Triglyceride have lower ratio of O2 to

carbon compared with carbohydrates

Amylopectin + amylose = polymer

Chloresterol = li

Starch & glycoheN X structural polysaccharide , it’s storage polysaccharide . Cellulose & chitin =
structural

Antibody = 4 polypeptide chains held tgt by disulphide bonds

R group of - NH2 = basic

Hydrostatic bond = forms between the hydroxyl (OH) group and an adjacent hydrogen molecule,
providing a strong bond between polar R groups

* collage has repeat sequence of 3 ACs for primary structure

Sucrose X monomer

Prokaryote membrane is phospholipid

Take note (for any experiments):

1. The given procedure in each test is the standard form. PLEASE FOLLOW THE INSTRUCTIONS IN EXAMINATION if given. Especially for
the volume, temperature and duration. If and only if the condition is not specified (eg: what temperature/volume/duration to use for
benedicts test) in examination, then might be the significant sources of error.

2. Significant sources of error : Is the condition where the variable did not OR cannot been standardized in the experiment and it will affect your
results.
Eg: a) Difficulty in judging the color changed

b) The measurement scale on measuring apparatus is too big (eg: you want to measure 0.3cm3 of solution but the smallest scale
measurement is 0.2cm3)

c) Difficulty in maintaining the desired temperature with water bath (eg: benedicts test at 85c water bath)

d) Starting/ ending time not the same as the specimen been place inside……..(boiling tube/ water bath/ solution..eg…)

e) Size/volume/pH/ temperature of specimen/ solution not standardized

f) And anything that supposed to be standardized but not standardized in the instructions which may lead to inaccurate results

3. Suggesting improvements or modification on experiments if repeat it:

a) Temperature : Use thermostatically controlled water bath

b) pH value : Use buffer solution

c) Measuring apparatus: Use smaller scale measurement of apparatus

d) Compare with standard color chart for color changes

e) If and only if: Color intensity (NOT CHANGES) use to estimate the concentration of solution, can use colorimeter. The unit
either in

(i) percentage transmission of light in percentage (%)- The higher the percentage, the lower the concentration OR
(ii) arbitary unit –The higher the unit, the higher the concentration of solution

(f) use more/wider or narrower concentration of solution when performing the experiments.

(g) Anything that can improve the results of the experiments

REMEMBER : There is no fixed type of significant sources of error or improvement for all experiments. The type of significant sources of error or
improvements shall be suggested mainly depends on the nature of the experiments. The trick to score, always read the instructions in paper 3
thoroughly and detect is/are the variable(s) or apparatus used that should be standardized is being standardized or not during the experiment
(the variable we looking at must have direct effect to the results of the experiment). If no, that shall be the significant sources of error.

4. To improve reliability of an experiment, you should

a) repeat the experiment for at least three times and obtain the average results
b) and eliminate any anomalous value.

5. Measuring apparatus will give you uncertainty eg: syringe/ ruler/ measuring cylinder/ thermometer eg…there are three types of uncertainty:

i) Uncertainty/ Actual error : ± ½ x (smallest scale division) x number of readings taken

eg: - a syringe with smallest scale division of 0.2cm3 will gives you uncertainty of ±½ x (0.2cm3) x 1 = ±0.1cm3
If I use the same syringe, to measure the initial volume of solution at the beginning of the experiment, then final volume at
the end of the experiment, I will have uncertainty of : ±½ x (0.2cm3) x 2 = ±0.2cm3

ii) Uncertainty in actual measurement: measurement of apparatus ±½ x (smallest scale division) x number of readings taken

I’m using the same syringe in i) to measure a 2.6cm3 of solution(1 reading), the uncertainty of actual measurement is:
2.6 ±½ x (0.2cm3) x 1 =2.6 ±0.1cm3

iii) Percentage of error : (½ x smallest scale division x number of reading) / actual measurement X 100%

(0.5s/15s) X100% = 3.33%

6. Dilution : Simple or Serial dilution

Simple dilution : preparing each successive dilution from the stock concentration solution.

Serial dilution : Preparing each successive dilution from the previous concentration solution tube.

Becareful with: The volume of distilled water and solution transferred, total volume in each tube, and the concentration of each tube.