BIOLOGY-CH 4-FLOWER

Solution C.1.

(a) Incomplete flower – If one or more sets of floral structures are missing, the flower is called
incomplete flower. E.g. American elm.

(b) Staminate flower – A unisexual flower which contains only the stamens, i.e., male parts of a
flower is called male or staminate flower. E.g. Eastern cottonwood.

(c) Pistillate flower – A flower which contains only the carpels, i.e., female parts of a flower is
called female or pistillate flower. E.g. Date palm.

(d) Bisexual flower – A flower which contains both stamens and carpels is called bisexual or
hermaphrodite flower. E.g. Hibiscus.

Solution C.2.

Flower Inflorescence

Flower is a specialized shoot in Inflorescence is the mode of

which the leaves are modified arrangement of flowers on the

into floral structures. axis of the plant.

(b) Petals and Petaloid sepals

 Petals Petaloid sepals

Petals are non-essential parts of

Undifferentiated petals and
a flower which help in
sepals together form the
protection of reproductive parts
perianth. When perianth is non-
and make the flower attractive
green, it is called a petaloid.
for pollination.

Solution C.3.

(a) Placenta:

Location: Cushion or swollen region in the ovary

Function: Gives origin to ovules

(b) Thalamus:

Location: Tip of the flower stalk

Function: Bears all the parts of the flower

(c) Anther:

Location: Part of the stamen

Function: Produces male gametes or pollen grains

(d) Stigma:

Location: Terminal knob-like part

Function: Serves as the landing place for pollen grains during pollination

Solution C.4.

2
(a) The androecium of pea flower is diadelphous because the filaments of anther are united in
two bundles. In case of pea, out of ten, nine stamens form a staminal tube while one is free.
(b) Ray florets of sunflower are neuters because both male and female reproductive organs are
lacking or absent.
(c) Salvia sepals are petaloid because the three sepals are united and are red in colour like petals.
Hence, they are undifferentiated from the petals.
(d) China rose stamens are epipetaloid because they arise from the base of the petals.

Solution D.1.

Types of androecium in flowers:

1. Polyandrous: When the stamens of a flower are free, the

condition is called polyandrous.
2. Monadelphous: When the filaments of anthers in a flower are
fused into one group, the condition is called monadelphous.
3. Diadelphous: When the filaments of anthers in a flower are fused
into two groups, the condition is called diadelphous.
4. Polyadelphous: When the filaments of anthers in a flower are
fused into more than two groups, the condition is called
polyadelphous.
Solution D.2.

(a) China rose: Monadelphous

(b) Bombax: Polyadelphous
(c) Pea: Diadelphous

Solution E.1.

(a) The flower is of Sweet pea.

(b) Standard: Outermost petal which is large and broad
Wings: The two lateral petals are in the form of wings
Keel: Two wings enclose two inner petals which unite to form a keel

Solution E.2.

1: Anther; 2: Filament: 3: Ovule: 4: Placenta; 5: Stigma;

6: Style; 7: Ovary; 8: Petal; 9: Sepal; 10: Receptacle/Thalamus

Solution E.3.

3
(a) Figure A represents stamen. Stamens collectively form Androecium.
(b) Contents of the pollen sacs in B are male gametes.
(c) The contents of the pollen sacs would come out through agents like air, wind, insects leading
to pollination in flowers.

Solution E.4.

When a flower arises in the axil of a leaf-like structure, this structure is known as bract. Because
bracts are large and brightly coloured structures, they are often mistaken for petals. This helps to
attract insects for pollination.

Solution E.5.

Condition of Example of
Explanation
androecium flower

Filaments of the anthers in a

Monadelphous flower are fused into one Hibiscus

group

Filaments of the anthers in a

Diadelphous flower are fused into two Pea

groups

4
 Filaments of the anthers in a

Polyadelphous flower are fused into more Bombax

than two groups

BIOLOGY-CH 5-POLLINATION AND FERTILIZATION

Solution B.2.

(a) butterflies
(b) wind
(c) water

Solution B.3.

(a) autogamy
(b) dichogamy
(c) Vallisneria

Solution B.4.

(a) Ovules
(b) Ovary
(c) Ovarian wall

5
Solution B.5.

(a) Bisexual flower

(b) Inflorescence
(c) Self-pollination/Autogamy
(d) Dichogamy
(e) Heterostyly
(f) Entomophily
(g) Ornithophily

Solution C.1.

(a) Ornithophily-Pollination affected by birds

(b) Elephophily-Pollination affected by elephants
(c) Artificial pollination-Pollination affected by man through artificial means

Solution C.2.

(a) Ovules-Seed
(b) Calyx-Falls off or remains intact in dried and shrivelled form
(c) Petals-Fall off
(d) Stamens-Fall off

Solution C.3.

Contrivances in flowers which favour cross-pollination:

 Unisexuality
 Different timings of maturation of androecium and gynoecium
 Self-sterility
 Structural barriers

Solution D.1.

6
(a) Long and feathery stigma: Help to trap pollen grains in wind-pollination
(b) Brightly colored petals: Attracting insects for cross-pollination
(c) Smooth and light pollen: Easily carried by wind to enable cross-
pollination
(d) Protruding and easily movable anthers: Even slightest wind can move
them
(e) Fragrant nectar: Attracting insects for pollination

Solution D.2.

Advantages of cross-pollination:

1. The offspring are healthier.

2. The seeds produced are abundant and viable.
3. New varieties may be produced by cross-pollinating two different
varieties of the same species.

Disadvantages of cross-pollination:Pollination is not always certain.

 The pollen has to be produced in large quantity.

 The process is uneconomical for the plant because the flowers
have to be large,coloured, scented and have to produce nectar for
attracting pollinating agents.

BIOLOGY-CH 6-SEEDS STRUCTURE AND GERMINATION

Exercise 1

Solution A.

 (c) Maize grain ______ coleoptile

 (d) do not get enough oxygen

Solution B.1.

7
(a) F (False). Monocotyledonous seeds contain one cotyledon and
dicotyledonous seeds contain two cotyledons.
(b) T (True)
(c) T (True)
(d) T (True)

Solution B.2.

(a) Maize
(b) Pyrogallic acid
(c) Shoot
(d) Rhizophora
(e) Aleurone layer
(f) Bean

Solution B.3.

(a) plumule, above

(b) Coleorhiza, coleoptile
(c) seed coat, testa
(d) micropyle
(e) starch

Solution B.4.

(a) Micropyle, 1st male gamete, egg cell, zygote, embryo

(b) Allogamy, fusion of gametes, zygote, embryo, seed
(c) Seed coat bursts, radicle grows downward, hypocotyls form loop above
the soil, epicotyls elongate

Solution C.1.

A seed is a mature ovule after fertilization. It contains a tiny living-plant

called the embryo. The embryo within the seed remains in an inactive or

8
dormant state, until it is exposed to favourable conditions, when it
germinates.

Solution C.2.

Endospermic (albuminous) seeds: E.g. Castor, Maize, Poppy

Non-endospermic (exalbuminous) seeds: E.g. Bean, Gram, Pea

Solution C.3.

Germinated grams are considered highly nutritive because the cotyledon of

the seed absorbs food from the endosperm, making it nutritive. It is rich in
starch and its outermost layer is rich in protein.

Solution C.4.

Maize grain is actually a fruit in which the fruit wall and the seed coat are
fused together to form a protective layer. Therefore, we do not use the terms
maize fruit and maize seed. Instead, we call such fruits as grains.

Solution D.1.

(a) Seed coat: It protects the delicate inner parts of the seed from injury and
the attack of bacteria, fungi and insects.
(b) Micropyle: During germination, micropyle allows water to enter the seed
through its pore.
(c) Cotyledons: They contain food for the embryo.
(d) Radicle: It forms the future root.
(e) Plumule: It forms the future shoot.

Solution D.2.

Aim: To prove that a suitable temperature is necessary for germination.

Apparatus: Two beakers, wet cotton wool, refrigerator
Procedure:

9
 4. Take two beakers and label them as A and B.
5. Place some gram seeds on wet cotton wool in each of the beakers.
6. Keep beaker A at ordinary room temperature and beaker B in the
refrigerator.
7. In 1-2 days, the seeds in beaker A will germinate, showing the
importance of a suitable temperature for germination. Seeds in
beaker B may not show the signs of germination or may germinate
after several days, though not to the extent as the seeds in beaker
A.

Inference: Seeds require a suitable temperature for germination.

Solution D.3.

Yes, we call it germination because all the changes leading to the formation
of a seedling collectively constitute germination. During germination, either
the epicotyl or the hypocotyl elongates.

Solution D.4.

(a) Epigeal germination and Hypogeal germination

Epigeal germination Hypogeal germination

1. Cotyledons are pushed 1. Cotyledons remain

above the ground underground

10
 2. Hypocotyl elongates 2. Epicotyl elongates

(b) Coleorhiza and Coleoptile

Coleorhiza Coleoptile

1. Protective sheath
1. Protective sheath of radicle
of plumule

2. Present towards the upper

2. Present towards the pointed
broader side of the embryonic
end of embryonic region
region

(c) Bean seed and Maize grain

Bean seed Maize grain

1. Two cotyledons 1. One cotyledon

11
 2. No endosperm 2. Large endosperm present

Solution D.5.

Germination Vivipary

When the embryo in the seed Vivipary is known as the

becomes activated and begins to germination of seed within the

grow into a new plant, then it is fruit, while it is still attached

known as germination. to the parent plant.

Solution D.6.

A fruit is the enlarged ripened ovary in which the ovarian wall forms the fruit
wall and encloses the seed. The fruit protects the seed and helps in seed
dispersal.
The maize grain is regarded as a ‘one-seeded fruit’ because the fruit wall and
the seed coat are fused to form a protective layer. Such a fruit is called grain.

Solution D.7.

Germination of a seed which takes place above the ground is called epigeal
germination. In epigeal germination, the hypocotyl grows forming a loop
above the soil. It then straightens pushing the cotyledons above the ground.

Solution D.8.

12
(a) The ‘micropyle’ serves two important functions:

 Allows absorption of water and makes it available to the embryo

for germination.
 Enables diffusion of respiratory gases for the growing embryo

(b) The embryo of the seed grows into the seedling.

(c) Structure of embryo

(d) The cotyledons of the seed provide nutrition for the growing seedling or
the embryo.

BIOLOGY-CH 7- RESPIRATION IN PLANTS

Solution B.1.

Respiration is an essential life process for all living organisms. Therefore,

plants also respire all day and all night.

Solution B.2.

(a) ATP
(b) Respiration
(c) Fungus
(d) Glycolysis
(e) Oxygen
(f) Soda lime

13
Solution B.3.

(a) False. Aerobic respiration of one mole of glucose yields 38 ATP.

(b) False. Anaerobic respiration in plants yields ethanol.
(c) True
(d) False. All leaves of a green plant normally respire aerobically at night.

Solution C.1.

The energy liberated in respiration is stored in the form of ATP inside the
cells. Some part of it is lost as heat to the surroundings.

Solution C.2.

During day time, both photosynthesis and respiration takes place in green
plants. Evolution of CO is an indicator to demonstrate respiration in living
2

organisms. CO produced during respiration in plants gets utilized during

2

photosynthesis and thus, there is no evolution of CO . Therefore, it is difficult

2

to demonstrate respiration in green plants as there is no evolution of

CO during day time.
2

Solution C.3.

Respiration is said to be the reverse of photosynthesis due to the following

reasons:

 In respiration, the organic food is broken down into its inorganic

compounds, i.e., CO and H O, while in photosynthesis the organic
2 2

food is synthesized from its inorganic components, i.e., CO and 2

H O.
2

 In respiration, CO is given out, while in photosynthesis CO is

2 2

consumed.
 In respiration, O is consumed, while in photosynthesis O is
2 2

released or evolved.

14
  In respiration, energy is liberated, while in photosynthesis energy
is absorbed.

Solution C.4.

illing makes the soil porous and airy. The underground parts of the plants get
sufficient amount of oxygen for respiration. In this way, tilling helps the
crops to grow faster.

Solution C.5.

ATP: Adenosine triphosphate

ADP: Adenosine diphosphate

Solution C.6.

Cell respiration cannot occur in any organism at a temperature of about 65°C

because the enzymes involved in respiration become inactivated at high
temperatures.

Solution C.7.

(a) Lenticels
(b) Cytoplasm
(c) Glucose
(d) Photosynthesis, respiration
(e) Pyrogallate of potash
(f) KOH (caustic potash)

Solution D.1.

Oxidation of organic food particularly carbohydrates in living cells to release

energy is called respiration.

Similarities between respiration and burning:

15
 8. Both require oxygen
9. Both produce energy
10. Both result in the formation of CO and water
2

Differences between respiration and burning:

Respiration Burning

1. Occurs in a series of
1. Occurs in a single step
chemical steps

2. Carried out by enzymes 2. Carried out by heat

3. Biochemical process 3. Physico-chemical process

4. Energy is liberated in the 4. Energy is liberated in the

form of ATP and some heat form of heat and light

5. No light energy is produced 5. Light energy is produced

16
 6. Cellular process 6. Non-cellular process

7. Occurs at high temperature

7. Occurs at body temperature
(at ignition point)

8. No supply of heat energy is 8. Supply of heat energy is

required required

9. The organic compound is 9. The organic compound

oxidized to carbon dioxide and initially chars and later burns,

water. producing a flame.

Solution D.2.

Difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration in plants:

Aerobic respiration in plants Anaerobic respiration in plants

17
 1. Also 1. Also

called oxybiotic respiration called anoxybiotic respiration

2. Proceeds in the presence of 2. Proceeds in the absence of

oxygen oxygen

3. Occurs in mitochondria 3. Occurs in cytoplasm

4. Complete breakdown of 4. Incomplete breakdown of

glucose glucose

5. End-products are carbon 5. End-products are ethyl

dioxide and water alcohol and carbon dioxide

18
 6. Large quantity of energy is 6. Small quantity of energy is

liberated (38ATP) from one liberated (2ATP) from one

mole of glucose mole of glucose

7. Occurs normally throughout 7. Occurs temporarily for short

the life periods

Solution D.4.

(a) Lenticels help the stem to participate in respiration.

(b) Stomata help the leaves to participate in respiration.
(c) Root hairs help the roots to participate in respiration.

BIOLOGY-CH 9-ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIA

Solution B.1.

The three common types of bacteria are:

1. Cocci (spherical bacteria)

2. Bacilli (rod-shaped bacteria)
3. Spirilla (spiral bacteria)
Solution B.2.

19
 Column A Column B

(i) Penicillium (b) Antibiotic

(ii) Diplococci (c) Bacteria occurring in pairs

(iii) Streptococci (a) Bacteria occuring in chains

Solution C.1.

No, bacteria and yeast are not considered as plants because they do not have chlorophyll and
their mode of nutrition is not autotrophic, which are characteristic features of plants.

Solution C.2.

Bacteria may be present in the form of spores in the air.

Solution C.3.

Spore formation in bacteria is not considered as a form of reproduction because bacteria

reproduce only asexually by means of fission or cell division. Spore formation is just a method
of escaping unfavourable conditions.

Solution C.4.

Bacteria are unicellular organisms that lack membrane bound cell organelles like chloroplast,
mitochondria, etc. and even a well-defined nucleus is absent which states that they have a
simpler cellular organization.

Solution C.5.

20
(a) Decay and Putrefaction

Decay Putrefaction

1. It is the incomplete
1. It is the complete breakdown
breakdown of organic matter
of organic matter by bacteria.
by bacteria.

2. Does not emit a foul smell 2. Emits a foul smell

(b) Pasteurization and Sterilization

Pasteurization Sterilization

1. Temperature- 60°C 1. Temperature- 110°C

2. Does not kill spores 2. Kills even spores

21
 3. Partial sterilization 3. Complete sterilization

E.g. Sterilization of canned

E.g. Pasteurization of milk
food

Solution C.6.

Direct sunlight contains ultraviolet radiations of the sun, which help in killing of mould spores
present in air.

Solution D.1.

Bacteria reproduce asexually by means of fission (binary fission), while yeast reproduces
asexually by budding producing chains.

Solution D.2.

Role of micro-organisms in industrial production:

1. Bacteria are used in the production of vinegar and in the

processing of coffee, tobacco, etc.
2. Different flavours of tea, coffee, etc. are produced by certain
bacteria.
3. Tanning of leather is basically brought about by sunlight, but there
are a few micro-organisms which are involved in this process.
4. Fibres used for making rope, linen, etc. are obtained by loosening
the fibres of hemp and flax by retting, which involves the use of
bacteria.
5. Bacteria are used for the large-scale production of antibiotics,
enzymes, hormones, serum, vaccines and toxoids.
Solution D.3.

22
Modes of nutrition in bacteria:

1. Autotrophic bacteria: Able to synthesize their own food

a. Photoautotrophs: Contain chlorophyll and use light energy for
the synthesis of food
b. Chemoautotrophs: Obtain energy by oxidizing inorganic
compounds
2. Heterotrophic bacteria: Require organic compounds as their
main source
a. Saprophytes: Grow on dead and decaying organic matter
b. Parasites: Obtain their food from living host on which they
grow
Solution D.4.

Uses of bacteria in industry:

1. Tea curing: Certain bacteria are used to produce different

flavours of tea.
2. Tanning of leather: Tanning of leather is basically brought about
by sunlight, but there are a few bacteria which are involved in this
process.
Solution D.5.

Antibiotics are chemical substances produced by a living organism that kill or stop the growth of
disease-causing micro-organisms such as fungi and bacteria.

Examples of antibiotics:

1. Penicillin
2. Streptomycin
Solution D.6.

No, tinned and sealed food are not always safe to eat as they may contain harmful bacteria like
Clostridium botulinum, which may cause serious food poisoning resulting in Botulism. In
extreme cases, this condition may even prove to be fatal for life.

23
BIOLOGY-CH 15-HYGIENE

Solution B.2.

(a) Vectors (disease carriers)

(b) Pathogens
(c) Hygiene

Solution B.3.

The different ways by which the housefly contaminates our food:

 Hairy body and legs: Hairy or spiny body and legs easily pick up
dirt containing germs from unhygienic places such as rotten
materials, infected wound or faecal matter. When these flies sit on
our food, they rub their legs continuously dropping the particles of
dirt onto the food, thereby contaminating it.
 Pouring out saliva: When the housefly pours its saliva or
regurgitates on food, foodstuffs get moistened and pathogens get
deposited on them. This results in their contamination.
 Excreta: While feeding on food items, houseflies may deposit their
excreta on food, contaminating it.
 Direct transmission of germs: In some cases, houseflies directly
transmit the pathogens. In case of eye disease trachoma, pathogens
are transferred from an infected person to a healthy person, when a
fly settled on an infected eye of a person sits on the eyes of a
healthy person.

Solution B.4.

Two methods of controlling flies:

11. Spraying of insecticides

12. Elimination of breeding grounds

24
Solution B.5.

Effective methods for controlling mosquitoes:

 Spraying insecticides
 Food should be protected by covering it
 Eliminating breeding places of mosquitoes

Solution B.6.

Kind of mosquito Disease caused by it

Anopheles Malaria

Culex Filariasis

Solution B.7.

Contamination of potable water can occur due to

1. Improper disposal of sewage

2. Defecation and urination near lakes, rivers or ponds
3. Drainage of animal wastes and washings from dairies and
poultries into water bodies

Solution C.1.

(i) One should breathe by nose and never by mouth because nose contains
hair and mucous to trap dust and micro-organisms, so that the inhaled air

25
becomes pure and the respiratory passage is free of dust and micro-
organisms.

(ii) We handle a variety of things like books, coins, furniture, tools and
machinery in workshops, seats and supporting rods in buses and even pets
and other domestic animals in our day-to-day life. Many of these objects
carry germs. These germs can be picked up by us, when we touch these
objects and get transferred to other parts of our body or into our mouth, when
we eat our food. Therefore, it is necessary to wash our hands before eating
food to avoid the spread of diseases caused due to these germs.

(iii) Flies are carriers of many disease-causing germs and bacteria. Therefore,
eating places must be kept free of flies to avoid possible contamination of
food.

Solution C.2.

Cockroaches and rats are common household pests.

 Cockroaches are involved in spoiling food, paper and cloth. They

may act as carriers of viruses, especially those which cause cancer.
 Rats eat grains and other foods. They also act as carriers of certain
pathogens. A parasite named rat-fleas lives on rat’s skin. It
possibly carries the germs of plague.

Solution C.3.

TYPE OF
CAUSATIVE GERM PRECAUTION
DYSENTERY

26
 1. Bacillary Drinking safe
Bacterium: Shigelladysenteriae
dysentery (boiled) water

Avoiding
2. Amoebic
Protozoan: Entamoebahistolytica contaminated
dysentery
water and food

Solution C.4.

Symptoms of Hepatitis:

13. Body ache

14. Yellow eyes
15. Deep yellow urine
16. Enlarged liver

BIOLOGY-CH 17-AIDS TO HEALTH

Solution B.1.

(a) Arsphenamine or Salvarsan

(b) Penicillin
(c) Passive acquired immunity
(d) Antiseptics – Lysol, iodine, boric acid and carbolic acid
Disinfectants – Cresol and phenol
Antibiotics – Ampicillin and penicillin
(e) Oral polio vaccine (OPV)

27
Solution B.2.

(i) Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome

(ii) Bacillus Calmette Guerin
(iii) Diphtheria, Pertussis and Tetanus
(iv) World Health Organization

Solution B.3.

Antibodies are immunoglobulins which are produced in the blood to fight and
destroy harmful microbes.

Solution C.1.

(a) False. Lysol is an antiseptic.

(b) True
(c) False. Our body can make an unlimited variety of different antibodies.
(d) False. Salk’s vaccine is used against poliomyelitis.
(e) False. Treatment by the use of chemicals is known as chemotherapy.
(f) False. Selman Waksman coined the term ‘antibiotic’ for substances like
penicillin.

Solution C.2.

(a) Antiseptic is a mild chemical substance which is applied to the body to

kill germs, whereas an antibiotic is a chemical substance produced by a
microorganism which can kill or inhibit the growth of some other disease-
producing microorganisms.

(b) Antiseptic is a mild chemical substance which is applied to the body to

kill germs, whereas a disinfectant is a strong chemical applied to spots or
places on the body where germs thrive and multiply.

28
(c) Disinfectant is a strong chemical applied to spots or places on the body
where germs thrive and multiply, whereas deodorants are neither antiseptics
nor disinfectants; they are aerosols used to mask a bad smell.

(d) Vaccination is the introduction of any kind of dead or weakened germs

into the body of a living being to develop immunity (resistance) against a
disease, whereas sterilisation is a process of eliminating or killing all the
microbes present on a surface, contained in a fluid, in medication or in a
compound such as biological culture media.

(e) Active immunity is the immunity developed by an individual due to a

previous infection or antigen which enters the body naturally, whereas
passive immunity is the immunity provided to an individual from an outside
source in the form of ‘readymade’ antibodies.

(f) Innate immunity is the immunity by the virtue of genetic constitutional

makeup, i.e. it is inherited from parents. It is present in the body without any
external stimulation or a previous infection, whereas acquired immunity is
the resistance to a disease which an individual acquires during a lifetime. It
may be the result of either a previous infection or from readymade antibodies
supplied from outside.

Solution C.3.

(i) TAB vaccine for typhoid

(ii) BCG vaccine for measles
(iii) DTP vaccine for diphtheria, tetanus and whooping cough

Solution C.4.

(a) Lysol, benzoic acid, DDT, mercurochrome

Antiseptics. DDT is a wrong example for this category as it is a disinfectant
which is not good for human skin.

29
(b) Formalin, iodine, lysol, phenol
Disinfectants. Iodine is a wrong example as it is an antiseptic.

(c) BCG, DTP, ATP

Vaccines. ATP is a wrong example as it is an energy carrier in the cells of all known
organisms.(d) Tears, skin, nasal secretion, HCl (in stomach)
Germ-killing secretions. Skin is a wrong example as it is a protective mechanical barrier and
prevents the entry of germs in our body.

Solution C.5.

Vaccine Disease(s) The Nature of Vaccine

TAB 1. Typhoid 2. Killed germs

Salk’s Vaccine 3. Poliomyelitis 4. Killed germs

BCG 5. Tuberculosis Living weakened germs

Vaccines for
Measles 6. Living weakened germs
Measles

30
 8. Living fully poisonous
Cowpox Virus 7. Small pox
germs

Toxoids 9. Diphtheria Extracts of toxins

10. Tetanus Secreted by bacteria

Solution C.6.

 Innate immunity
 Acquired immunity
 Specific immunity
 Active acquired immunity
 Passive acquired immunity
 Natural acquired active immunity
 Artificial acquired active immunity
 Natural acquired passive immunity
 Artificial acquired passive immunity

Solution C.7.

17. Antibiotics have a wide use in medicine to fight infections.

18. Certain antibiotics are used as food preservatives, especially for
fresh meat and fish.
19. Some antibiotics are used in treating animal feed to prevent
internal infection.
20. Some antibiotics are used for controlling plant pathogens.

31
Solution C.8.

Merits of local defence systems:

 Local defence systems start working instantaneously.

 These systems are not dependent on previous exposure to
infections.
 They are effective against a wide range of potentially infectious
agents.

Solution C.9.

Diphtheria is a serious bacterial infectious disease. It leads to cold, coughing,

sneezing and, in severe cases if undiagnosed, it might result in heart failure or
paralysis.
Treatment includes a combination of medications and supportive care. The
most important step is prompt intravenous administration of diphtheria toxoid
which is made harmless. The harmless toxoid once administered in a
patient’s body triggers the production of antibodies against the pathogens
causing diphtheria.

Solution C.10.

(a) Bleeding from a cut in the skin:

4. In case of bleeding, raise the affected part to minimise blood flow.

5. Wash the cut surface with clean water.
6. Press the area with a piece of clean cotton and apply some
antiseptic.

(b) A fractured arm:

5. Lay the victim comfortably, loosen or remove the clothes from the
affected part.
6. Do not move the fractured part.

32
 7. If the affected limb is an arm, then tie a sling around the neck to
rest the arm in it.

(c) Stoppage of breathing due to electrical shock:

4. Lay the victim flat on the back and put a pillow or folded towel
under the shoulders in a way that the chest is raised and the head
thrown back.
5. Hold and draw the arms upwards and backwards. This will cause
the chest to expand and draw in air.
6. Next, fold the victim’s arms and press them against the ribs. The
air will now be expelled.
7. Repeat the two steps at the rate of about 15 times per minute.
Continue till the victim starts breathing without any extra help or
till the doctor arrives.

Solution D.1.

6. Vaccination is the practice of artificially introducing germs or the

germ substance into the body for developing resistance to
particular diseases.
7. Scientifically, this practice is called prophylaxis and the material
introduced into the body is called the vaccine.
8. The vaccine or germ substance is introduced into the body usually
by injection and sometimes orally (e.g. polio drops).
9. Inside the body, the vaccine stimulates lymphocytes to produce
antibodies against the germs for that particular disease.
10. Antibodies are an integral part of our immunity. Their function is
to destroy the unwanted particles which enter the body.
11. Vaccines give our immunity a signal to produce specific
antibodies. Hence, the principle of vaccination is to produce
immunity against a disease.

Solution D.2.

33
Whenever a germ or infection invades the body, a signal is sent to the
immune system to produce specific antibodies. To cope with the number of
germs being multiplied inside the body, white blood cells start multiplying
rapidly. This enables them to produce more number of antibodies and stop
the infection in time. So, abnormally large numbers of WBCs in the blood are
usually an indication of some infection in our body.

Solution D.3.

(a) Antiseptics:

Antiseptics are mild chemical substances applied to the body which prevent
the growth of some bacteria and destroy others.
Examples: Lysol and iodine

(b) Disinfectants:

Disinfectants are chemicals which kill microorganisms they come in contact

with. Disinfectants are usually too strong to be used on the body.
Examples: Cresol and phenol

(c) Vaccines:

Vaccines are materials administered in the body to provide passive immunity.

The materials are generally germs or substances secreted by germs.
Examples: OPV (oral polio vaccine) and DTP (diphtheria, tetanus and
pertussis)

34