surface
I with Equation 13.
~
!
Chapter 3 Summary and Conclusions

35
f . Use Equation 14 to calculate the specific surface area AIV for use in
Equation 2.
The procedures outlined in this report provide a method of estimating the

concentration of entrained, entrapped, and total conveyed air for aerated flow
on a spillway. The entrapped air concentration is constant at 23 percent by
volume. The entrained air concentration gradually varies in the region of
developing aerated flow reaching an equilibrated concentration of 48 percent
by volume for flow on a 45-deg slope·. The concentration of entrained air can
be computed for any location along the aerated flow path. Having the concen-
tration of entrained air is useful for two purposes: (a) defining the location
where sufficient entrained air is available at the spillway surface to prevent
cavitatiqn damage and (b) defining the surface area made available for oxygen
absorption by the entrained air bubbles. A procedure is provided that shows
calculations of entrained air concentration for these purposes.
36 Chapter 3 Summary and Conclusions

References
Bauer, W. J. (1954). "Turbulent boundary layer on steep slopes," Transac-

tions of the American Society of Civil Engineers 119(2719), 1212-1242.
Blevins, R. D. (1984). Appliedfluid dynamics handbook. van Nostrand

Reinhold Company, Inc., New York.
Cain, P. (1978). "Measurements within self-aerated flow on a large

spillway," Ph.D. thesis, University of Caterbury, Christchurch, New
Zealand.
Cain, P., and Wood,!. R. (1981). "Measurements of self-aerated flow on a

spillway," Journal of the Hydraulics Division, American Society of Civil
Engineers, 107 (HY11), 1524-1444.
Danckwerts, P. V. (1951). "Significance of liquid-flim coefficients in gas

absorption," Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 46(6), 1460-1467.
Ehrenberger, R. (1926). "Flow of water in steep chutes with special

reference to self-aeration," Translated by E. F. Wilsey from
"Wasserbewegung in Steilen Rinnen (Schusstelmen) mit besonder Berucksi-
chtigung der Selbstbeluftung," Osterreichischer Ingenieur - und Architekt-
verein, No. 15/16 and 17/18.
Falvey H. T., and Irvine, D. A. (1988). "Aeration in jets and high velocity
flows." Proceedings of the international symposium on model-prototype
correlation of hydraulic structures. P. H. Burgi, ed., American Society of
Civil Engineers, 25-55.
Gulliver,1. S., Thene, J. R., and Rindels, A. J. (1990). "Indexing gas tran-
sfer in self-aerated flows," Journal of the Environmental Engineering
Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, 116(EE3), 1107-1124.
Hinze, J. O. (1955). "Fundamental of the hydrodynamic mechanism of

"Splitting in dispersion processes," Journal of the American Institute of
Chemical Engineering 1(3), 289-295.
37
References
_ _ _ _ . (1959). Turbulence. 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York.
Keller, R. J., Lai, K. K., and Wood, I. R. (1974). "Developing region in

self-aerated flows," Journal of the Hydraulics Division, American Society
of Civil Engineers, 100(HY4), 553-568.
Killen, J. M. (1968). "The surface characteristics of self aerated flow in

steep channels," Ph.D. thesis, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis,
MN.
_ _ _ _ . (1982). "Maximum stable bubble size and associated noise

spectra in a turbulent boundary layer," Cavitation and Polyphase Flow
Forum. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1-3, New York.
Lamb, O. P., and Killen, J. M. (1950). "An electrical method for measuring
air concentration in flowing air-water mixtures," Technical.Paper No.2;
Series B, University of Minnesota, St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Labora-
tory, Minneapolis, MN.
Peterka, A. J. (1953). "The effect of entrained air on cavitation pitting."

Proceedings of the Minnesota international hydraulics convention. Univer-
sity of Minnesota, St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Laboratory, Minneapolis,
MN, 507-518.
Ruze, X. (1988). "Characteristics of self-aerated flow on steep chutes."

Proceedings of the international symposium on hydraulics for high dams.
International Association for Hydraulic Research, Beijing, China, 68-75.
Sevik, M., and Park, S. H. (1973). "The splitting of drops and bubbles by
turbulent fluid flow," Journal of Fluids Engineering 95(1), 53-60.
Straub,L., and Anderson, A. (1958); "Experiments on self aerated flow in

open channels," Journal of the Hydraulics Division, American Society of
Civil Engineers, 84(HY7), Paper No. 1890, 1-35.
Tennekes, H., and Lumley, J. L. (1972). Aftrst course iii turbulence. MIT
Press, Cambridge, MA.
Wilhelms, S. C., and Gulliver, J. S. (1990). "Physical processes affecting

reaeration at low-head weirs." Proceedings of the eighth CE water quality
seminar, Las Vegas, NV, 6-7 February 1990. 135-141.
Wilhelms, S. C., Schneider, M. L., and Howington, S. E. (1987).

"Improvement of hydrop~wer release dissolved oxygen with turbine vent-
ing," Technical Report E-87-3,<U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experi-
ment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
38 References
Wood,!. R. (1983). IIUniform region of self-aerated flow," Journal of
Hydraulic Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers 109 (3), 447-
461.
Wood, I. R. (1985). "Air water flows," Keynote address. Proceedings of

the 21st Congress. International AssociaHon for Hydraulic Research, Mel-
bourne, Australia, 6, 18-29.
39 .
References
Appendix A
Killen's Measurements of
Self-Aerated Flow, Graphical
Form
A1
Appendix A Killen's Measurements of Self-Aerated Flow, Graphical Form
0.5 I
r
!
--·i·---··I·-·-···I·-·---l--t·~
0.4 t---+---+--+-'
i
--+'-H
j f f i
I
-....
W 0.3
I
'j I
!
W
-:c
l.L I
....0-
W
0.2 1
- l/
Q
".,- .-i-
V~
!,
I
i, I I
,!
!
0.1 If i
i
!
I
o~~--~--~--~--~--~--~~--~--~
o 50 100
Profile 1.1, Slope = 30 Degrees, Q = 6.4 cfs,

Location in Flume = 12 ft
A2
O.S ! ! i j !
!,: I I j I
I r I -
I---+---+·---....,:----...;·--~ .-...-.+._--+- . - - - i - - - - ' ...- - . - -
I I
0.4 ~--~,----~I----+----+·____r___1i----~---r----i~;---4
~ 0.3 I---t--!! --+-iI---+-i--+i--+I-~It--!-I

lij
I I I I--+-1I I-)---11 ---+!!1,i
W
!:::,
.
I I
~ i
..I.,, I .
~'i!
!
::c
I I
Ili
,I I
ll
I I
_~~
I 1,~~/7
h: 0.2 ~-+\- ·-=t:;:::::;;+--+t==:t;-~......c:::4=-t--1
J---t-t-i
1
~ /~~---r
0.1
V /Vl j I ! II
~I~/-I~II-~---i~--~I--~-~i---+---rjll---+--;
I
1/ I
SO 100

Appendix A Killen's Measurements of Self-Aerated Flow, Graphical Form A3

0.5
I I
I.:
,---r----+_._.+
I
!
.
I I - !. i!
0.4 ""'--+-ll---+----+-II--lI--+l
t-,
.--;-I-,--i-_-1r-
-II-!
I,!'" i,1
--+----+--1
j
I I I
-
t-
I
I!
I :i.~ II Ii,'
! II
w 0.3 ; I !
w
-:c
LL
i i i
i i i
! ! I IA
I-
a.. 0.2
I I I I -:::::::t:::::V !
w
0
"-__
/ " 1"j
I !
I
I.
I I 1
'1
.1
0.1HV~~I--+--+I-.~l--~--+i--+I--+I--~~
',: i
50 100

Locatfon in Flume = 30 ft
A4
Appendix A Killen's Measoremems of Self·Aerated Flow, Graphical Form.
0.5 i iI
! I
I,
f ,
1 I,i I
i
Ii
,r
I I
I
t-..--_···t ,I,
'i-- Ii I I
i' --
0.4
I I
'
j
i
I!
I
I,
,I
I !I
i
I
I
I
I
! j
i I
I
r
f
! I
I
i
I
I
!
I
I I
j
I I iI !,
-w 0.3
I
~
I
I
I,
,I ---l
I I1 I I
Ii I! i,
I
i, j
I t I !
I ~!
J
\
w I I
-
I
u. j
1
I, !
~ I, ! ! ~ i
j
I
!
! 1
I
I
I"~V
i l i
~I;/
! I
i ,!
I II
,,
I, _ -II
~
a.. 0.2
w
0
1
I
i
i~ ___
i
,
-- ,
!
,i
-r ~
I
~ ! - ~
,i
(
K I !I
I I
I I
i
0.1 / I I I
!
I
t I
j
i
( I
I
!
ii
!•
!
j I II
o
o 50 100

Appendix A, Killen's Measureml!'nts of Self-Aerated Flow, Graphical Form

A5
----------
0.5 I :
I ! i! I i i i [ t
!
i
1-·-1-:,.,:--l-········. ·+·__· · 1··_·--··+·. - ,I l,: .--;---1,'. ------

,i
I .i , ,
! 1
I1
I---+---+I--+-I-rn'---+---+--+--f
I
!! j I
0.4
I------+--~
I
I
! I I
'
I
-..... 0.3
w
!I I!
1---+---+---+--
i
i (~I
I,
I i
,i.,'
i, ".!.
I J~
w
-
LL ! I I I I IIYJ
:c
.....
a.. 0.2
w
0
I(' lV~ I ',: I:'; I

./ ! I' I
0.1 1/
)
o
o
I I
50 100

A6
Appendix A Killen's Measurements of Self-Aerated Flow, 'Graphical Form
0.5 j
II II
I
I I, , I
II I1..·o-_ooT"-_o
1
I
!
. J. _
!
I
!
I!
- ! ----
i
I•• II
~
I I
0.4 Ii I ! I
I
f
.i
!
:
II I ~
~
I I
I
- 0.3 II
!
I, I
I
I
I i , i
I
t-
w
w , I i i
!
I ::::=F-ti
.J--:±:::::j::: :
!
j
I
I
-! , ! !
-:::c
! !
u.. t
i ! 1 : I I ~ I i
i ,
V/fI I!
i
·
t I
! t,
I-
.Q.. 0.2 l 1 I,, !
i
t; !
w ,!
0
V I ,;
!
i
,
j
0.1
1I
I i
i
I
I
I
, I I
I
I,,
I
I
I I ! I I
I
I! I
!
i
o
o 50 100
Profile 2.1,Slope = 30 Degrees, Q = 12.8 cfs,

Appendix A Killen's Measurements of ~elf-Aerated Flow, Graphical Form A7

0.5 i :;
; I I
~,--l.
1---+---1 I --!'-----1 !r- ,;'
i:
0.4 I I
t--~f--__i - - - ; - - - + - -
~I~'---t---t---t--Hi
-
t-
ill
ill
0.3
I!
I
IJ..
.........
:c
t-
a.. 0.2
ill
a
II
:
0.1
I
o o~--~~--~----~~--~--~--~--~--~
100 50
Profile 2.2, Slope = 30 Degrees~ Q = 12.8 cfs,

AS
Appendix A Killen'. Measurements of Self-Aerated Row, Graphical Form
o.s
1---+---!----~-~---!-IIII:'
{
!
i
i
:
~!
,
'i i I --+,---+----;
0.4
f
1--+----+-
I ~
1----ii----+---+! ----tIl
I i I
..-
t-
w 0.3 I
I
I
W
-
f'
u.. i!
I i
t- I
a.. 0.2
w
---r--
:
0.1
o u-__ ~~ __ ~ __ ~ __ ~ __ ~ __ ~ __ ~ __ ~~~
o SO 100
CONCENTRATION, (PERCENT)

. Location in Flume = 30 ft
A9
0.5 ,,
i
~
I---+---+·-··-..-·i···.·····-+----+-·---+--I----+---+-
-0.4 I----+~-!
! I -t=I -t==--+--+--~-+--+--+H
------f
I
!
i
! I I
-ww
J-
0.3
-
u.
:c
J-
a.. 0.2
w
a
0.1
o ~~~~~~--~--~--~--~--~--~--~
o 50 100

A10
O.S i ! ,I, 1 i
i ',t, "i I
i
i I ii'
I 'i:
0.4 l--~~-i-li~_-_-__-;-I-_·-_"· _'-·-!I_" -_·"_"~" "'l'-"_-·_'-_'_J.;-I-·~ ~:I- -'I~ ~ :~ ~ +-r_"_" ·_-·- l
-rw- 0.3 I I I
I i
w j . I
-
l.L !
I
I
!
I
I-
a.. 0.2 : :
i
I
I J
UJ
0 I,~ II
1
I ,!
O 1 r-:~ i
·7 i
I
!
SO 100
Profile 3.1, Slope = 52.5 Degrees, Q = 6.4 cfs,

Location in Flume =7 ft
Appendix A' Killen's Measurements of Self-Aerated Flow, Graphical Form

At1
0.5 1 i i
I
':
o
i 1
'0
-4--40----_otooo__ 0_ _
i
,: ___0+0_--1--'
i J
t-o---4---;'lo-o--o--
:
I
i I
I
+_
i
0 ;,:
i
-~---+!-~
I 0
0.4' 1--_+--_+-_+I__ j __ 4_ _ ..;..!
i
-ill 0.3 r--,f-----ir----i,-----f-----l--..;'------+--+---+.-----I
u..
-...-.. !'
:r: Ii
a.. 0 .2 1---~_4--_..J_
..... i -....;..---t----!---+----"....c:::;..--!-~~
~ !
0.1
o~~--~--~--~--~--~--~~--~--~
o 50 100
. CONCENTRATION (PERCENT)

A12 Appendix A Killen's M.easurements of Self-Aerated Flow, Graphloal F(lrm

0.5
[
• I ! I : •
! . . . . ·-···l····
-T-·· i . .·_··l-.
I
. ·__. I ii
·j····_-j'-_·,.... . ·j..··.. ""·. . . .
!
i i I
! ; !
1
I
I
i! : I
0.4 -~--i!!---·t- . -1 1--'1'-'-
·
I I t i I I I I • •
~----~----+-----+.----~j~----~-----+I-----+j-----+----~------;
I-
UJ
- 0.3 I----~-_.o--_--L i
UJ I I
,LL.
- ! !
+,----~~----~----~~~+---~~
I
I-
I
!
a.. 0.2
UJ
0
0.1
o
o 50 100
CONCENTRATION· (PERCENT)

Appendix A Killen's Measurements of Self-Aenited Flow, Graphical Form

A13
..._ - - _ . _ . _ - - -- - - - -
0.5
0.4 i----+
-
I-
w 0.3
w
-:r:u..
I-
a.. 0.2
w
a
0.1
o ~~~~--~--~--~--~--~~--~--~
o 50 100

location in Flume = 14 ft
A14
Appendix A Killen's Measurements,of Self-Aerated Flow, Graphical Form
O.S
I---+---~-~,----+--,t-
1 I i !,
~---+---iL,-
I
1 I
--+'--t----TT'
. -I-
i !
I i i l l I ,
0.4 I---+--+-,
!i ." II !1 -
' I
-
• I I
: III i
t ! i i i
w 0.3 I---+---+---!-_.
I-
i
I! II l I
w
-- I , i,' "
u.. :! ij ~
,
I
I-
a.. 0.2
w
0
0.1
o
o SO 100

Location in Flume ~ 20 ft
Appendix A Killen's Measurements of Self-Aerated FloiN, GraphicalForm A15

0.5 . ,
I,!:,
i! ii
4...
I i
I I
0.4 1----+----+---+--+-11
: .
-.-
w 0.3
w
u..
.......-
.-:ca.. '0~2'
w
0
:
I \ I
0.1r-~~~--~--~---4--~--~--~·+1---+1---4
I
o ~--~--~~~--~~~--~~~--~--~~~
o 50 100
CONCENTRATION· -(PERCENT)
Proftle :3.9, 'Slope = 52.5 Degrees,' Q = 6.4 cfs,

. Locat ion in Flume = 25 ft
A16
Appen~ix A Killen's. Measurements of Self~Aerated Flow, GraphicIII Form
0.5 ! i
:,i r
~·-. "-·-..t"----i-··--·-l'-·- 1
!,:
-' --------!
1
0.4 !
_I,. Ii
I
: t--H
l
I I j
~
I
~---+-- ! --~----~'---4'-----+·---~----4_----+_-~
..-...
..... 0.3 !
I :1
~__~_ _ _~i__ ---l---.--~----~----~---+_--~~--~---~

w
w !i Ii
-
u..
I
i !
I
.....
0.2
I,
I---........---+-,----.. ~ .. - : :-.""'
.......~---~--t---__i--:;;I""'f---_+_:_-_f
!l..
w
0
I
I-~c~---~--_r___--~-~--~~-----+--~---~-~
I,
!
0.1 ~
,
'j
!
,i
o L-__ L-~~~~~~~ __~__~__~__~__~

o 50 100
Profile 3.7, Slope = 52.5 Degrees, Q ;:: ,6.4 cfs,

Appendix A Killen's Measurements of Self-Aerated Flow, Graphical Form A17

O.S 1
I
1'--"---
.
!
-
I-
w 0.3
w
-:r:
u.
I-
a. 0.2
w
Q'
O. 11-----+--~--_+_-+_,.r__l__~---+--_+_-+___f
o ~~~~--~~~--~--~--~--~--~--~
o SO 100
Profile 3.8, Slope = 5l.5 Degrees~ Q =6.4 cfs,

A18 AppendixA Killen',s Measurements of Self-Aerated Aol/V, Graphical Form

O.S
II
I -+---.-.. t. .-·.----i........·''......-~..··-·--__i-"····. ·t,,·. . . ···--:--
I i
;. . . . . . . .
t--H--+- ! i i
I
'I
0.4 I
.----
i
! !
I --4---~!----~1
i !
.~:~--~!----~---~__~
I I
...- 1 ! i 1
t i i I
I- i I ! I
UJ 0.3
UJ
I
-
u..
I
i
I-
a.. 0.2
UJ
0
0.1
o
o SO 100

A 1.9
Appendix A . Killen's Measurements of Self..Aerated Flow, Graphical Form
0.5
-
t-
w 0.3
w
-:r::
u.
~ '0.2
w
Q
0.1
o~~---U--~--~~~--~--~~~~--~
o 50 100
.. CONCENTRATION (PERCENT)

A20
0.5 I l: I t
II
!I I :
I
i',
I
:,1
·--+---~ . . .". .·..,"'"·····i·..·-.....· .

I. ---
, li,:'i _ , __,'_ ii
, i I
I
,i,' .-
! ! '
~--i -I'-.~~:Ii~~~~.....;t_""_-_'''''_''--+l·--''''II-'--+---+----i
0.4
1---;-----;;--- I i !
! ~ 1 ):
...-
I-
W 0.3
I !
i
I
I---f----oi----.O-.___..J-_ _+-__-+-_---+-__~.--_+~C-.~ ! I
W
U.
-..- I
I
i
I
I-
a... 0.2
I
I
! - - - f - - - - - i - - ,.. --t,·-...,·,,"'-~--+--+--_+_~:r"c:r---;.--__t
w
o
0.1
o
o 50 100

Appendix A Killen's Measurements of Self·Aerated Flow, Graphical Form

A21
Appendix B
Killen's Measurements of
Self-Aerated Flow, Tabular
Form
B1
Appendix B Killen's Measurements of Self-Aerated Flow, Tabular Form
ro
N
Table 81
Total Conveyed Air and Entrapped Air Concentrations, Killen Data, Test 1, Slope = 30 deg, Discharge = 6.4 cfs
Profile 1 2 3 4 5
Distance. ' ft 12 18 24 30 34
Depth. ft Entrapped Total Entrapped Total Entrapped Total Entrapped Total Entrapped Total
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05
0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.06
»
1:l 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07
1:l
co
::J
a. 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.09
x'
[ll
0.08 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.12
~ 0.10 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.15
CD
::J
C/)'
0.12 0.01 0.04 0.00 0.09 0.01 0.09 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.21
s:
C1)
'"~
C/) 0.14 0.02 0.10 0.01 0.15 0.02 0.19 0.00 0.11 0.01 0.29
co
3co 0.16 0.10 0.26 0.06 0.27 0.07 0.34 0.03 0.23 0.06 0.43 I
;:l.
C/) 0.18 0.59 0.70 0.19 0.44 0.22 0.59 0.13 0.45 0.22 0.62
o-;,
en 0.20 0.88 0.90 0.43 0.71 0.47 0.77 0.39 0.65 0.40 0.77
co
~
» (Continued) i
~
~
co , Distance measured along flume from upstream end.
a.
-n
a
:E
--I
'c:"
C'
~
cr
3
.-L
}>
""0
""0
CD
::l
a.
x'
IJl
~
en
::l.
",'
s:CD
III
'~"
CD
3CD
....
::J
- _.. -
'"
g,
----------
Ul
CD
~
I Table B1
Profile
(Concluded)
I
CD
1 2 3 4 5
a:....
CD Distance,' ft 12 18 24 30 34
a.
"
o Depth, ft Entrapped Total Entrapped Total Entrapped Total Entrapped Total Entrapped Total
~
-I 0.68 0.84 0,69 0.88
III 0.22 0.96 0.9,6 0.66 0.85 0.59 0.86
t:T
c:
~ 0.24 .. 0.98 0,98 0.87 0,92 0.8'8 0.94 0.85 0.93 0.76 0.92
,
"o 0.26 0.99 0.9~ 0.95 0.96 0 . 95 0.97 0.94 0.96 0.87 0.96
3
0.28 •. 1.00
,
1.00 0.98 0.98 0.98 0.99 0.96 0.98 0.92 0.98
0.30 - -- 0.99 0.99 1.00 1.00 0.98 0.99 0 . 96 0.99
0 ..32 -- -- 1.00 1.00 -- -- 1.00 1.00 0.98 0.99
0.34 - - -- -- -- -- -- -- 1.00 1.00
CD
W
co
~
Table 82
Total Conveyed Air and Entrapped Air Concentrations, Killen Data, Test 2, Slope = 30 deg, Discharge = 12.8 cfs
Profile 1 2 3 4
DiMalJce, ft 20 24 30 38
Depth, ft ,.
Entrapped Total Entrapped Total Entrapped Total' Entrapped Total
..
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0,00 0.02 0.00 0.04
0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.04
0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.04

:t>
"0
"0
en 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.05
::::>
c..
x' 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.05
OJ
0 ..10 0.00.. 0.00 ." 0.00.' 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.05
~
en
::::>
rJ,' 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.06
s:
en 0.14 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.07
III
rn
C
CD 0.16 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.09
3en
::::> 0.18 0.00' 0.02 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.12
(jj
-
o
'C/l
en
::::;;
0.20
0.22
0.00
0.02
0.03
0.08
0.00
0.00
..
0.05
0.10
0.00
0.01
0.14
0.22
0.00
0.01
0.17
0.27
:l>
en
0.24 0.06 0.17 0.02 0.18 0.05 0.33 0.04 0.39
~
c..
"T1 (Continued)
0"
3
-I
III
r::r
-c
er
"T1
o
3
--,---~--,-------------- ~----- --- --~-----"'.-.-~-~-- ---------~-
»
"0
"0
(1)
:J
a.
x'
OJ
9
CD
:J
r"
~
"(1)
OJ
'"C
CO
I: Table 82 (Concluded) I
,3
'(1)
-~ Profile 1 2 3 4
'"
S- , Distance, ft 20 24 30 38
en
(1)
=,:; Depth, ft Entrapped Total Entrapped Total Entrapped Total Entrapped Total
:i>
~
....
OJ 0.26 0.21 0.38 0.08 0.32 0.16 0.53 0.15 0.54
(1)
a.
-n " 0.28 0.44 0.63 0.24 0.55 0.33 0.71 0.31 0.68
0"
,_:E
0.30 0.66 0.82 0.41 0.74 0.50 0.83 0.47 0.81
-l
OJ
0-
C 0.32 0.85 0.93 0.64 0.86 0.66 0.88 0.64 0.89
~
"TI 0.34 0.93 0.97 0.81 0.93 0.78 0.92 0.78 0.93
o
3 I 0.36 0.97 0.99 0.91 0.96' 0.86 0.95 0.88 0.96
0.38 0.99, 1.00 0.95 0.98 0.91 0.97 0.92 0.97
0.40 1.00 1.00 0.97 0.99 0.95 0.99 0.96 0.98
0.42 -- -- 0.98 1.00 0.97 0.99 0.98 0.99
0.44 - ~ 1.00 1.00 0.98 1.00 0.99 0.99
0.46 - -- - -- 0.99 1.00 1.00 1.00
0.48 -- - -- -- 1.00 1.00 -- --
OJ
01
CD
(J)
- - ---- ---- ----
Table B3
Total Conveyed Air and Entrapped Air Concentrations, Killen Data, Test 3, Slope = 52.5 deg, Discharge = 6.4 cfs
Profile 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Distance 7 9 12 14 20 25 30 35
ft
Depth
ft Entrapped Total Entrapped Total Entrapped Total Entrapped Total Entrapped Total Entrapped Total Entrapped Total Entrapped Total
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.21 0.00 0.29 0.00 0.32 0.00 0.35
0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.11 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.22 0.00 0.29 0.00 0.34 0.00 0.36
0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.11 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.24 0.00 0.30 0.00 0.35 0.00 , 0.37
0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.26 0.00 0.32 0.00 0.38 0.00, 0.39
»
"0
"0
CD 0.08 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.18 0.00 0.17 0.00 0.30 0.00 0.35 ,0.00 0.40 0.00 0.42
::I
Cl.
x' 0.10 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.19 0.00 0.21 0.00 0.38 0.00 0.38 . 0.00 0.44 0.00 0.45
OJ
0.12 0.07 0.35 0.03 0.23 0.01 0.30 0.01 0.28 0.02 0.48 0.00 0.43 0.01 0.48 0.00 0.49
~
CD
::I
CJ)' : 0.14 0.47 0.74 0.16 0.48 0.03 0.47 0.05 0.41 0.08 0.62 0.01 0.49 0.04 0.55 0.03 0.54
s:CD 0.16 0.85 0.92 0.39 0.76 0.13 0.65 0.15 0.60 0.20 0.76 0.05 0.58 0.10 0.62 0.07
"
0.62
III
CJ)
C
a; 0.18 0.94 0.97 0.61 0.89 0.29 0.78 0.35 0.80 0.37 0.85 0.13 0)0 0.21 0.69 0.16 0.69
3
CD
0.20 0.97 0.99 0.79 0.95 0.47 0.89 0.53 0.89 0.52 0.91 0.27 I
0.80 .0.36 0.77 0.26 0.77
~
a 0.22 0.98 1.00 0.91 0.97 0.66 0.95 0.68 0.95 0.67 0.95 0.44 0.87 1 0 .51 0.86 0.40 0.84
CIl
CD
0.24 0.99 1.00 0.97 0.99 0.81 0.97 0.80 0.97 0.79 0.98 0.59 0.92 0.63 0.91 0.53 0.89
~, ,
!!l 0;26 1.00 1.00 0.99 1.00 0.88 0.98 0.87 0.98 0.87 0.99 0.71 0.95 ' 0.74 0.94. 0.66 0.93
~
Cl.
'TI 0.28 -- .- 1.00 1.00 0.94 0.99 0.92 0.99 0.92 0.99 0.81 0.97 0.82 0.96 0.77 0.96
0'
~ 0.30 -- - -- -- 0.97 1.00 0.96 1.00 0.95 1.00 0.88 0.98 0.88 0.97 0.85 0.97
--t
III
g:. (Continued) I
~
ci'
3
»
'0'
'0
CD
OJ,
Cl..
x'
CO
g
Ci>
OJ
C/l"";.
!S:
CD
OJ
en
C
m
3CD,
ITabl~
- - - - - -------
(~~nclud:d)
OJ
.-+
en
o
.....
83
I
en
CD
~ Profile 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
:i>
CD'
~'
OJ
Distance 7 9 12 14 20 25 30 35
.-+
CD ft
Cl..
'T1
0' Depth
~ ft Entrapped Total Entrapped Total Entrapped Total Entrapped Total Entrapped Total Entrapped Total Entrapped Total Entrapped Total
-I
OJ
C'
C 0.32 - - -- -- 0.99 t.OO 0.98 1.00 0.97 1.00 0.94 0.99 0.93 0.98 0.90 0.98
~
'T1
o
0.34 -- - - - 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.98 1.00 0.97 1.00 0.96 0.99 0.94 0.99
3 0.36 - - -- -- - -- -- -- 0.99 1.00 0.99 1.00 0.97 0.99 0.96 0.99
0.38 - - -- -- -- , -- -- -- 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.98 0.99 0.97 1.00
0.40 - - - - -- -- -- - - - - - 0.99 1.00 0.98 1.00
0.42 - -- - - - - - - - - - - 1.00 1.00 0.99 1.00
0.44 - - - -- -- - - - -- -- - - -- 1.00 1.00 -
co
-.J
Table B4
Total Conveyed Air and Entrapped Air Concentrations, Killen Data,
Test 4, Slope = 30 deg, Discharge = 3.2 cfs
Profile 1 2 3
Distance, ft 12 18 35
Depth, ft Entrapped Total Entrapped' Total Entrapped Total
0.00 0.00 0.12 0.00 0.19 0.00 0.16
0.02 0.00 0.13 0.00 0.19 0.00 0.16
0.04 0.00 0.14 0.00 0.20 0.00 0.17
0.06 0.00 0.15 0.00 0.22 0.00 0.18
0.08 0.00 0.18 0.00 0.24 0.00 0.21
0.10 0.00 0.22 0.01 0.28 0.00 0.24
0.12 0.00 0.28 0.03 0.36 0.00 0.29
0.14 0.02 0.39 0.07 0.49 0.01 0.37
0.16 0.08 0.56 0.17 0.65 0.07 0.48
0.18 0.23 0.73 0.30 0.78 0.21 0.62
0.20 0.45 0.87 0.45 0,87 0.37 0.76
0.22 0.66 0.94 0.61 0.92 0.53 0.85
0.24 0.82 0.96 0.75 0.96 0.69 0.93
0.26 0.90 0.98 0.84 0.97 0.81 0.96
0.28 0.95 0.99 0.91 0.98 0.88 0.98
0.30 0.97 1.00 0.95 0.99 0.94 0.99
0.32 0.99 1.00 0.98 1.00 0.96 0.99
0.34 1.00 1.00 0.99 1.00 0.98 1.00
0.36 -- -- 1.00 1.00 0.99 1.00
0.38 -- -- -- -- 1.00 1.00
B8
Appendix B Killen's Measurements of Self-Aerated Flow, Tabular Form
Appendix C
Investigation of Integration
Limit for Entrapped Air
Concentration
Because the water surface in aerated flow is highly contorted and extremely
rough, it is impossible to clearly define the elevation of the water surface.
The depth of flow must therefore be defined in terms of the elevation or depth
where a selected air concentration occurs. Since the selection seems relatively
arbitrary, several depths were investigated. The effects on calculated
entrapped air concentration of arbitrarily setting the water surface (and inte-
gration limit in Equation l, main text) were evaluated. The entrapped air
concentrations for Killen's profiles were calculated for depths of Y90' Y95' and
Y98 , which are the depths where the total conveyed air concentrations are 90,
95, and 98 percent, respectively. Entrapped air concentrations were also
computed for a depth of d 98 , which is the depth where the entrapped air con-
centration is 98 percent. The results, which are tabulated Table Cl, showed,
not unexpectedly, that the variability in entrapped air concentration decreased
as the integration depth increased. It should be noted that in all cases, d 98 was
less than Y98 •
C1
AppendixC Investigation of Integration Limit for Entrapped Air Concflntration
---~- ~~-----~---
Table C1
Entrapped Air Concentration Integration Limit
I Profile IY90
IY g5
IY 98
Id 93
I
1-1 0.108 0.170 0.253 0.253
1-2 0.116 0.187 0.262 0.262
1-3 0.093 0.167 0.246 0.246
1-4 0.102 0.173 0.243 0.271
1-5 0.094 0.163 0.236 0.234
2-1 0.086 0.130 0.179 0.223
2-2 0.072 0.126 0.187 0.163
2-3 0.088 0.156 0.215 0.303
2-4 0.072 0.135 0.232 0.268
3-1 0.068 0.161 0.241 0.343
3-2 0.075 0.143 0.247 0.307
3-3 0.034 0.090 0.212 0.334
3-4 0.051 0.106 0.223 0.342
3-5 0.030 0.120 0.174 0.402
3-6 0.042 0.123 0.224 0.330
3-7 0.082 0.177 0.294 0.402
3-8 0.075 0.143 0.256 0.399
4-1 0.031 0.104 0.203 0.327
4-2 0.060 0.129 0.258 0.348
4-3 0.077 0.140 0.217 0.350
p 0.073 0.142 0.230 0.305
u 0.025 0.027 0.017 0.064
Standardized 0.340 0.188 0.074 0.211

ulp
C2
Appendix C Investigation of Integration Limit for Entrapped Air Concentration
Appendix D
Calculation of Inception Point
Location
Blevins (1984)1 provides a method of computing the depth of flow and the
location of the point of inception for the flume used by Killen (1968) and
Straub and Anderson (1958). At the point of inception, the boundary layer
thickness is equal to the depth of flow. Thus, Equation Dl can be used to
solve for this location and for the depth of flow.
_8 ::: (1 +
8·
n)_ (Dl)
X X
where
8 =boundary layer thickness
X = distance along flume from gate
n = inverse of exponent on power law for velocity distribution
8· =displacement thickness
Blevins' (1984) Figure 10-11 shows the relationships between the displacement
thickness, the n-value, ratio of distance-to-bottom roughness X / e, and the
"distance" Reynolds Number. With these relationships and Equation Dl, the
boundary layer thickness can be calculated for any location along the experi-
mental flume.
Over some ranges of the Reynolds Number, the independent variables in

Equation D1 are independent of Reynolds Number (See Blevins'
Figure 10-11). For Killen's tests and Straub and Anderson's tests, the range of
Reyn~lds Number is
I References cited in this appendix are located at the end of the main text.
Appendix D Calculation of Inception Point Location
01
7.8 ( 106 ) < uX < 7.7 ( 107 ) (D2)
V
where U is the free stream velocity at the gate defined by
(D3)
where
q = unit discharge
Go = gate opening
V = kinematic viscosity of the flow (approximately 1.1 (10-5) sec-I)
The range of X/e for Killen's and Straub and Anderson's tests is
1.7 ( 103 ) < X < 8.6 ( 103 ) (D4)

e
where
e = 0.28 in. = 0.00233 ft

Over these ranges of Reynolds Number and roughness ratios, the relationships
between the independent variables of Equation Dl are not a function of
Reynolds Number in this range.
Hence, if (>/X, X/e, and n are independent of Reynolds Number, then Equa-
tion Dl can be rewritten as
(D5)
where
E.X·= <I> (XJ

e·
Using X/e as the independent variable, the data presented in Table Dl can be
extracted from Blevins' Figure 10-11. A simple curve-fit of these data gives
an expression for o·/X
and n as a function of X/e:
D2 Appendix D Calculation of Inception Point .Location

Table D1
Data Extracted from Blevins' (1984) .Figure 1 O~11
I:104
I~
.0034
1 n
5
1
4(103 ) .0043 4.4
2(103 ) .OV052 3.9
(06)
(07)
(
At the point of inception, the depth of flow Y1 is equal to the boundary
layer thickness, which is also the nonnal depth of flow do.
Y:=8:=d
I 0
(08)
Nonnal depth of flow for Killen's (1968) and Straub and Anderson's (1958)
observations can be calculated using Manning's equation. Table D2 shows do
for their range of flow rates and the 30-, 45-, and 52.5-deg flume slopes.
Substituting Equations 06, 07, and 08 into Equation OS, collecting tenns, and
simplifying, results in
~ "[ 1.57 log", ( : ) - 0.29 ]

(09)
[ - 0.00258 log" ( : ) + 0.0137]
Given the nonnal depth of flow, the location of the point of inception can be
calculated by a simple numerical solution for Equation 09. Predictions of
inception point for a range of nonna! depths of flow are presented in
Table 03.
Appendix D 'Calculation of Inception Point Location'

03
Table D2
Normal Depth of Flow for Killen's (196B) and Straub and
Anderson's (1958) Flume Tests
30-Deg Slope 45-Deg Slope 52.5-Deg Slope
Q
cfs do do do
1 2.2 .077 .064 --

2 3.2 .098 .082 --
3 4.2 .118 .098 --
4 5.2 .136 .113 --
5 6.4 .156 .130 .119
6 7.2 .169 .141 --

7 8.2 .184 .153 --
8 9.6 .204 .170 --
9 10.2 .213 .177 --
10 11.2 .227 .189 --
11 12.8 .248 .206 --

12 15.0 .275 .229 --
D4 Appendix 0 Calculation of Inception Point Location

Table D3
Distance Along Straub and Anderson Flume to Point of Inception 1
I Normal Depth
I X-Incipient
I
.01 .39
.02 .76
.03 1.13
.04 1.50
.05 1.87
.06 2.28
.07 2.66
.08 3.07
.09 3.46
i .10 3.87
I
,I .11 4.28
.12 4.76
.13 5.17
.14 5.58
.15 6.06
.16 6.47
.17 6.91
.18 7.46
.19 7.87
.20 8.28
.21 8.83
.22 9.24
.23 9.78
.24 10.33
.25 10.74
.26 11.29
.27 11.83
.28 12.24
.29 12.79
.30 13.34
1 Distance based on intersection of boundary layer and surface at normal depth of flow for
ideal conditions, e.g., correct setting of gate opening to prevent acceleration or deceleration
of flow when released to flume.
Appendix D Calculation of Inception Point Location

05
Appendix E
Straub and Anderson's
·Unpublished Measurements
·of Self-Aerated Flow on 30~
and 45-Deg Slopes, 35-Ft
·Distance Along Flume,
Graphical Form
E1
Appendix E Unpublished Measurements of Self-Aerated Flow, Graphical Form
- ....- . - -
0.5
:':.
· · ·. ·. · . ··r. · ·. ·. . ·1. . ·. ·. ·. ;·t....·. ·. ·....\· ·......·. ···"\'··. ·......··. I. . · ·. . ·. ·t. . . ·. . ··:'1'·. ·....··.... \....·. ·. ·. ·. :
0.4 ! !i !
l·······.·..!
................ ) ••••••••••••••• q ............... ,:. .........•••••• ·····I·····.......···.,I..·..·....··.··.)!............... !..............."!.......•........
~
. . . . . . .I. . . . . 1. . . . ...l. . . . . . I. . . . . . .I. . . . J. . . . J. . . . . 1. . . .

". ~ ~ .~
.I.. ......
~. ~ ~. ~. ~.~ ~
1 ~ ~ ~ ~ .~ i ! ~
: : : : i :.,'
0.3 ................ : •••••••••••••••• ;0 ••••••••••••••• -:0 ••••• ········,·~···········,····t······,·········t·.··.··.· .......: -: :
!' ••••••••••••• ,.-:O' •••••••••••••• ~ •••••••••••••• I .
'! I
. . . ,.
I 1 1 I -I 1 I
:I:
f-
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Profile 1, Slope = 30 Degrees, Q = 2.2 cfs,

E2
Appendix EUnpublished Measurements·of Self-Aerated Flow, Graphical Form
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Profi le 2, Slope = 30 Degrees, Q = 3.2 cfs,

E3
Graphical Form
Appendix E Unpublished Measurements of Self-Aerated Flow,
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Profile ~, Slope = 30 Degrees, Q = 4.2 cfs,

E4
Appendix E Unpublished Measurements of Self-Aerated Flow-Graphical Form
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, Locatipn in,Flume = 35 ft
Appendix E· Unpublished Measurements of Self·Aerated Flow, Graphical Form

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Profile 5" Slope = 30 Degrees, Q = 6.4 cfs,

E6
Appendix E Unpublished Measurements of Se,lf-Aerated Flow, Graphical Form
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Ldcation in. Flume = 35 ft
Appendix E . Unpublished Measurements of Self-Aerated Flow, Graphical Form

E7
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E8
Appendix E· Unpublished Measurements of Self-Aerated Flow, Graphical Form
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Appendix E, Unpublished Measurements of Self-Aerated flow, Graphical Form

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E10
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Appendix E 'Unpublished Measurements of Self·Aerated Flow, Graphical Form E11
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E12 Appendix E ,c Unpublished Measurements of Self-Aerated Flow, Graphical Form

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Location in Flume = 35 ft .
Appendix E ·Unpublished Measurements of Self-Aerated Flow, Graphical Form

E13
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E14
Appendix E Unpublished Measurements of. Self-Aerated Row, Graphical Form
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E15
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Appendix E Unpublished Measurements of Self-Aerated Flow, Graphical Form E17

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o 50 100
.CONCENTRATION.(PERCENT) .
,Profil~ 7, Slppe = 45 Degrees, Q = 8.2 cfs,

LocatiQn in Flume = 35 ft
E19
Appendix E UnpUblished Measurements of Self-Aerated Flow, Graphical Form
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E20 Appendix E .Unpublished Measurements of Self-Aerated Row, Graphical Form.

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Profile 9~ Slope = 45 Degrees, Q = 11.2 cfs,

t
f
i
I Appendix E Unpublished Measurements of Self-Aerated Flow, Graphical Form E21
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Profile 10, Slope = 45 Degree~, Q = 12.8 cfs,

E22
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E23
---- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Appendix F
Straub and Anderson's
Unpublished Measurements
of Self-Aerated Flow on 30-
and 45-Deg Slopes, 35-Ft
Distance Along Flume,
Tabular Form
i
I
F1
Appendix F Unpublished Measurements of Self-Aerated Flow, Tabular Form
"'T1
I'.)
STRAUB AND ANDERSON 35. 30 DEGREE SLOPE

TEST 1 2 3 4 5 8 7 8 9 10 11
DISCHARGE 2.2 CFS 3.2 CFS 4.2 CFS 5.2 CFS 8.4 CFS 7.2 CFS 6.2CFS 9.6 CFS 11.2CFS 12.1 CFS 12.8 CFS
DEPTH CONC. DEPTH CONC. DEPTH CONC. DEPTH CONC. DEPTH CONC. DEPTH CONC. DEPTH CONC. DEPTH CONC. DEPTH CONC. DEPTH CONC. DEPTH CONC.
0.02 0.15 0.02 0.15 0.02 0.14 0.02 0.15 0.02 0.12 0.02 0.12 0.02 0.1 0.02 0.09 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.08
0.03 0.17 0.03 0.18 0.03 0.15 0.03 0.16 0.04 0.12 0.03 0.13 0.03 0.1 0.03 0.08 0.03 o.oe 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.06
0.04 0.19 0.04 0.17 0.04 0.18 0.04 0.18 0.08 0.14 0.04 0.13 0.0' 0.1 0.04 0.09 0.04 0.08 0.04 0.08 0.06 0.06
0.05 0.23 0.05 0.16 0.05 0.17 0.05 0.17 0.08 0.16 O.OS 0.14 O.OS 0.11 0.05 0.09 0.05 0.09 0.05 0.08 0.08 0.1
0.06 0.28 0.06 0.21 0.06 O.1g 0.06 0.18 0.1 0.2 0.08 0.15 0.06 0.12 0.06 0.1 0.08 0.09 0.06 0.06 0.1 0.11
0.07 0.36 0.07 0.24 0.07 0.21 0.07 0.2 0.12 0.24 0.07 0.18 0.07 0.13 0.07 0.1 0.07 0.1 0.07 0.06 0.12 0.13
0.06 0.47 0.08 0.29 0.08 0.24 0.06 0.22 0.1' 0.32 0.06 0.17 0.06 0.15 0.08 0.11 O.OS 0.1 0.08 0.07 0.14 0.15
0.09 0.59 0.09 0.35 0.09 0.28 0.09 0.24 0.18 0.48 0.09 0.19 0.09 0.15 0.09 0.12 0.09 0.11 0.09 0.07 0.16 0.17
0.1 0.71 0.1 0.43 0.1 0.33 0.1 0.28 0.18 0.59 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.18 0.1 '0.13 0.1 0.12 0.1 0.07 0.16 0.2
0.11 0.8 0.11 0.5 0.11 0.4 0.11 0.3 0.2 0.72 0.11 0.21 0.11 0.17 0.11 0.14 0.11 0.13 0.11 0.08 0.2 0.2'
0.12 0.88 0.12 0.8 0.12 0.48 0.12 0.35 0.22 0.83 0.12 0.23 0.12 0.19 0.12 0.18 0.12 0.14 0.12 0.06 0.22 0.28
0.13 0.92 0.13 0.69 0.13 0.54 0.13 0.41 0.24 0.9 0.13 0.25 0.13 0.21 0.13 0.17 0.13 0.15 0.13 0.09 0.24 0.38
0.14 0.95 0.14 0.78 0.14 0.83 0.14 0.48 0.28 0.95 0.14 0.29 0.1" 0.23 0.1' 0.1S1 0.14 0.17 0.14 0.1 0.28 0.44
0.15 0.ge 0.15 0.85 0.15 0.7 0.15 0.53 0.28 0.98 0.15 0.33 0.15 0.25 .. 0.15 0.22 0.15 0.18 0.15 0.11 0.28 0.54
0.16 0.99 0.18 0.89 0.18 0.77 0.18 0.81 0.3 0.99 0.18 0.4 0.18 0.3 0.18 0.24 O.IS 0.2 0.18 0.12 0.3 0.65
l> 0.17 0.17 0.93 0.17 0.84 0.17 0.87 0.32 0.99 0.17 0.44 0.17 0.33 0.17 0.28 0.17 0.22 0.17 0.13 0.32 0.74
"C 0.18 0.95 0.18 0.88 0.18 0.74 0.34 0.18 O.41i1 0.18 0.39 0.18 0.31 0.18 0.25 0.18 0.14 0.34 0.82
"C
CD 0.19 0.97 0.19 0.92 0.19 0.8 0.19 0.55 0.19 0.45 0.19 0.35 0.19 0.28 '0.19 0.15 0.38 0.87
::J 0.2 0.99 0.2 0.95 0.2 0.84 0.2 0.81 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.41 0.2 0.29 0.2 0.17 0.38 0.91
c..
x' 0.21
0.22
0.995 0.21
0.22
0.97
0.99
0.21
0.22
0.87
0.91
0.21
0.22
0.89
0.73
0.21
0.22
0.57
0.84
0.21
0.22
0.47
0.52
0.21
0.22
0.33
0.38
0.21
0.22
0.2
0.23
0.4
0.42
0.98
O~
" 0.23
0.24
0.995
1
0.23
0.24
0.94
0.95
0.23
0.24
0.79
0.84
0.23
0.24
0.71
0.78
0.23
0.24
0.57
0.83
0.23
0.24
0.44
0.49
0.23
0.24
0.27
0.31
0.«
0.48
0.99
1
C 0.25 0.98' 0.25 0.87 0.25 0.8 0.25 0.69 0.25 0.58 0.25 0.35
::J
"C 0.26 0.99 0.28 0.9 0.28 0.84 0.28 0.75 0.28 0.82 0.28 0.41
C 0.27 0.27 0.93 0.27 0.88 0.27 0.8 0.27 0.88 0.27 0.49
!:!: 0.28 0.95 0.28 0.9 0.28 0.84 0.28 0.72 0.28 0.53
(ii'
:::r 0.29 0.97 0.29 0.92 0.29 0.87 0.29 0.77 0.29 0.8
CD 0.3 0.99 0.3 0.94 0.3 0.9 0.3 0.8 0.3 0.85
c.. 0.31 0.995 0.31 0.95 0.31 0.93 0.31 0.65 0.31 0.71
s::CD 0.32
0.33
1
0.98
0.32
0.33
0.97
O.QG
0.32
0.33
0.95
0.9
0.32
0.33
0.87
0.81
0.32 0.78
III
en 0.34 O.9Q 0.34 0.&8 0.34 0.92 0.34 0.84
~ 0.35 0.995 0.35 0.99 0.35 0.94 0.35 0.88
CD 0.36 0.38 0.995 0.38 0.95 0.38 0.89
3CD 0.37 0.37 0.98 0.37 0.92
0.38 0.97 0.35 0.94
::l-
en 0.39 0.98 0.39 0.95
o..... 0.4 0.99 0.4 0.95
0.41 0.99 0." 0.98
CIl 0.42 0.42 0.99
CD
:;;; 0.43
0.44
0.995
l>
~
*"
~
c..
0"
-I
III
c:-
C
~
"o
3
-~---"',~
:J>
-0
"C
(I)
:J
Q.
x'
."
C
::l STRAUB AND ANDERSON 35. 45 DEGREE 5LOPE
"C 5 8 7 10 11
C TEST 1 2 3 4
2: DISCHARGE 2.2 CFS 3.2 CFS 4.2 CFS 5.2CFS 6A CFS 7.2 CFS 6.2 CFS g.6 CFS 11.2CFS 12.8 CFS 15.0 CFS
[ii' DEPTH CONC. DEPTH CONC. DEPTH CONC. DEPTH CONC. DEPTH CONC. DEPTH CONC. DEPTH CONC. DEPTH CONC. 'DEPTH CONC. DEPTH CONC. DEPTH CONC.
:::r- 0.02 0.43 0.02 0.46 0.02 0.044 0.02 0.45 0.02 D.C4 0.02 D.• ' 0.02 0.35 0.02 0.31 0.02 0.26 0.02 0.17 0.02 0.06
(I)
0. 0,03 0.49 0.03 0.46 0.03 0.48 0.03 0.47 0.03 0.48 0.03 0.42 0.03 0.37 0.03 0.33 0.03 0.27 0.03 0.1& 0.03 0.07
0,04 0.5 0.04 0.51 0.04 0.48 0.04 0.49 0.04 0.46 0.04 0.4' 0.04 0.36 0.0' 0.34 0.04 0.28 0.04 0.2 0.04 0.06
!5:
(I) O.OS. 0.53 0.05 0.53 0.05 0.5 0.05 0.5 0.05 0.5 0.05 0.43 0.05 0.3; 0.05 0.38 0.05 0.28 0.05 0.21 0.05 0.08
OJ 0.06 0.56 0.06 0.55 0.06 0.52 0.06 0.52 0.06 0.5 0.06 0.-44 0.06 0.4 0.06 0.37 0.05 0.3 0.06 0.22 0.05 0.011
en
s;
(I)
0.07
0.06
0.51
0.67
0.07
0.06
0.57
0.8
0.07
0.06
0.53
0.55
0.07
0.06
0.53
0.54
0.07
O.OB
0.51
0.52
0.07
0.06
0.45
0.45
0.07
O.ca
0.41
0.42
0.07
0.06
0.38
0.31l
0.07
0.05
0.3
0.32
0.07
O.OS
0.23
0.24
0.07
0.08
0.0\1
0.1
3(I) 0.01> 0.72 0.01> 0.62 0.011 0.57 0.011 0.55 0.011 0.53 0.011 0.48 0.011 0.43 0.011 0.4 0.011 0.34 0.011 0.25 0.011 0.11
0.1 0.77 0.1 0.85 0.1 0.59 0.1 0.58 0.1 0.54 0.1 0.40 0.1 0.44 0.1 0.41 0.1 0.34 0.1 0.25 0.1 0.11
;:;. 0.11 0.B2 0.11 a.elil 0.11 0.82 0.11 0.58 0.11 0.55 0.11 0.5 0.11 0.45 0.11 0.42 0.11 0.35 0.11 0.26 0.11 0.12
en 0.12 0.85 0.12 0.73 0.12 0.64 0.12 0.8 0.12 0.57 0.12 0.52 0.12 0.415 0.12 0.-43 0.12 0.37 0.12 0.27 0.12 0.13
....
o 0.13
0.14
0."
o.n
0.13
D.H
0.77
0.61
0.13
0.14
0.67
0.71
0.13
0.14
0.62
0.84
0.13
0.14
O.se
0.511
0.13
0.14
0.53
0.55
0.13
0.14
0.46
0.5
0.13
0.14
0.44
0.45
0.13
0.14
0.37
O.3Si!
0.13
0.14
0.26
0.'29
0.13
0.14
0.14
0.15
(f)
(I) 0.15 0.115 0.15 0.64 0.15 0.7-4 0.15 0.66 0.15 0.81 0.15 0.58 0.15 0.51 0.15 0.415 0.15 0.4 0.15 0.31 0.15 0.16
~
0.16 o.go 0.18 0.67 0.18 0.77 0.18 0.68 0.16 0.153 0.16 0.57 0.16 0.52 0.115 0.48 0.115 0.41 0.115 0.32 0.15 ·0.18
0.17 o.ge 0.17 a.eli! 0.17 0.6 0.17 0.7 0.17 0.65 0.17 0.58 0.17 0.54 0.17 0.4Si1 0.17 0.43 0.17 0.34 0.17 0.2
~ 0.18 0.116 0.16 0.92 0.18 0.83 0.16 0.73 0.18 0.87 0.16 0.8 0.16 0.55 0.18 '0.5 0.1! 0.45 ~.18 0.36 0.1! 0.21
~ 0.111 o.gg 0.111 0.1iI4 0.19 0.68 0.111 0.78 0.1; 0.7 0.111 0.63 0.1; 0.57 0.10 0.52 0.111 0.47 0.19 0;38 0.19 0.23
(I) 0.2 o.g~ 0.2 0.95 0.2 0.68 0.2 0.7; 0.2 0.72 0.2 0.65 0.2 0.50 0.2 0.54 0.2 0.4; 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.25
0. o.go 0.74 0.21 o.eQ 0.53 0.21 0.42 0.21 0.37
0.21 1 0.21 0.21 0.11 0.21 D.el 0.21 0.21 0.62 0.21 0.57 0.21
." 0.22 0.116 0.22 0.93 0.22 0.64 0.22 0.78 0.22 0.72 0.22 0.85 0.22 0.50 0.22 0.54 0.22 0.45 0.'22 0.3
0" 0.23 O,ge 0.23 o.g. 0.23 0.815 0.23 0.70 0.23 0.75 0.23 O.U 0.23 D.est 0.23 0.57 0.23 0.47 0.23 0.34
~ 0.204 o.gg 0.24 0.95 0.24 0.68 0.24 0.81 0.24 0.77 0.24 0.71 0.24 0.64 0.24 0.15 0.24 0.5 0.24 0.'37
-i 0.25 o.ggs 0.25 o.go 0.25 c.e; 0.25 o.a" 0.25 0.15 0.25 0.73 0.25 a.!! 0.25 0.153 0.25 0.53 0.25 0.4
OJ 0.26 1 0.28 0.117 0.28 0.111 0.28 0.68 0.26 0.62 0.28 0.78 0.25 0.150 0.28 0.05 0.28 0.58 0.25 0.45
0- 0.711 0.27 0.5
C 0.27 0.98 0.27 0.1iI3 0.27 0." 0.27 O.S-4 0.27 0.72 0.27 O.!! 0.27 0.15 0.27
0.26 0.01 0.28 0.74 0.2B 0.26 O.So' 0.2B 0.54
§f 0.28
0.29
O.gg
o.gg
0.28
0.29
0.114
o.gs
0.28
0.29
0.11
0,92
0.28
0.29
0.68
0.66 0.29 0.83 0.2; 0.77 0.29
0.71
0.75 0.29 0.157 0.29 0.5;
." 0.3 0.995 0.3 o.go 0.3 0.113 0.3 0.11 0.3 0.85 0.3 0.8 0.3 0.77 0.3 0.7 0.3 O.ISS
o 0.74 0.31
0.31 0,31 D.1iI7 0.31 0.114 0.31 0.92 0.31 0.87 0.31 0.83 0.31 0.' 0.31 0.7
3 0.32 0'" 0.32 a,gs 0.32 0.93 0.32 0.88 0.32 0.85 0.32 0.83 0.32 0.77 0.32 0.74
0.33 o.lIe 0.33 0.118 0.33 O,IiI4 0.33 0.11 0.33 0.68 0.33 0.65 0.33 0.61 0.33 0.7B
0.34 o.gg 0.34 0.1iI7 0.34 o,go 0.34 0.92 0.304 0." 0.34 0.67 0.34 0.83 0.34 0.B2
0.35 o.gg 0.35 0.116 0.35 0.117 0.35 ~.1I3 0.35 0.611 0.35 0." 0.35 0.85 0.35 0.85
0.36 0.38 o.ge 0.38 OJil7 0.38 0.114 0.38 0.91 0.38 0.611 0.35 0.67 0.36 0.B7
0.37 O.gg 0.37 O.ge 0.37 0.115 0.37 0.;3 0.37 0.111 0.37 o.eg 0.37 0.611
o.aa o.ggs o.aa o.ge 0.38 o.go o.aa 0.114 0.3B 0.113 o.aa 0.111 0:38 0.91
0.311 1 0.311 O.gg 0.311 0.117 0.311 0.115 0.30 0.114 0.311 0.113 0.311 0.113
0.4 0.995 0.4 o.ge 0.4 0.118 0.' 0.g5 0.4 0.114 0.4 0.;5
0 .• 1 1 0 .• 1 o.ge O,·H 0.97 0.41 0.118 0.41 0.115 0.41 0.118
0.42 0.011 0.42 o.ge 0.42 0.1iI7 0.42 0.118 0.42 0.117
0.43 o.gg 0.43 O.gg 0.43 O.II! 0.43 0.117 0.43 0.117
0.44 0._ 0.« O.gg 0.« 0.116 0.« 0.97 0.44 O.II!
0.45 0.45 0.11115 0.45 o.gg 0.45 O.II! 0.45 O.II!
0.48 0.46 o.gg 0.48 0.98 0.48 o.gg
0.47 0.995 0.47 o.gg 0.47 o.gg
0.48 1 0.46 o.gg 0.46 0.1111
0.411 0.gg5 0.411 O.lIgs
0.5 0.5
"W
Form Approved
REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE OMB No. 0704-0188
Public r~portlng burden for this coll~ction of information is ~tlmat~ to av~rag~ 1 hour per. r~ponse. including th~ time for r~viewing Instructions •. ~ar(hing ~.istln9 data sourc~.
gathering and maintaining th~ data n~~, and (ompl~tlng .nd r~,_,"g th~ coll~ct,on of information. S~nd comm~nts r~ardlng this burd~n ~tlm.t~ or any oth~r a~ of th ..
coll~ion of information, including sugg~tions for r~ucln9 thIS burd~n. to Washington Headquart~rs Servl(~, Dlr~or.t~ or Information OperatIC?ns and R~ports. 1215 Jefferson
Davis Hig hway, Suit~ 1204, Arlington, VA l2202..,302, and to the Offl(~ of Manag~m~nt and ~udget, Paperwork fI~uctlon ProJ~ (0704-01 88), WashIngton, DC 20S03.
1. AGENCY USE ONLY (Leave blank) 12. REPORT DATE 13. REPORT TYPI' AND DATES COVERED
May 1994 Final report
4. TITLIi AND SUBTITLE 5. FUN.DING NUMBERS
Self-Aerated Flow on Corps of Engineers Spillways
6, AUTliOR(S)
Steven C. WHhelms
John S. Gulliver
7, PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) B. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, REPORT NUMBER
3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180-6199; Technical Report.
St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Labomtory, Department W·94-2
of Civil and Mineral Engineering, University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, MN 55455
9. SPONSORING I MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 10. SPONSORING I MONITORING
AGENCY REPORT NUMBER
U.S . .Army Corps of Engineers

Washington, DC 20314-1000
11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Available from National Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161.
12a. DISTRIBUTION I AVAILABILITY STATEMENT 12b. DISTRIBUTION COOl'
Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited,
13. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words)
Air entrainment in free-surface spillway flows is described with two concepts: "entrained air," which is air
being transported by the flow as bubbles, and "entrapped air," which is the air transported with the flow in the
• to develop a mathematical description of
roughness of the water surface. Results from flume experiments are used
entrained and entrapped air for flow along a spillway face. Observations from a full-scale spillway validate the pro-
cedure. The theory of gas transfer shows how entrained air affects gas transfer with large increases in the interfacial
area. A bubble-size distribution, based on photographic analyses, was used to estimate the surface area in self-
aerated flow. Previous experimental work defined the minimum air concentration to prevent cavitation damage at
approximately 8 percent. The location along the spillway now can be estimated where entrained air at the spillway
surface reaches this concentration.
14. SUBJECT TERMS 15. NUMBER OF PAGES

Air entrainment Gas transfer 112
Cavitation Spillway 16. PRICE CODE
Free surface
17. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 1B. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 19. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION 20. LIMITATION OF ABSTRACT
OF REPORT OF THIS PAGE OF ABSTRACT
UNCLASSIFIED UNCLASSIFIED
NSN 7S40-O 1·280-5500 Standard form 298 (Rev. 2-89)
Prescrobed by ANSI Std. Z39·18
298-102
1__.
~

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Water Quality Technical ReportW~94~2

Research Program. May 1994

Self-Aerated Flow on Corps

Prepared for U,S, Army Corps of Engineers

FOR INFORMATION CONTACT;

ENVIRONMENTAL PUBLIC AFFAIRS OFFICE

Waterways Experiment Station Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Figure 1. Self-aerated flow on an OGEE crest .................. ~ 2

Self~aeration is a phenomenon seen in high-velocity flows on a spillway or

The process of self-aeration in spillways and steep chutes has historically

Many hydrauUcians and experimentalists have examined the phenomenon

Objective and Scope

Concepts and Theory

Ehrenberger (1926) is usually cited as the first study of self-aeration in

In a benchmark article on self-aerated flow, Straub and Anderson (1958)

Killen (1968), however, showed in high-speed photos taken during flume

I A table of factors for converting non-SI units of measurement to SI units is presented on

Figure 3. Ehrenberger's (1926) concept of air transport

Figure 4. Air concentration distribution measured by Straub and Anderson

Based upon Killen's (1968) observations, the concepts of "entrained" and

Obviously, for bulking interests, total conveyed air is of prime impor-

- - - --------------------------------- - - ------------------ ----

Figure 6. Concepts of entrained and entrapped air

Entrained air and gas transfer

J = mass flux rate per unit area

C = ambient concentration in water

IHenry's Law defines a "saturation concentration" as

C, =saturation concentration for gas

a. Increased mass transfer because of increased interfacial area resulting

c. Mass transfer enhancement by pressure resulting from the hydflJstatic

Each of the above is included either directly or indirectly in Equation 3. Tur-

Entrained air and cavitation

The damaging effects of cavitation can be minimized or eliminated if suffi-

Peterka (1953) conducted water tunnel experiments and detennined that

Analysis of Killen's Observations

Separation of entrained and entrapped air

Most data collected in experimental studies of aerated flow consist of

Killen collected these data at several locations along the length of a

10 Chapter 2 Data and Analysis

o ~L-~_~_~ ___ ~ __ ~ __ ~_~ ___ ~_~_~

Figure 7. Air concentration profile (percent by volume) (after Killen (1968))

C = mean concentration of entrapped or total conveyed air

cry) = concentration profile of the entrapped or totalconveyed air,

Yc = the integration limit

Ohapter 2 Data and Analysis

Because of difficulty in defining the upper limit of flow, which should be

Constant entrapped air concentration

The question of why the entrapped air concentration should be constant

12 Chapter 2 Data and Analysis

I· Profile I Entrapped I Entrained I Total I Xft I

1-2 0.262 0.093 0.355 18

1-3 0.246 0.094 0.340 20

1-4 0.243 0.118 0.361 24

1-5 0.236 0.196 0.432 34

2-2 0.187 0.100 0.287 24

2-3 0.215 0.134 0.349 30

2-4 0.232 0.151 0.348, 38

I Test No.3, e = 52.5 deg, q = 4.3 fe/sec-ft I

3-2 0.247 0.150 0.396 9

3-3 0.212 0.269 0.480 12

3-4 0.223 0.255 0.478 14

3-5 0.174 0.372 0.546 20

3-6 0.224 0.374 0.598 25

o ~L-~_~_~ _ ~ ~ __ ~_~ ___ ~_~_~