Y3 FYE IS Notes UPDATED

Chinchilla Notes Written by Ryan Chin, Updated by Andrew Lim
Y3 International Studies Notes 2019 (Updated 2021)
Templates ............................................................................................................. 1
Geography and Culture in SEA......................................................................... 3
Indianisation ........................................................................................................ 9
Sinicisation ......................................................................................................... 12
Colonisation ....................................................................................................... 15
Japanese Occupation ........................................................................................ 19
Decolonisation.................................................................................................... 22
ASEAN ............................................................................................................... 26
Nationalism ........................................................................................................ 31
Templates
Inference Questions:
1. Written (Text)
a. Firstly, as according to the source…… Another reason was…… Finally,
another reason was…...
b. Try not to quote directly – paraphrase key words! e.g. “The investment
of French capital enabled Vietnam to become the largest producer of
coal in Southeast Asia” can be paraphrased into “the French developed
Vietnam’s coal industry and increased its production capacity.”
2. Pictorial
a. Firstly, the source portrays that…… This can be seen where……
Secondly, the source portrays that…… This can be seen where…….
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Mini Essay:
1. Introduction
2. + Paragraph 1 (Firstly, from Source A/B, we can see very clearly that……)
3. + Paragraph 2 (Furthermore, from my contextual knowledge……)
4. – Paragraph 1 (However, from Source A/B, some may argue that……)
5. – Paragraph 2 (In addition, from my contextual knowledge……)
6. Conclusion
HBQ:
1. Introduction
2. + Paragraph 1 (Firstly……)
3. + Paragraph 2 (Furthermore……)
4. Mini Conclusion 1 (Considering these two arguments……)
5. – Paragraph 1 (However, some may argue that……)
6. – Paragraph 2 (In addition……)
7. Mini Conclusion 2 (Considering these two arguments……)
8. Conclusion
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Geography and Culture in SEA
EQ: How far should Southeast Asia be regarded as one entity?

• Southeast Asia’s status as a single entity
o Pre-WW2 literature refers to SEA as individual Western colonies, while
post-WW2 historians refer to SEA as a historically distinctive region
o This inconsistency in accounts suggests that SEA’s status as a single
entity has long been a source of debate and that opinions on this issue
can widely differ
• SEA as an organisation
o Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) formed in September
1954
▪ First formal regional organization to collectively defend SEA
against the spread of communism
▪ Dissolved in 1977 due to members losing interest and
withdrawing
o Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) formed in August
1967 to accelerate economic growth, social progress and to allow
peaceful negotiations and discussions among nations
• Internal and External Conflicts Faced by SEA
o South China Sea Conflict
▪ Conflict over territory in South China Sea between China and
SEA nations spark tension as the vicinity holds valuable trade
prospects ($5.3 trillion worth of goods)
▪ Maritime trade represents the pillar of many SEA economies, and
ASEAN need their combined political power and resources to
challenge China
o SEA nations are unable to agree on a course for action because:
▪ Every nation has its individual interests, and ambitions for trade
compels these nations to propose more territory for themselves
and for their goals to overlap
▪ e.g. Philippines vs Vietnam over Spratly Islands
▪ Some nations have varying levels of partnership with China, and
do not want to antagonise China in fear of being attacked or their
economic ties being affected, making them reluctant to help the
other SEA nations
▪ e.g. Singapore is allies with both China and US, and does not
want to make a stand which might upset either side
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With such disagreements in politics and economy, can SEA, even as an

organisation, be considered as an entity, with the same cultural, geographical,
ideological and historical characteristics?
Pro Points:
1. Climate, Flora and Fauna Promoting Trade and Agriculture (Geography)
• The region of SEA lies in the tropics, which has hot and humid climate
with high rainfall, promoting the growth of a large diversity of wildlife
which can be unique to the region such as Komodo dragon
• In the past, these flora and fauna were prized by international traders,
drawing people from all over the globe, with spices like cloves, nutmeg
and mace → traders viewed SEA as a single region that held valuable
goods
• This climate is also ideal for rice cultivation, which is known as the staff
of life in the region, and has long been a staple for those living in SEA
→ promotes a common way of life throughout SEA
• SEA is situated in the Ring of Fire, and is home to many volcanoes,
which bring up large amounts of minerals when they erupt, fertilising
the soil in the vicinity, promoting intensive farming and dense human
settlement
2. Monsoons and Shallow Seas Promoting Trade (Geography)

• SEA’s location causes it to experience both the northeast and southwest
monsoons, which bring heavy rainfall and winds at regular intervals
annually
• These wind systems were fairly reliable and predictable, and created
seasons whereby traders could easily travel to and from SEA regularly
to buy these unique goods and find markets for their own
• For example, Chinese traders could travel to SEA by the southwest
monsoon, and return by the northwest monsoon, as before steamships
were invented, strong winds were required for ships to sail
• In addition, the largely shallow seas around SEA made it hard to
navigate the region, yet concentrated the trade into deeper waters like
the South China Sea and the Straits of Malacca, which allows trade to
thrive in port cities with the influx of traders, helping to connect the
region as traders brought to ports elements from other areas of SEA
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3. Archaeological Evidence of Instruments and Relics Showing Widespread

Appreciation of a Shared Culture (Culture)
• More than 200 drums have been found scattered throughout SEA,
which were produced in northern Vietnam from 600 BC to the late 13th
century AD
• These drums, called the Dongson Drums were musical instruments,
heirlooms and cult objects, decorated ornately with patterns, drawings
of life and warfare, animals and especially boats, suggesting that these
objects were valuable in trade
• Indeed, the widespread distribution of these drums serves as evidence
for widespread trade and a strong network throughout the region, as
some of these drums were even found on islands in the region, probably
traded or acquired by kings and traders over centuries
Against Points:
1. Geographical Division into Mainland and Maritime SEA With Vast
Contrast in Livelihood
• With mainland SEA (e.g. Thailand and Cambodia) being mainly
Buddhist, and maritime SEA (e.g. Indonesia) mainly Muslim, it can be
said that there is a disparity in religion between the two territories
• The livelihoods of maritime and mainland SEA do differ, with mainland
SEA supported by rivers like the Mekong and the Irrawaddy, giving rise
to occupations like fishing and farming
• This contrasts with maritime SEA, which has maritime trade as its
lifeblood, as being surrounded by the sea allows the interaction between
traders and obtaining new and unique items
2. Cultural Diversity
• Over 6000 languages are spoken across SEA, reflecting the plethora of
ethnicities distributed across the area
• For example, the Austronesian people, originally from Taiwan, brought
with them their own Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language, which
developed into present-day Indonesian and Filipino
• With these differences in communication, it is difficult to see how
different areas of SEA can relate with one another if they do not even
speak the same language
• Ways of life in SEA also differ: Dayaks or head-hunters lived vastly
different lives from the Orang Laut, who lived off the sea by fishing
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Sample Essay (13/15)

Question:
“Some names, like ‘rose’, acknowledge what exists. Others, like ‘unicorn’, create
what otherwise would not exist. The term ‘Southeast Asia’ belongs to the latter.
Southeast Asia is an invention”
- J R E Waddell, An Introduction to Southeast Asian Politics (1972)
Using your understanding of the geography and culture of Southeast Asia, to what
extent do you agree with the above statement?
Essay:
For a long time, the very existence of the region ‘Southeast Asia’ has been
debated, with pre-WW2 writings referring to the various areas in the vicinity as
separate western colonies but historians claiming that Southeast Asia (SEA)
indeed historically exists. For SEA to be indeed considered legitimate, there must
be clear indications that the region shares similar geographical characteristics that
give rise to common ways of life, coupled with shared cultures that reflect united
views and beliefs. Due to the geographical segregation of SEA into mainland and
maritime areas and the diversity of cultures in SEA, some may point out these
differences as factors that divide the region. However, I think that through a
distinct climate and archaeological evidence of collaboration of cultures in
Dongson drums, the region indeed has unique traits that unite it and makes it a
single entity, Southeast Asia, As such, I disagree with the above statement which
claims the invention of SEA and that it is false.
Firstly, the distinct climate of SEA, which has given rise to activities like
trade, connects the region. Situated in the tropics, SEA experiences high levels of
rainfall, warm temperatures and high humidity, allowing valuable and unique
plants to thrive. These plants, such as nutmeg and mace, could only be found in
SEA and drew traders to the region. In addition, the monsoon seasons, with strong
winds, allowed those within SEA to travel to other port cities reliably, as these
predictable winds allowed sailings ships to travel around SEA to trade the
aforementioned valuable goods and spices. These geographical elements, created
a network of trade within SEA, and traders would bring their own cultures and
religions to the port cities they visit, be it with their goods or practices, allowing
these port cities to adapt into their own culture these ways of life, which in turn
spread inland. As such, a shared climate in SEA indirectly promoted
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communication, sharing of cultures and trade in SEA, causing the region to share
common cultures and that the distinct region of SEA indeed exists.
In addition, archaeological evidence of such collaborations of cultures has

been found in Dongson Drums. With over 200 of such drums scattered across
SEA, it is once again clear that trade had played a vital role, with some drums
even found on islands. The drums themselves were made in Vietnam, serving as
religious, cult and heirloom objects. They served as a medium for sharing of
cultures, with inscriptions of daily life and warfare on them. Most prominently,
many were designed with pictures of boats, once again hinting that maritime trade
crucially allowed the sharing of cultures. Therefore, there is solid evidence that
through this collaboration of cultures, SEA evolved to boast elements of common
culture even to these furthest borders, and that SEA, with a strong core culture, is
not an invention.
However, some may argue that the separation of SEA into maritime and
mainland parts and their geographical differences suggests that SEA is not real.
With mainland SEA, including Thailand and Cambodia mainly Buddhist and
maritime SEA mainly Muslims, it can be said that there is a disparity in religion
between the two regions. To add, the livelihoods of maritime and mainland SEA
do differ, with mainland SEA supported by rivers like the Delta, giving rise to
occupations like fishing and farming. This contrasts with maritime SEA, which
has trade and the sea as its lifeblood. Thus, it can be pointed out that through the
geographical separation of the region and their differences, SEA is too divided to
be considered real.
Furthermore, it can be stated that SEA’s sheer diversity in cultures divides

the region. Over 6000 languages are spoken across SEA, reflecting the plethora
of ethnicities strewn across the area. For example the Austronesian people,
originally from China and Taiwan, brought with them their own languages such
as Polynesian-Malayan and present-day Indonesian and Malay. The ways of life
in SEA could also differ with Dayaks, or head-hunters, vastly different from the
Orang Laut, who lived off the sea by fishing. Hence, with so many different
cultures in SEA, it can be argued that SEA’s uniformity translates to its lack of
unity and cohesion and that it is a myth.
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In conclusion, while geographical segregation and diversity in cultures

and walks of life may split SEA, it is held together and connected by core
elements of the region’s common beliefs and ideas through the vital activity of
trade and the mutual sharing of cultures through objects like the Dongson Drum.
Indeed, no two areas can be completely identical due to the need to adapt to their
environment, but through sharing core characteristics, they are united. As such,
SEA is not false due to its diversity, but is true and unique due to a strong core
while boasting its variety. It is much more of a rose than a unicorn.
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Indianisation
EQ: Were local inhabitants of SEA in the past passive absorbers or active
engagers of culture?
Suggested Stand: Active engagers to a larger extent
Background Information
• India has long had a strong influence over SEA, shaping its culture, political
structure, economy and countless other aspects over centuries
• With these influences, India also brought along its own ideas and ways of life,
such as the royal hierarchy and the caste system
• While the impact India had on SEA is undeniable, as evident in the close ties
SEA still shares with India, the perpetual dilemma also persists of how exactly
SEA responded to these influences
• SEA, possibly having encountered a foreign power for the first time, would
surely have seen and admired India’s wealth and success, and assimilated its
economic model and statecraft
• However, as Indian ideals spread throughout SEA, it is understood that the
adaptation of architecture and art, coupled with the rejection of the caste
system by the community, reveals that throughout the years, there was an ever-
present analytical processing of what was presented before them
Active Engagers
Adaptation of Architecture and Art
• SEA modified India’s architecture and arts to suit their own religions and local
contexts. For example, temples in Cambodia, while incorporating some
elements of Indian architecture, modified it to suit the local beliefs
• Various temples were built differently to suit various purposes – Khmer
temples in Cambodia had stepped pyramids to worship the earth while the
Cham temples in Vietnam had tall sanctuary towers to worship the sky
• Only royalty was allowed into these temples, which differed from the Indian
system where people could freely visit the temples regardless of their status
• This deviation shows just how much thought the local inhabitants of SEA put
into selectively incorporating elements of Indian culture, as they not only
noted how the temples were to be built, but who was allowed to use them
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• In addition, the indigenous people modified figures of Indian religion to suit

local contexts to allow their people to better understand such symbols. For
example, in Thailand, the Naga statues were transformed into more menacing
figures, as snakes were feared in the region, allowing the Naga to exude
authority
• All these adaptions show that the local inhabitants of SEA kept in mind not
only the art itself, but the audience it was meant for
Rejection of the Caste System

• The Hindu caste system, while extremely prominent in India, was widely
shunned by those in SEA
• While the kings and monarchies adopted the system to consolidate their
authority, the rest of society did not do so, instead following the more
humanistic Buddhism, which had a more ethical approach
• This lack of discrimination reveals how the people of SEA noted the strengths
and weaknesses of the system, the positives being that it allowed those in
power to consolidate their position, bringing about stability
• Conversely, they also acknowledged the downsides to the system, as
discrimination would occur should it be applied to the lower classes, inspiring
them to move away from the caste system in that respect, ensuring that society
was stable and sustainable, once again segmenting what was presented to them
and shaping it to the local context and needs
Passive Absorbers
Assimilating Economic Model
• Coming to SEA, which was then clusters of unorganised fishermen or traders,
India brought much-needed structure with their own systems in politics and
rule
• This brought these clusters together and allowed them participate in trade and
agriculture in a more organised manner
• For instance, India developed Funan in SEA into a successful economic hub
through maritime trade and agriculture
• SEA, having seen India’s extensive wealth and riches, viewed this as an
opportunity to boost its own economy and gladly assimilated India’s ideas,
also adopting the idea of a currency, making trade more efficient and uniform
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Incorporation of Statecraft
• SEA, also seeing India’s large territory, accepted India’s method of statecraft,
the Mandala Theory and Arthasastras, a causal belief affecting SEA’s strategy
and statecraft
• Using the Arthasastras as a basis of authority, Fan Man, a general of Funan,
expanded the kingdom and influence all the way to the Malay Peninsula
supported by a powerful navy
• By effectively applying these strategies, Funan was able to expand its territory
via the non-exclusive overlord tributary system especially in the outer regions,
with no fixed boundaries, allowing Indian influence to spread further
Insights
• While local inhabitants in SEA did borrow many aspects of Indian culture and
acted as passive absorbers, this was not done blindly, as having seen the
success that these systems brought the Indians, it would be sensible to adopt
them, with no prior experience for an alternative
• This allowed those in regions of SEA like Funan to build the foundations of a
more advanced society, allowing them to grow in wealth and expand the
territory, providing the platform for innovation with their newly gained assets
• Now having these resources allowed them to adopt other elements of Indian
culture, such as religion, architecture and the caste systems, allowing them to
retain their unique identity while advancing
• Adopting elements of Indian culture ensured the longevity of its influence in
SEA, as only then would it be appreciated and treasured by the locals in a
familiar context, which is the reason why even though the economic and
statecraft systems borrowed have been outdated by conventional warfare and
larger, more efficient industries, the art and architecture adapted in the era are
still appreciated today
• In short, all that was borrowed was simply a means to an end, which allowed
local inhabitants in SEA to put a stamp of its own culture on India’s ideas,
revealing the intricate thought process behind all these decisions
• As such, it is clear that the inhabitants of SEA, to a larger extent, were active
innovators of Indian culture
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Sinicisation
EQ: Were local inhabitants of SEA in the past passive absorbers or active
engagers of culture?
Suggested Stand: Active engagers to a larger extent
• China has interacted with SEA for many centuries, in particular Vietnam,
stretching its influence over the region to over 2000 years
• Throughout this lengthy period, China has had a surplus of opportunities to
imprint its own cultures, beliefs and ways of life on Vietnam, largely through
violence and by force, in a process called Sinicisation
• This constant oppression of the Vietnamese people eventually forced them to
consider what they should absorb in order to boost their own technology and
religious standpoints, and what to modify to prevent their core culture from
being completely lost
• While sinicised countries like Vietnam did absorb elements of Chinese culture
like their agriculture techniques and Confucianism wholesale, it was their
adaptation of Chinese art, and belief in Daoism that helped the region truly
progress despite the Chinese tyranny
Active Engagers
Adaptation of Art
• From the 10th to 15th centuries, the Vietnamese started to appreciate and
observe the Chinese approach to art, in particular ceramics, based on the Tang
and Song Dynasty’s art, known as the pinnacle of Chinese artistry
• By adapting Chinese art at its prime, the Vietnamese were able to capture the
brilliant techniques the Chinese had created, and applying these techniques to
their distinct local context
• For example, the Vietnamese did not copy the art of woodblock printing
wholesale from the Chinese, but instead transformed the process to depict
Vietnamese heroines who had fought the Chinese
• This adaptation of Chinese art to the Vietnamese context portrayed the
struggles they had gone through under the Chinese, and reflected their pride
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that they did not fully submit to the Chinese, but instead turned their art on
them to demonstrate their indomitable spirit to never be conquered
Incorporation of Daoism
• To the Vietnamese, Daoism was appealing as one of its aspects, its quests for
immortality through elixirs, built on Vietnamese ideas about life
• Buddhism was an equally exciting prospects, with its teachings about
reincarnation also striking a cord with the native Vietnamese people
• However, the Vietnamese did not copy these beliefs completely, instead
blending them with their own beliefs, creating the original and dynamic Sino-
Vietnamese syncretism, which seamlessly incorporated various beliefs
• A prime example is the adaptation of the goddess Lieu Hanh, who was
believed to be the daughter of the Chinese Daoist supreme deity and was
exiled and reincarnated in Vietnam
• By taking Chinese mythology and retelling it in a Vietnamese context, her
legacy and cult had a greater following in Vietnam than even the supreme
deity himself
Passive Absorbers
Accepting Agricultural Techniques
• The Chinese brought to Vietnam its farming techniques and ways of life,
allowing the Vietnamese to greatly improve their quality of living
• By replicating Chinese practices of using the water buffalo, ploughing, using
human excrement as field manure and anti-flood measures, the Vietnamese
were able to not only supply food for themselves, but also give land to soldiers
from the Han Dynasty to farm in Vietnamese villagers, further increasing
production
• This enabled the Vietnamese to become even more self-sufficient, ironically
through Chinese techniques, showing the sheer effectiveness of how they
copied the Chinese is key aspects
Absorption of Confucianism
• The Vietnamese, by absorbing Confucianism brought by the Chinese, were
able to further educate their own ranks and consolidate their own political
power
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• Confucianism, built upon creating and maintaining proper relationships

between people, even of different statuses, allowed Vietnamese in power to
consolidate their position
• This also allowed them to effectively employ the capacity of the state towards
public works like maintaining flood control measures on the Red River, as the
people of lower social status would be more willing to obey authority under
Confucianism’s principles
• All of these factors created stability, as the common people respected those in
power, and those in power were inspired to maintain proper relationships with
their people, rather than abuse their power
Insights
• While the Vietnamese borrowed some elements of Chinese culture, such as
agricultural techniques and Confucianism, these acts were not done blindly
and based on dependence on the Chinese
• Conversely, this was done to further Vietnam’s independence from the
Chinese, as with an improved ability to sustain itself and greater political
stability, they would be less likely to depend on the Chinese to supplement or
resolve problems in these areas
• In addition, by adapting arts and Daoism to local contexts, the Vietnamese
found a new sense of appreciation for these practices and religions, as they no
longer loathed them as symbols of oppression, but as symbols of victory and
what they had overcome
• All in all, through making key decisions on what to actively change and to
passively accept from the Chinese, the Vietnamese turned what was to be
complete oppression into an extremely fulfilling experience for them, where
they strengthened their core culture, while supplementing it with external
influences to great effect, making it clear that those in SEA responded as, to a
large extent, active innovators of Sinicisation
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Colonisation
EQ: Was Western Colonisation beneficial or detrimental to SEA?

Suggested Stand: Detrimental to a larger extent
• Colonialism was not only a significant impact on SEA, but has continued to
shape countries in the region even to this day in countless aspects
• As different colonial powers controlled various regions of SEA, it is also true
that they would employ varying methods and tactics to rule them
• Thus, the impacts countries like Britain, America, the Netherlands, and France
had on their colonies cannot be viewed uniformly
• Indeed, Western colonisation has brought success and devastation in the same
areas, albeit to different colonies
• While the British and Americans facilitated growth in their colonies on
economic and political fronts, these effects waned over the years. In stark
contrast, the crippling of Dutch and French colonies in similar areas had much
more lasting effects, continuing to haunt these countries to this day
Detrimental
Destruction of Vietnam’s Economy by the French
• The French destroyed their colonies’ economy, by exploiting Vietnam’s
resources such as rice to support their high standard of living
• This was achieved through turning what were originally subsistence corps to
cash crops for their own profit, increasing the demand for such goods at a rate
that the Vietnamese were unprepared to cope with, resulting in them having
little left for themselves
• By selling the increased supply of rice for exports and paying the locals
minimal prices, the French sought immediate profit over the longevity of their
schemes, as the locals dove into poverty and could barely support their own
families
• The French also created economic opportunities for themselves and their
collaborators at the expense of the peasants, taking control of the land owned
by Vietnamese farmers with Vietnamese collaborators, French officials and
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French trading companies. This opened up opportunity for Chinese traders to

exploit the farmers as well with high interest rates of up to 100%.
• As such, the number of landless peasants skyrocketed, as high rents and cost
for seeds left many peasants poor and in debt while the land owners prospered
– by 1939, 75% of Vietnamese families had become landless, with a multiplier
effect that caused millions of landless peasants compared to the mere 225,000
landowners in the south of Vietnam – the disparity in both scale and number
between the two parties shows how the French caused a stark imbalance
within the economy, allowing their associates to prosper while the rest of the
nation suffered
• Thus, it is clear that the French colonialism was detrimental toward Vietnam’s
economy
Violence against the Indonesians by the Dutch

• The oppression by the Dutch for their own financial benefit caused strong
opposition by the Indonesians in both wars, as they desperately tried to strip
the Dutch of their power by force
• This desperation to be free from the Dutch tyranny not only caused chaos on
the battlefield, but conflict on the political front, as the Indonesians resorted
to instable parties to overthrow the Dutch
• Infighting ensued among these groups, as they did not agree with the lengths
fellow parties took to ensure freedom, to the extent that one party even took a
communist stance
• The Dutch also dealt with any sense of rebellion swiftly and ruthlessly, such
as a rebellion by the royal house of Yogyakarta against the economic suffering
Dutch rule had inflicted on the peasants, sparking the Java War, with Prince
Diponegero, leader of the Javanese people, unwilling to submit to Dutch
exploitation
• Throughout the 6-year war until 1830, 200,000 Javanese died in battle or due
to famine caused by the war, as it disrupted the farming of food crops through
measures like burning of such fields, bringing widespread suffering to the
people
• As such, Dutch rule over Indonesia devastated its political stability on multiple
fronts, both in external conflict with the Dutch and internal disputes among
parties, and robbed the people of their voice, while causing mass suffering
throughout the land.
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Beneficial
Economic Development by the British
• Britain, with a high demand for tin for its canning industry and rubber for its
automobile industry, created a larger market for exports of these goods
• This in turn created jobs for the locals, as more labour was required to meet
this increased demand, allowing tin and rubber to become pillars of the Malaya
economy
• By the 20th century, Malaya was one of the largest exporters of these products,
attracting investors to further boost the economy, allowing Malaya’s economy
to flourish under British rule and creating employment in the process.
• In addition, to support this increase in productivity, transportation, railway and
public utilities were built in the Federated Malay States
• This rapid growth in communications infrastructure included interstate roads,
a railway line from Penang to Singapore, and Port Swettenham
• The construction of these facilities not only created more labour jobs for the
populace, but also developed the region greatly, improving quality of life for
the citizens and workers alike – people were now able to use the roads and
public utilities to travel across the country with greater comfort, ease and
convenience
• Thus, British colonization was greatly beneficial to its economy, while having
countless secondary effects that improved standard of living as well
Political Progress in Philippines by the Americans

• In 1901, US President McKinley sent 600 teachers to provide free elementary
education, setting up the means and foundation for the Filipinos to receive
partial self-run governance
• This would give the Filipinos control over various aspects of the country, and
exercise more power in decision making as they would be familiar with the
system, be able to more coherently expound on their ideas and make informed
choices
• This came to fruition with the Jones Act in 1916, which granted to suffrage to
all men who were 21 years or older. Not only would Filipinos have a say in
who would be in government, but they could also run for the positions
themselves and eventually rise to high rank positions
• Even earlier than this, in 1907, The Congress of the Philippines was been
established, and state governors were to be elected by direct referendum, and
state committees were elected into public offices through direct referendum.
As seen here, the Filipino politics greatly involved the locals since the
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beginning. The positions of high-rank officials, which had previously been

given mainly to the Americans, were now all given to the Filipinos
• Out of nine members of the Committee of the Philippines, five were Filipinos
and they were also nominated for high-rank officers. Filipino politics was
gradually entrusted into the hands of the Filipinos but they were not allowed
to participate in American politics
• The running theme of gradually giving the locals opportunities over the years
is evidence of a structured, meticulous plan devised by the Americans to nudge
the Philippines toward independence, preparing them for the responsibility of
governing their own country through an organized, long-term plan
• As such, America helped fast track the political scene and allow the
Philippines to eventually rule its own affairs, greatly benefitting the nation in
the long term
Insights
• While the British and Americans may have benefitted their colonies at first
glance, they left a vacuum of power once they left them, their main focus was
for their own financial gain or the motivation of social Darwinism
• This is perfectly illustrated in the example of Singapore, another British
colony, which struggled to maintain its economy once the British left, as they
had previously employed 10% of the population and left Singapore with
factories of only about 5-20 worker capacity each – the British only really
cared about their own economic gain, as the development was mainly to meet
the demands of its own industries
• The Philippines, too have since had an unstable government, going as low as
-1.78 out of -2.5 in the world political stability rankings, suggesting that the
progress made under the Americans may have either been superficial or too
fast for the locals to absorb, showing that any initial benefits were short lived
• This is contrasted by the much longer lasting negative impacts caused by the
Dutch and French, and coupled with the power vacuum they left in Indonesia
and stripping Vietnam of its ability to recover by devastating their land and
economic structure, it is clear that Western colonisation, to a larger extent, was
detrimental to SEA
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Japanese Occupation
EQ: Was the Japanese Occupation beneficial or detrimental to SEA?

Suggested Stand: Beneficial to a larger extent
• In nearly every way, the Japanese Occupation of SEA affected every
Southeast Asian’s life, with the torture and oppression at the time making it
seem like there was no hope, no redeeming factor to justify their actions
• However, in the long term, the dislocation from the Western powers that
colonized these states in SEA encourage indigenous nationalist leaders, who
were not afraid to step up and capitalise on the opportunity, to alter the future
destiny of their nations
• Having said this, while the destruction of Southeast Asian economies and the
massacres and divides that became so commonly associated with Japanese
rule were highly detrimental, it also served as the turning point for the removal
of mental boundaries of Western superiority and the subsequent rise of the
aforementioned political leaders were even more beneficial
Beneficial
Removal of Mental Boundaries
• Before the Japanese Occupation, local inhabitants of SEA saw them as
invincible powers that could never be ousted, causing them to be more passive
and submissive to their colonial masters
• However, when a fellow Asian power, the Japanese, defeated the Western
entities in the region, such as the British forces in Malaya at such speed that
even they themselves had not anticipated, there was a change in mind-set
among the locals towards the colonial powers
• In addition, the British surrender of Malaya to the Japanese raised doubts
among the people in Malaya of Britain’s ability and commitment to protect
them
• This was reinforced when the Japanese put Western soldiers in Prisoner of
War Camps, hence inspiring those in SEA that they, too, could be independent
19
Rise of Political Leaders

• Having witnessed the fall of the western colonial powers reinvigorated the
hope in bold local leaders that after the war, they would be able to finally
achieve freedom
• For example, the Vietnamese, having experienced the double yoke of
oppression from the French and the Japanese, were even more determined to
resist colonial rule and secure independence
• Prominent nationalist leaders like Ho Chi Minh were allowed to rally the
Vietnamese against the French, allowing the Viet Minh nationalist group to
be created in 1941, something that would never have happened under French
control
• Similar sentiments shared by other foreign countries caused growing support
for such political parties, and allowed the parties to gain military arms and
equipment, thus enabling them to not only stand up against the French
politically, but also in a military struggle, giving SEA countries the glimpse
of freedom
Detrimental
Destruction of Economies
• The Japanese Occupation crippled economies in regions like Malaya and
Singapore, causing their rubber and tin industries to decline due to the
disruption of import and export trade due to attacks of Japanese forces
• These industries had been stripped of their backbone, as the machinery
supporting the involved processes were all destroyed by the British to prevent
them from falling to the Japanese, causing production rates to plummet
• In addition, the huge inflation of the Japanese currency caused extreme
poverty and corruption in the black markets, as the locals struggled to obtain
daily necessities like food that were once affordable, therefore causing the
structure of the entire economy to collapse
Social Massacres and Divides

• The Japanese attempted to employ the divide and rule strategy, by dividing
the various ethnicities in the regions they occupied, creating tension and
discouraging these races from working together
20
• For instance, the Malays were given privileges such as administrative

positions, while the Chinese were treated brutally and forced to pay large
amounts of money as compensation funds
• This created jealousy and suspicion among the races, preventing them from
coming together to overthrow the Japanese
• The Kalagong Massacre in Burma included the destruction of 600 villages, as
tension rose among races in fear of who would be the next victim
• As such, the Japanese caused great social divides in the region, which had
previously not existed under Western Colonial rule
Insights
• All in all, while the Japanese caused much suffering during their oppression,
destroying the economies of the regions they occupied, these material losses
were offset by the prospect of freedom, which material wealth could not buy
• Indeed, even the social divisions caused by the Japanese were offset by the
new hope that they could overthrow the western colonial powers, as not only
did several races come together, but several countries united to join
movements like the Viet Minh overall causing the region to be united instead
of divided
• As such, it is clear that the Japanese Occupation, despite all the short term
suffering, was crucial and extremely beneficial to the region of SEA in the
long run
21
Decolonisation
EQ: Decolonisation was more peaceful than violent. Discuss.

Suggested Stand: Violent struggle to a larger extent
• After WWII, many European powers had depleted resources, with widespread
collateral damage and war debts to pay off
• This caused drastic changes for their colonies, as some European powers like
the British no longer prioritised their colonies like Malaysia, instead focusing
on rebuilding, and started to gradually grant them political independence
through a process called decolonisation
• The same can be said about the US allowing the Philippines’ gradual transition
to become an independent country. However, others like the French made the
process of decolonisation much more difficult and violent, as they wanted to
retain Vietnam as it would provide economic resources to recover from the
war
• This suggests that just like how the colonisation of SEA was extremely diverse,
no colony would experience identical decolonisation processes – the only
constant was the communist violence that plagued the region at the time due
to the backdrop of the Cold War
Violent
Indochina Wars
• In 1946, fighting broke out after Ho Chi Minh’s repeated requests for
American aid when the French failed to grant them limited independence after
5 years to the scale that was promised.
• The effects of the widespread violence were evident, as Vietnam was split into
two parts, separated by the 17th parallel after the French defeat, revealing the
divisive nature of the war, to the extent that external parties like United States
and Geneva intervened to settle the conflict, which involved the bombarding
of Haiphong in November 1946 that resulted in thousands of civilian
casualties.
• Violence continued just 1 year after the first war’s resolution in 1954, showing
just how persistent and prevalent violence was in the decolonization of
Vietnam. With the French continuing to fail in honouring their promise to
22
eventually grant Vietnam partial autonomy, guerrilla strikes started, with Viet
Minh forces pressing the offensive.
• This, compounded by the ongoing Cold War in the region, caused much chaos
and bloodshed. Eventually, at the end of the war, in November 1967, about
15,000 American forces were killed and over 100,000 wounded
• Over 500,000 American troops had entered the war, which once again proves
the sheer scale and brutality of the war: a country on the other side of the world
had to intervene with such manpower, of whom so many were killed or injured
Philippine Uprising against Quirino

• In 1949, Elpidio Quirino ran against Jose Laurel for president and prevailed,
albeit through violence and fraud. The installation of a corrupt president and
power returning to the old elite, linked to the landlord class, led to growing
dissent across the country, as the abuse of the landlord’s power caused the
increasing landlessness of people in Central Luzon
• Incensed at having their possession stripped away from them, they turned to a
communist-led former guerrilla group, the Hukbalahap, led by charismatic
peasant leader Luis Taruc, which rebelled against the corrupt national politics
and abuse of power by the landlords
• The government, corrupt in itself, found it difficult to quell the rebellion, with
low morale, inadequately trained troops, rampant inflation and inadequate
foreign funding, allowing the Huk rebellion to last over 7 years
• The president severely overestimated his own army, as the Huks had been
trained in guerrilla warfare during the Japanese Occupation and allowed it to
grow, gathering support from villages that were being oppressed and
economically unstable, growing to a massive base of 54,000 and with over
12,000 active soldiers
• This prolonged fighting caused by the combined aggression of the Huks and
the incompetence of the government is more than sufficient evidence to prove
that decolonization of Philippines was a largely violent process
Peaceful
Malaya’s Political Conflict and Subsequent Resolution
• Due to strong Malay opposition to the Malayan Union scheme, the British
proposed the formation of a federation in 1948 whereby the sultans would
have governing powers. From 1951, the British gave the local leaders
23
opportunities to be involved in local administration and to lead large

government departments
• In 1955, the Federal elections took place. The Alliance party which consisted
of UMNO, MCA (Malayan Chinese Association) and the MIC (Malayan
Indian Congress) won 81% of the total votes and 51 of the 52 contested seats.
This cooperation assured the British that Malaya could be given independence.
In 1956, Tunku Abdul Rahman led a team on a Merdeka Mission to London
to persuade the British government to grant independence.
• A new constitution was drawn out to lay the foundations of a united and
democratic Malaya, and to preserve the rights and special privileges of the
Malays and sultans as bumiputra (“sons of the soil”). In addition, though
Malaya should be recognized as a secular state, Islam must be recognized as
the official religion in Malaya
• On 31 August 1957, Malaya achieved its independence and Tunku Abdul
Rahman was proclaimed as the first Head of State of independent Malaya .
Considering that any disputes were limited to the political front and resulted
in the eventual unification of Malays by rallying behind The Alliance Party, it
can be argued that Malaya’s decolonization was largely free of violence or
struggle
Philippine President Magsaysay’s Peaceful Rule

• On 4th July 1946, American Independence Day, the transfer of power took
place in Manila through the Treaty of Manila. The treaty was signed by High
Commissioner Paul V. McNutt as a representative of the United States and
President Manuel Roxas representing the Philippines
• Power returned to the old elite, which was closely linked to the landlord class.
As they edged toward independence, Ramon Magsaysay was elected President
of Philippines in 1953, aided by the CIA. The CIA secured Magsaysay the
Coca Cola franchise to provide him with funds, wrote his speeches and
influenced the press to support Magsaysay
• In addition, the CIA ensured that the reputation of Quirino, Magsaysay’s
political opponent, was besmirched in a vigorous smear campaign. All this aid
provided to Magsaysay, coupled with his ability to understand the grievances
of the peasantry, simultaneously eliminated anyone who could contest him for
power, while garnering support from the masses, giving a sense of stability
and peace in Magsaysay’s hands
24
Insights
• All in all, it is impossible to generalize the decolonisation in SEA, considering
how diverse decolonization experienced by various countries such as Vietnam,
Malaysia and the Philippines was. Violence and struggling was extremely
prevalent in Vietnam, manifesting itself in two wars
• While on the surface, Malaysia and the Philippines enjoyed a peaceful road to
independence, deeper and less conspicuous problems lurked – communist
influence plagued Malaysia, with several communist guerrillas carrying out
raids on the British, causing some violence and arms to be drawn
• In addition, the establishment of a corrupt successor in the Philippines
government resulted in pockets of violence in protest to his decisions
• Indeed, while the Philippines enjoyed relative peace in the opening and
closing stages of its decolonisation, the process in between was certainly
marred by violence
• While these issues may seem unimportant or isolated, they in fact pointed
toward the more looming issue of the growing communist movement in SEA,
which would affect the nations in the region throughout and even after their
decolonisation process
• As such, it is clear that decolonisation in SEA was to a larger extent, a violent
struggle
25
ASEAN
EQ: To what extent has ASEAN been successful in achieving progress for
the region?
Suggested Stand: Successful in achieving progress to a larger extent
• Formed in 1967, ASEAN is an international organization comprising of
countries in Southeast Asia, with the aim of bringing peace, stability and
cooperation to the region. ASEAN has since sought to further the region on
three fronts – politically (ASPC), economically (AEC) and socially (ASCC)
• Ever since, ASEAN has achieved mixed results in these aspects, and has
doubled in size to now boast 10 member countries. The collaboration between
these countries is targeted at sharing combined political and economic power,
to be able to have a stronger political standpoint in agreements with other
nations
• In my view, despite setbacks and conflicts due to the South China Sea dispute
and economic nationalism, successes by the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF)
and ASEAN Open Skies policy attest to major progress in the region
Success
ASEAN + 3
• In order to prosper, ASEAN not only has to focus on developing itself, but
reaching out to nations all over the world to build partnerships
• Despite being an international organization, ASEAN’s combined resources
and political power are still limited in comparison to global superpowers such
as USA and China – it is thus important to ensure collaboration with these
powers, in order to secure technological, political and economic progress
alongside these countries
• This was precisely what ASEAN achieved with the ASEAN + 3 agreement,
establishing agreements like the ASEAN Plus Three Emergency Rice Reserve
Agreement in October 2011, which strengthened the rice production bases of
all countries involved and promoted stability in rice costs throughout,
providing greater food security during times of inflation
• The partnership includes concerted programs which include cooperation in the
areas of politics, security, finance, tourism, poverty eradication and public
26
health with Japan, China and South Korea. With these countries in relative
proximity to SEA, ASEAN was able to form good ties with rapidly growing
powers – China with its booming economy and South Korea and Japan with
their state-of-the-art technology
• If ASEAN did not exist, this would have been significantly less likely to be
possible, as agreements between individual countries would present much less
value to other countries compared to ASEAN as a collective
• Therefore, ASEAN was immensely successful in bringing growth to the
region through forming relations with rapidly developing nations, allowing
the region to similarly benefit from their growth
ASEAN Open Skies Policy

• Not only does SEA have to be connected with other nations, but it also has to
be internally networked in order for seamless communications, trading of
goods, and tourism
• As such, the ASEAN Open Skies policy came into effect in 2015, intended to
increase regional and domestic connectivity, integrate production networks
and enhance regional trade by allowing airlines from ASEAN member states
to fly freely throughout the region via the liberalization of air services under a
single, unified air transport market
• Subsequently, sectors like the tourism industry have grown at an exponential
rate, and the number of commercial aircrafts to increase from 1050 to 3150 by
2030. Indeed, tourism has been one of the key growth sectors in ASEAN and
has proven resilient amid global economic challenges
• The wide array of tourist attractions displaying unique and distinct features
characteristic of the region has drawn 81 million tourists to ASEAN in 2011,
up by 30% compared to 62 million in 2007. According to the Pacific Asia
Travel Association, in the first few months of 2012, ASEAN was the fastest-
growing destination region in the world
• These economic activities would lead to positive development for ASEAN
economies across many sectors such as construction, tourism related
industries and transportation to accommodate the influx of tourists, such as
increase in number of malls and transportation networks that will not only
create employment, but benefit the general populace as well
• Therefore, the ASEAN Open Skies policy reflects that ASEAN has indeed
brought progress to the region, connecting it and developing it as a result
27
SEA Games
• The biennial sporting meet was founded by Thailand, Burma, Malaya, Laos,
Vietnam and Cambodia. Over 700 athletes and officials gathered in Bangkok
for six days and competed in 12 sports, including aquatics, badminton and
football, before adding Indonesia, Brunei and the Philippines in 1966
• The competition was renamed the South-east Asian (SEA) Games and
included all 10 countries by 2003, growing to become the biggest multi-sport
spectacle of the region. At the last SEA games in 2017, Malaysia, around 4700
athletes participated at the event, which featured 404 events in 38 sports
• The founding goals for these Games were to design a regional sporting event
will help promote cooperation, understanding and relations among countries
in the region
• For a region that has seen the threat of fundamentalist Islamic Terrorism
organisations elevate in the past few years, Malaysia beefed up its security in
the build up to the Games
• With the deployment of 10,000 policemen to patrol its Capital and a further
2,000 soldiers as part of the Anti-Terrorism Readiness Troops, this is a clear
message to any Terrorism Groups in the region that Malaysia does not
condone extremism and the games are very important as it serves a wider role
of promoting friendship and developing bonds; formal or informal
• The Games provides this regional bloc of around 600 million people, with
more than half of the population under the age of 30, an avenue to set aside
differences and come together as a region under the pretext of good
sportsmanship and fair play, a reflection of ASEAN’s success in promoting
similar unity throughout the region
Failure
South China Sea Dispute
• While one of ASEAN’s founding principles is to work together and deal
peacefully with mutual differences, the self-interests of countries may cause
their stances to differ from the other members of ASEAN, giving rise to
infighting and causing ASEAN to be less effective when standing up to
external powers
• A prime instance is the South China Sea dispute. While countries like Vietnam
wanted to stand up against China to reclaim its rightful territory, other
members of ASEAN like Cambodia and Laos, strongly supported by China,
rejected the proposal to oppose China politically
28
• This divide within ASEAN clearly weakens their political power, as more
resources are spent on infighting rather than decisively dealing with China
• The arms race between ASEAN members encapsulates the dangers of such a
divide, as countries throughout the region have begun rapidly developing their
military forces to stand up against China independently. For instance, Vietnam
had a 113% increase in defence expenditure in 2004-2013 period, while
Philippines spent $885 million on the purchase of advanced equipment from
the US, including guided missile stealth frigates and anti-submarine
helicopters
• Not only does this lead to the economic detriment to the members in ASEAN,
especially in less economic developed countries (LEDCs), it also makes the
region extremely volatile, due to the presence of so much firepower that could
easily spark distrust and potentially a war
• As such, the South China Seas Dispute bears reason to suggest that ASEAN
has failed in protecting unity among the members, thus stifling progress in the
region
Economic Nationalism
• With the region’s lack of infrastructure and disparity in wealth between
countries like Singapore and poorer countries like Cambodia, ASEAN should
provide a platform whereby mutual partnerships and the creation of a single
market would help the countries to prosper as one
• Unfortunately, wealthier countries may be reluctant to commit to extensive
aid to other members, lest it cause an economy collapse. This prioritizing of
self-interest caused nations like Singapore to shy away from large tariff cuts,
leading intra-ASEAN trade ties to remain weak
• For instance, with the exception of Laos, ASEAN countries’ trade with
economies outside ASEAN outpaces intra-ASEAN trade by three times,
showing that trade within ASEAN is not as attractive as external trade, which
contradicts the ASEAN goal for economic growth and cooperation
• With this lack of cooperation, the gap between the countries remains
unchanged, causing tension to for between the two sides, with wealthier
nations accusing poorer ones of being unable to help themselves while the
poorer countries bemoan the wealthier countries’ unwillingness to aid them
• Hence, economic nationalism in ASEAN could potentially cause a breakdown
in agreements on the economic scale, resulting in a stagnation of economic
progress in the vicinity
29
Opium Trafficking
• Southeast Asia is infamous worldwide as the site of the so-called Golden
Triangle, one of the two main areas of illegal opium production in Asia and
one of the largest in the world
• Opium production in mainland Southeast Asia has always been concentrated
in the tri-border region, in the mountainous borderlands of Burma, Laos, and
Thailand, where rugged hills and mountains, heavy monsoon rains, and lack
of transport infrastructures have long protected rebel armies and illicit crops
from the writ of central governments and anti-drug agencies
• A United Nations report in December 2015 revealed that opium production in
the Golden Triangle had tripled since 2006, with the illegal drugs trade in the
region worth $16.3 billion
• The prevalence of this issue exposes the lack of cooperation between the three
countries, as unity is required for every country to watch its own borders for
collective success in dealing with the issue – it only takes one of the three to
either be unable to afford or is unwilling to devote the resources to set up
outposts on the borders and secure them for traffickers to be able to slip
through, also bringing the other members into the picture for their lack of
financial support or provision of lacking resources
• As such, ASEAN’s inability to effectively resolve or at least mitigate this issue
reveals a degree of failure on the social crisis front
Insights
• All in all, while ASEAN may have faced issues such as the South China Seas
Conflict and the inability to cooperate on the economic frontier, their
successes in connecting the region both internally and externally creates many
more opportunities.
• Partnerships with external powers provides ASEAN nations the chance to
share resources and ideas, while internal networking allows the region’s
industries like tourism to skyrocket, indirectly progressing the area’s economy
for the better.
• This is encapsulated in the Joint Declaration, where despite the ongoing South
China Seas Dispute, China was still willing to commit to peaceful resolution
of jurisdictional and territorial disputes.
• ASEAN’s willingness to work toward these goals outweighs internal disputes,
and firmly shows that it has and will continue to be able to bring progress to
the region.
30
Nationalism
EQ: Did Western colonisation or the Japanese Occupation play a larger role
in the rise of nationalism in SEA?
Suggested Stand: Western colonisation played a larger role in the rise of
nationalism in SEA to a larger extent
• Throughout its history, SEA has received a variety of influences –
Indianisation, Sinicisation, Western colonisation and even occupation by the
Japanese during WWII, assimilating valuable aspects of other cultures, while
enduring periods of violence and hardship
• This leads one to consider the force that allows the countries we now see in
the region to stand today, despite their tumultuous past – Nationalism
• Nationalism refers to a spirit of loyalty and dedication to one’s country over
loyalty to other groups or individual interests
• Nationalism played a very important part in the rise of independence within
the nations of Southeast Asia, particularly when nationalism was stirred up by
either the Japanese Occupation or colonisation by Western powers, which
compelled the citizens to make a collective stand to rule their own future and
decide on how they were to be run as a nation
• While the significance of Nationalism is undeniable, there is controversy over
when it took prominence in the region, with the debate between the two most
trying periods in its history – the Japanese Occupation and Western
Colonisation
Japanese Occupation
Destruction of the White Man’s Superiority in Malaysia
• The destruction of the British, shattered the myth of western superiority and
sparked a change of mind-set among locals – now they had witnessed first-
hand that western superpowers were far from invincible, and rekindled a hope
that they could one day break free of their rule
• The defeat of the British also raised doubts among the people, as people were
unsure whether the British were capable of ruling them
31
• The Japanese Occupation also gave much-needed exposure to the locals, as

the Malays took up government and civil service positions under the Japanese
rule. Having experienced what it was like to run the country for themselves,
the Malays grew more accustomed and confident in the notion that they could
achieve independence
• After WWII, the Malay community would form the political party UMNO to
fight for independence, showing a level of organization and intent unseen
before, amplified by the indirect positive consequence of the Japanese
Occupation in leading to resistance movements in Southeast Asia, which in
turn further enhanced nationalistic fervour
• Having endured the war together, the locals could all rally behind a common
party, a common ideal and desire for freedom. There was a sense of
accountability to one another and the nation, which eventually compelled the
Malaysians to make a stand against the British and gain independence
• Thus, through enduring common trials and the exposure to the Japanese
Occupation, those in SEA were given a new perspective, and it can be argued
that this is when nationalism truly rose to prominence
Instilling of Nationalistic Ideals in Indonesia

• For instance, influential figures such as Sukarno and Hatta were released from
prison and were given platforms to spread nationalistic ideas among the
Indonesians, which made the spread of such ideals much more powerful, as it
was not the Japanese, seen as an enemy, directly appealing to the masses, but
it was done through their own people, local figures whom they believed in to
lead the nation forward and saw as pillars of strength
• The practical application of these nationalistic ideas included the mobilisation
of youths from Indonesia to join PETA and Permuda, anti-occupation revolt
organizations where youths were exposed to nationalistic ideals, suggesting
the longevity of this influence, targeting the young generations to lead with
such values
• Later after WWII, PETA would form the Indonesian army and fight for
independence. During the Japanese Occupation, the Japanese broke down
ethnic segmentation by implementing a uniform legal education system such
as implementing a common language of Bahasa Indonesia across all schools,
enabling the Indonesian society to be more unified as racial prejudices
dissipated at a young age
• The changes led to the Indonesian society to be more susceptible to
nationalistic ideas, and the influence of the younger generations in Indonesian
32
society may suggest that it was due the Japanese Occupation that nationalism
can now be considered a notable force in the region
Western Colonisation
Laying the foundation in the Philippines
• However, the colonial period was of primary importance to the rise of
nationalism as it laid the foundation for nationalist ideas to grow and mature
during the Japanese Occupation
• The Philippine independence movement against the Americans as a result of
the Philippine-American War from 1898 to 1903, led by Emilio Aguinaldo,
cultivated nationalist sentiments in the Filipino populace
• Such violence that occurred during this period would serve as a powerful
reminder to the Filipinos that other nations, even their colonial masters, always
had ulterior motives and their own agendas, and only through achieving their
own independence could they assure peace and prosperity for their country
• Under American rule, institutions such as the Congress and policies such as
the McDuffy Act allowed for political collaboration and the introduction of
concepts of self-rule, allowing the Filipino populace to translate their
sentiments into concrete understanding of the political system, better
preparing them for eventual independence
• The Philippines’ first constitution was framed in 1934 and Manuel Quezon
was elected as the first Philippine president and was given certain power for
some internal affairs
• The running theme of gradually giving locals opportunities over the years is
evidence of a structured, meticulous plan devised by the Americans to nudge
the Philippines toward independence, preparing them for the responsibility of
governing their own country through an organized, long-term plan that
revolved around planting such nationalist ideas to instil a will to be free in the
first place
• It can thus be seen that the foundations for nationalist movements were already
in place prior to Japanese invasion and later occupation
Through Suffering in Under the French by the Vietnamese

• For example, the land was exploited by the French as the Vietnamese farmers
migrated from North to South; many were forced to farm rice and buy
expensive French manufactured goods
33
• By 1939, 75% of Vietnamese families had become landless, with a multiplier

effect that caused millions of landless peasants compared to the mere 225,000
landowners in the South of Vietnam – the disparity in both scale and number
between the two parties shows how the French caused a stark imbalance
within the economy, allowing their associates to prosper while the rest of the
nation suffered
• The Vietnamese peasantry, which constituted a large portion of the populace,
were understandably incensed at having their belongings exploited from them
Vietnamese resistance groups were formed during colonial rule, and there
were many who were inspired by communism, started to resist the French
• Western educated elites such as Ho Chi Minh converted to communism in
1920 after the Allied powers ignored him during the Versailles peace
conference when he tried to get Vietnam autonomy
• Subsequently, Ho became an international communist missionary, working as
an agent for the “Comintern”, the global organization sponsored by Moscow
that was supposed to subvert capitalism and spread revolution
• As such, it can be said that tribulations endured during the colonial era under
the French forced the Vietnamese to awaken to the fact that matters would not
change by themselves, and that only through independence would they truly
be free from exploitation
Insights
• In conclusion, colonisation was a long-term cause for the development of
nationalism in SEA. The impact of colonialism laid the foundation for the
development of nationalism in many countries
• Nationalism was developed when colonial masters gave opportunities for
locals to lead or harsh colonial rule led to the rise of resistance groups who
fought for independence
• While the violence endured under the Japanese and the ideals spread at the
time played a huge role in the current prevalence of nationalism, the locals
would not have been as receptive to them, perhaps even reject the notion, if
the idea had not been planted earlier by their colonial masters
• After all, nationalism requires an external stimulus, be it propaganda or wars,
to be instilled. It also needs the willpower and inner motivation of the people
to carry it forward, and the fact that these ideas introduced by the colonial
masters not only survived the atrocities of Japanese Occupation, but were
instead made stronger, attests to the much more lasting impact that Western
Colonialism had on nationalism in the region
34
• The impact of the Japanese Occupation merely accelerated the rise of

nationalism in Southeast Asia
35

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Chinchilla Notes Written by Ryan Chin, Updated by Andrew Lim

Y3 International Studies Notes 2019 (Updated 2021)

Geography and Culture in SEA

EQ: How far should Southeast Asia be regarded as one entity?

With such disagreements in politics and economy, can SEA, even as an

2. Monsoons and Shallow Seas Promoting Trade (Geography)

3. Archaeological Evidence of Instruments and Relics Showing Widespread

Sample Essay (13/15)

In addition, archaeological evidence of such collaborations of cultures has

Furthermore, it can be stated that SEA’s sheer diversity in cultures divides

In conclusion, while geographical segregation and diversity in cultures

• In addition, the indigenous people modified figures of Indian religion to suit

Rejection of the Caste System

• Confucianism, built upon creating and maintaining proper relationships

EQ: Was Western Colonisation beneficial or detrimental to SEA?

French trading companies. This opened up opportunity for Chinese traders to

Violence against the Indonesians by the Dutch

Political Progress in Philippines by the Americans

beginning. The positions of high-rank officials, which had previously been

EQ: Was the Japanese Occupation beneficial or detrimental to SEA?

Rise of Political Leaders

Social Massacres and Divides

• For instance, the Malays were given privileges such as administrative

EQ: Decolonisation was more peaceful than violent. Discuss.

Philippine Uprising against Quirino

opportunities to be involved in local administration and to lead large

Philippine President Magsaysay’s Peaceful Rule

ASEAN Open Skies Policy

• The Japanese Occupation also gave much-needed exposure to the locals, as

Instilling of Nationalistic Ideals in Indonesia

Through Suffering in Under the French by the Vietnamese

• By 1939, 75% of Vietnamese families had become landless, with a multiplier

• The impact of the Japanese Occupation merely accelerated the rise of

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