CUSCUTA

Cuscuta is commonly called dodder. It is a stem parasite that naturally grafts to its

host plants to extract water and nutrients. Since it lacks chlorophyll, it cannot do
photosynthesis. It lives on other plants and obtains food through parasitic roots called
haustoria. These roots penetrate into the host plant up to their conducting vessels to absorb
food and water. To grow, they depend on other plants for nutrients, which weakens the host
plant. Multiple adjacent hosts are often parasitized by one or more Cuscuta plants
simultaneously, forming connected plant clusters.

LICHEN
Lichens are a complex life form that is a symbiotic partnership of two separate organisms, a
fungus and an alga. The dominant partner is the fungus, which gives the lichen the majority
of its characteristics, from its thallus shape to its fruiting bodies. The fungi provide a moist,
sheltered habitat for the cyanobacteria or algae, and, in turn, they provide food for the fungi.
Lichens are important as early stage primary succession organisms. The algal partner of
lichen is called phycobiont and fungal partner is called mycobiont.

SYMBIOTIC ASSOCIATION IN ROOT NODULES

The root nodules of leguminous plants are caused by nitrogen-fixing bacteria belonging to
the genus Rhizobium. Rhizobium bacteria are present which convert inert nitrogen into
nitrates for the use of plants. Thus by nitrogen fixation, it increases the soil fertility.
The Rhizobium bacteria divide and form colonies. These get attached to the root hairs and
epidermal cells. The root hairs get curled and are invaded by the bacteria. This invasion is
followed by the formation of an infection thread that carries the bacteria into the cortex of the
root. The bacteria get modified into rod-shaped bacteroides. As a result, the cells in the
cortex and pericycle undergo division, leading to the formation of root nodules. The nodules
finally get connected with the vascular tissues of the roots for nutrient exchange.