UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE

FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF BIOCHEMISTRY

NAME: SHILOH S.A CHIPENDO

REGISTRATION NUMBER: R2111440
PROGRAM: HBMB
LECTURER: V. MUNESI
TITLE: LIFE SKILLS NECESSARY IN THE 21st CENTURY
Introduction
Life skills are a set of basic skills acquired through learning and/or direct life experiences that
help individuals or groups to effectively handle issues and problems encountered on a daily
basis (British Council 2021). Life skills touch on issues that are real, often controversial and
ultimately moral. Life skills help to create individuals that are able to take responsibility for
their actions, make informed and meaningful contributions towards society and are capable to
expand their sphere of influence.

A brief outline of skills needed in the 21st century

 Critical thinking
Critical thinking is the analysis of facts to form a judgement. It is a
necessity in these present times so as to counter the various circumstances
and challenges that life throws at individual. The individual needs the
ability to think outside of the box and come up with solutions.

 Communication
Communication is an important life skill which is needed in all aspects of
life from the professional aspect to the personal life of an individual.
Communication helps the individual express oneself whether verbally or
non-verbally and helps them to form and maintain relationships.

 Focus and self-control

Focus and self-control are very vital life skills as life in itself can be very
demanding and stressful. These skills allow the individual to think
flexibly to changing circumstances and think logically before responding
to situations. A person should be able to control themselves and focus
despite adverse situations.

 Respect
Respect is an important life skill which is linked to success. It is the
courteous regard for others. Respect should be taught from a very young
age so that individuals know its importance and how to express it.

 Honesty
Honesty is being truthful with everyone. It crosses all aspects of life. A
person shows integrity by being honest.
COGNITIVE AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORIES THAT CAN BE
INCALCULATED INTO STUDENTS
Although moral development has been studied from various perspectives, studies of moral
development have been strongly influenced by the work of Jean Piaget and Lawrence
Kohlberg.

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

Kohlberg articulated what became a well-known global stage theory of moral judgement
development. He put forth a hypothesis that moral reasoning develops in a universal sequence
of stages. He proposed that an individual’s interpretation of justice and rights develop
through a series of six distinct stages. Each successive stage represents a more developed and
mature form of moral reasoning. Kohlberg also proposed that people in all cultures use
universal concepts of morality. The theory had three main levels: the preconventional stage,
the conventional stage and the post conventional stage. (Marc Jambon; Judith G Smetana
2015).
Psychologists studying moral development have often faced the problem of moral relativism.
Moral relativism is the position that moral values are not universal. Moral relativism can
further be distinguished into ethical moral relativism and descriptive moral relativism.
Ethical relativism insists that the values held in different cultures are equally right.
Descriptive relativism states that moral values vary with different cultures. (Kenneth D.
Keith, 2013)
Preconventional Level
Moral reasoning at a preconventional level is connected to the inadequacy of role taking. The
child does not understand the rules of society. The preconventional level of morality includes
two stages: Stage 1- heteronymous morality and Stage 2- individualism, instrumental purpose
and exchange.
Stage 1: Heteronymous Morality
At this stage, an individual’s role taking ability is limited to the egocentric level. The
perspectives are undifferentiated from a person’s own perspective in moral situations. The
behaviour is reflected by the underlying fear of punishment or other sanctions by superior
agents. The child understands that punishment must be avoided for his/her own comfort.
Obedience
This stage is very important as the individual is taught obedience through punishment. The
fear of punishment motivates the person to do what is right and avoid what is wrong as a way
to avoid punishment. This is very important life skill in this 21 st century as when the
individual comes into society, they will be obedient to their moral values bearing in mind that
breaking those values will result in punishment.

Stage 2: Individualism, Instrumental Purpose and Exchange

At stage 2, people take individual points of view but not integrate together. They recognize
that people have different needs or values in different or even similar situations. The child
recognizes that if one is good to others then they in turn will be good to you. The proper
social exchanges are on a tit for tat basis.
Tolerance
At this stage the individual learns to sympathise with others. The society in itself comprises
of people of various personalities and hold different values. An individual learns to then
tolerate the different characteristics of people. He/she comes to an understanding that doing
good or sympathising with others will be reciprocated and likewise for doing evil to the next
person.

Conventional Level
At the conventional level of morality, moral values are in terms of maintenance of
interpersonal relations, groups or societies. The system can be described as religious codes.
The child learns social rules and gains a more objective perspective on right and wrong. The
conventional level has two stages: Stage 3 - mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships,
and interpersonal conformity and Stage 4 - social system and conscience.
Stage 3: Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships and Interpersonal
Conformity
At stage 3, people adopt complex types of role taking than at Stage 2. The major motivating
factor in good behaviour is social approval from those people who are closest to the child.
Empathy
This stage is important because the individual learns to work or cooperate with others. He/she
develops communication skills and embraces the views of the external environment
especially those of the people that are close to them e.g. family and peers. The child seeks
social approval and considers the perspectives regarding their behaviour and how they
conduct themselves.
Stage 4: Social System and Conscience
At this stage, moral rightness is defined as behaviour serving to maintain the social system.
Law and order are apt descriptions of this stage. The sense of order becomes generalized
beyond individuals to society at large.
Fairness
A this stage the child learns to abide by the rules and regulations that govern society despite
the various backgrounds, norms, values and beliefs. Breaking the rules will result in
punishment but on a more serious scale since no one is above the law. The child understands
that the law is for the protection of every person’s rights and it maintains the balance of
society. It is fair and is enforced by arms of the law.
Postconventional Level
At the postconventional level of morality, emphasis lies on personal/ idealized principles and
is no longer focused on conventional, societal standards of morality. This level has two
stages: Stage 5- social contract and individual rights; and Stage 6- universal ethical
principles
Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights
At stage 5, people understand that laws, rules and regulations are created for the benefit of
every citizen. They also understand and believe in democracy in action.
Justice
This stage is very important as the child learns the justice of the law. The law is the one
which defines the moral behaviour of the individual. The law is universal and everyone is
subject to it.

Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles

At this stage, right and wrong are not determined by rules and laws, but by the individual’s
reflection of what he/she regard as proper behaviour. Here, personal ethical values take
precedence over any laws or conventions. Civil disobedience is justified by the circumstances
Accountability
This stage is of importance because the child will be learning to stand on their own decisions
and face the realities following these choices. The child is the one to decide on what kind of a
person they’d want to become basing on their individual choices and the values they’d hold.

Cognitive Development Theory by Jean Piaget

Cognitive development is a way in which a child learns to think, reason, and use language
which are vital to the child’s overall growth and development (Health Professional and
Patient Interaction 2019). Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist was concerned with the way in
which thinking development occurs in children from birth till they become young adults. He
believed that humans adapt to their physical and social environments in which they live.
Piaget saw this adaptation in terms of two basic processes: Assimilation and
Accommodation. Assimilation is the process of using or transforming the environment so that
it can be placed in pre-existing cognitive structures. Accommodation is the process of
changing cognitive structures in order to accept something from the environment. (Huitt W,
Hummel J 2003)
Piaget claimed that there are 4 basic elements in development: maturation, experience, social
transmission i.e. learning through language, schooling, or teaching by parents and
equilibrium. He identified 4 sequential stages through which each individual progress in
cognitive development. Each stage has an age span with distinctive learning capabilities.
Stage 1: The Sensori-motor stage (Infancy)
During this period, the children’s thinking involves seeing, hearing, moving, touching and so
on. It marks a transitional stage for a person from a biological to a psychological being.
Infants learn the concept of object permeance which refers to the understanding that objects
and events continue to exist even though they cannot directly be seen, heard or touched.
Physical development allows the child to develop new intellectual abilities.

Stage 2: Pre-Operational Stage (Toddler and Early childhood)

In this stage, intelligence is demonstrated through the use of symbols, language use matures
and memory and imagination are developed. Egocentric thinking is predominant.
Communication
This stage is very important to the child as they learn how to communicate and express
themselves. Communication skills are of vital importance in this 21st century. Lack of good
communication skills has a devastating impact especially when the child learns to interact
and make relations with its external environment.

Stage 3: Concrete Operational Stage (Elementary and early adolescence)

The levels of intelligence in this stage are shown by logical and systematic manipulation of
symbols related to concrete objects. Children develop the abilities of rational thinking but
their thinking is tied to concrete objects.
The ability to adapt
This stage allows the child to adapt to different situations as they move from the early
childhood to the adolescence stage. The ability to adapt is very key. The world is constantly
changing and an individual without the capacity to adapt to these changes is left behind as a
result. This ability is shown through rational thinking though on a small scale since the child
is still immature

Stage 4: Formal Operational Stage (Adolescence and adulthood)

Level of intelligence is shown by the emergence of logical thinking and reasoning. Other
cognitive developments are the ability to think about hypothetical possibilities and solve
problems through logical deductions and systematic manner.
Problem solving
In this 21st century problem solving is a necessity. The world has changed drastically and life
has a lot of problems that will be thrown at the child as they transition from their adolescence
stage to their adulthood. Thus, the ability reason and to think outside of the box is very
essential a snot to succumb to the pressures of day to day living and produce solutions to curb
the challenges.
 References
British council 2021
Huitt W, Hummel J 2003, Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, Educational
Psychological Interactive Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University
Kenneth D. Keith 2013, The Encyclopaedia of Cross-Cultural Psychology, New York
Marc Jambon, Judith G Smetana 2015, Moral development, Theories of, University of
Rochester, NY, USA