SHRI GOVINDRAM SEKSARIA INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE, INDORE

Session: 2020-21

VIRTUAL LABORATORY REPORT

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS AND
INSTRUMENTATION (EE-22004)

B.E. II YEAR

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING

Submitted by-
ARPIT VERMA

0801EE191016
Electrical Engineering Department

Name: Arpit Verma

Class: 2nd Year

Roll No: 0801EE191016

Branch: Electrical Engineering

Subject : Electrical measurements and

instrumentation
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. ARPIT VERMA Roll no. 0801EE191016

studying in Shri G.S. Institute of Tech & Science of year 2020 -20 21
of this institute has completed practical course based on the syllabus
and given a satisfactory account of it in the notebook containing a
record of the laboratory work.

DATE: _________ _____________

GRADE: _________ PROFESSOR
INCHARGE
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Demonstration of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO).

2. Determine the unknown inductance using Maxwell’s inductance

bridge method.

3. Determine the unknown inductance using Hay’s bridge method.

4. Determination of self inductance using Owen's bridge

5. Find the value of unknown capacitance using schering bridge

6. Measurement of self inductance using Anderson Bridge.

7. Measurement of capacitance using D-sauty Bridge.

8. Measurement of three phase power using two wattmeter method.

9. Measurement of Q factor and discharge capacitance using Q-

meter.

10. Determine the input output characteristics and sensitivity of

LVDT.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 1

OBJECTIVE: Demonstration of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO).

THEORY: A Cathode Ray Oscilloscope, abbreviated as CRO and referred to as
oscilloscope, in short, is now a basic, important and versatile instrument in
every electronics and electrical engineering laboratory. In the previous
experiment, you got opportunities to measure voltages of a dc-source and an
ac-source using a voltmeter and a multimeter. If you study time variation of
these voltages, you will observe that the dc voltage remains constant with time
(the curve is a straight line parallel to the x-axis in a voltage versus time graph),
whereas ac voltage varies sinusoidally with time. While an ac-voltmeter or
multimeter can give us information about the magnitudes of the voltages,
details on the nature of waveform (of an ac or dc signal) remain hidden. To
display a signal or a waveform of any type, we have to use an oscilloscope. This
characteristic of CRO makes it a vital tool in medical diagnostics and care. On a
CRO, you can measure important characteristic parameters of a signal like
voltage amplitude, frequency, period and shape of the waveform. On a CRO
screen, a luminous spot enables us to study the instantaneous value of input
voltage. For this reason, an oscilloscope can also be viewed as a plotter or a
recorder. In this experiment, you will learn basic functions of an oscilloscope.
In particular, you will measure frequency of an alternating signal and phase
difference between two sinusoidal waveforms.
After performing this experiment, you should be able to:
1. Explain the basic functions of various controls on the front panel of the
CRO;
2. Display a waveform/signal on the screen of the oscilloscope;
3. Measure the dc-voltage of a source;
4. Measure the peak-to-peak voltage and frequency of a sinusoidal waveform;
and
5. Measure the phase difference between two sinusoidal waveforms.
Fig.11.1 shows one of the commonly available oscilloscopes. A CRO is
essentially an assembly of a cathode ray tube (CRT) and specific electronic
circuits. The CRT is the major component of the CRO. It produces a sharply
focussed high speed electron beam, which can be moved on the screen using
appropriate voltages for deflection. The front panel consists of the CRT screen
and various control knobs, which are used for different purposes. The
functions of these control knobs are discussed later in this section.

Fig.11.2 shows a schematic diagram of a CRT. It is an evacuated glass envelop

with the following essential components:
1. An electron gun;
2. Deflection plates; and
3. A fluorescent screen.
The electron gun comprises the following parts:
1. a heater or a cathode that emits electrons;
2. a control grid to control the current;
3. a focusing electrode to produce pencil-like electron beam; and
4. accelerating and pre-accelerating electrodes to provide high velocity to
electrons, which, on striking the screen, may cause secondary emissions.
The deflection assembly comprises a set of vertical and horizontal plates
separated at a distance. The CRT has a fluorescent material such as ZnS. In a
CRO, the electron beam emanating from the electron gun undergoes
deflection before striking the screen.
Since electrons are charged particles, deflection of electron beam can be
effected either electrostatically or magnetically. In most of the oscilloscopes,
the deflection of the beam is generally caused electrostatically. You may note
that the potential applied across the plates D1 and D2 would deflect the beam
vertically, whereas a potential applied to plates D3 and D4 would deflect the
beam horizontally. Further, the magnitude of the deflection is proportional to
the voltage applied across these plates. In a CRT, with display screen of about
10 cm, under ordinary conditions, a deflection of about 2.5 cm could be
obtained for a potential of about 100V. Since the signals are well below 100V
in a real situation, we need to amplify signals. Therefore, deflection amplifiers
are provided for each pair of deflection plates.
You may now like to understand how waveform is displayed in an oscilloscope.
For a dcvoltage applied to plates D3 and D4 (horizontal deflection plates), the
spot on CRO screen will move either to the left or to the right, depending on
whether D3 is at a lower or higher potential than D4. In order to generate a
straight line on CRO display screen, a linearly increasing voltage with time
(called ramp waveform) is applied between D3 and D4. This shifts the spot
from extreme left to extreme right of the screen. If the voltage is brought to
zero and again applied, the motion of electron beam (spot on the screen) may
be repeated from left to right. Such a waveform is called a saw-tooth
waveform, as shown in Fig. 11.3. If this process is repeated at a faster rate, you
will see a straight line formed by the moving spot due to persistence of vision.
When a dc-voltage is applied to plates D1 and D2 (vertical deflection plates),
you may see the spot moving up or down on the screen depending on the
potential of D1 relative to D2. If we apply a time varying waveform like
sinusoidal, square, triangular etc. across the vertical deflection plates, it will
also appear as a spot moving up and down on the screen. However, application
of a saw-tooth waveform to the horizontal deflection plates gives rise to
display along the time axis. Let us now understand how display evolves on time
scale.
The time period of a saw-tooth wave of frequency 50 Hz, applied to the
horizontal deflection plate (Fig. 11.3) is 20 ms. Suppose that it traces a line of
length AB = 10 cm on CRO screen, as shown in Fig. 11.4. Then at t = 0, the spot
will be located at the point A. After 10 ms, it will be at the point C as the saw-
tooth voltage increases to half of its peak value. After 15 ms, the spot will
reach the point D such that AD is three fourth of the line AB. In this way, you
can calibrate line AB in time, i.e., half of it to 10 ms; quarter of it to 5 ms and so
on.
Consider that a sinusoidal signal of frequency 50 Hz shown in Fig. 11.5a is
applied to vertical deflection plates. At the same time we apply a saw-tooth
voltage of the same frequency across the horizontal deflection plates (Fig.
11.5c). The trace obtained on the CRO screen is shown in (Fig.11.5b). Note that
at A1, the sinusoidal wave has zero voltage and so there will be no deflection in
the vertical direction. The horizontal input corresponds to the lowest voltage
at A1and thus the spot moves to the extreme left point A on the screen. After
5 ms, the vertical input will correspond to A2. This will move the spot upward.
Since at the same time the horizontal input is less negative at A2, the spot
moves rightwards as well. This results in the position B of the spot on the CRO
screen. After 10 ms, the vertical and the horizontal inputs will correspond to
points A3 and A3, respectively; the voltage will be zero. This leads the spot to
move to point C on the screen. Continuing the same way, we finally obtain the
points A, B, C, D and E on the CRO screen corresponding to points A1, A2, A3
A4 and A5 on the vertical input and A1’, A2, A3, A4and A5on the horizontal
input.
Consider that a sinusoidal signal of frequency 50 Hz shown in Fig. 11.5a is
applied to vertical deflection plates. At the same time we apply a saw-tooth
voltage of the same frequency across the horizontal deflection plates (Fig.
11.5c). The trace obtained on the CRO screen is shown in (Fig.11.5b). Note that
at A1, the sinusoidal wave has zero voltage and so there will be no deflection in
the vertical direction. The horizontal input corresponds to the lowest voltage
at A1and thus the spot moves to the extreme left point A on the screen. After
5 ms, the vertical input will correspond to A2. This will move the spot upward.
Since at the same time the horizontal input is less negative at A2, the spot
moves rightwards as well. This results in the position B of the spot on the CRO
screen. After 10 ms, the vertical and the horizontal inputs will correspond to
points A3 and A3, respectively; the voltage will be zero. This leads the spot to
move to point C on the screen. Continuing the same way, we finally obtain the
points A, B, C, D and E on the CRO screen corresponding to points A1, A2, A3
A4 and A5 on the vertical input and A1’, A2, A3, A4and A5on the horizontal
input.

From the above discussion, you can conclude that for an oscilloscope to display
the variation of an electrical signal in the vertical direction as a function of
time, a voltage varying linearly with time such as a saw-tooth wave will have to
be applied on the horizontal deflection plates. Anoscillator which generates
such a voltage is called a sawtooth oscillator or asweep generator. The block
diagram of a general purpose oscilloscope withits vital components/features is
shown in Fig.11.6.
VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT To measure ac-voltage, connect it to the
channel-I input, keeping the DC/AC/GND switch in the AC mode. On the screen
you will observe the waveform corresponding to the input signal. Now you
measure the vertical distance between the maximum and minimum levels of
the signal using the graduated scale on the screen, as shown in Fig. 11.8. If you
multiply this distance (in cm) by the sensitivity you have selected (V/cm), you
will get the magnitude of peak-to-peak voltage of the applied ac-voltage (Vp-
p). You can calculate the root mean square (rms) value of the voltage by
dividing Vp-p by √2.

We now discuss how CRO can be used to measure frequency of an input signal
from an oscillator or a function generator. In other words, we can use the
oscilloscope to make fine adjustments on the frequency set by the dials/knob
of the oscillator/ function generator.

FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT For this part of the experiment, you need a

general purpose function generator, which can generate sinusoidal, triangular
and square waveforms with adjustable frequency and amplitude. connect the
OUTPUT terminal of the function generator to the Y-input of the CRO. Select
the time base on CRO at 0.5 ms/cm. Select the frequency of input signal to be
1 kHz and limit its amplitude to about 4V. Since the time period of the applied
signal is 1/1000 = 1ms, one complete wave of the signal should appear in
exactly two horizontal divisions. If it does not, you may fine tune by adjusting
the frequency controls of the generator till the desired result is achieved. At
this point, you have set the output frequency of the function generator to 1000
Hz. To measure an unknown frequency, you have to essentially measure the
period of the signal on the CRO screen. The period of the signal is the length of
one cycle of signal on time (horizontal) axis in cm multiplied by the (time/div)
setting. The frequency is given by the inverse of period. If the vertical gain
control of the CRO is set at a deflection sensitivity of 2 V/cm, the acsignal will
be confined within a vertical length of 2 cm. Then we can write height of the
trace (cm) = Vp-p /vertical sensitivity. This is shown in Fig. 11.10.
PROCEDURE:
1. MEASUREMENT OF PHASE DIFFERENCE When two sinusoidal voltages of
equal frequency which are in phase with each other are applied to the
horizontal and vertical deflecting plates, the pattern appearing on the
screen is a straight line as is clear from Figure.

Thus when two equal voltages of equal frequency but with 90° phase
displacement are applied to a CRO, the trace on the screen is- (draw with
proper projection ) (shape of trace)

2. MEASUREMENT OF FRIQUENCY DIFFERENCE It is interesting to

consider the characteristics of patterns that appear on the screen of a CRO
when sinusoidal voltages are simultaneously applied to the horizontal and
vertical plates. These patterns are called Lissajous patterns. Lissajous
patterns may be used for accurate measurement of frequency. The signal,
whose frequency is to be measured, is applied to the Y-plates. An
accurately calibrated standard variable frequency source is used to supply
voltage to the X-plates, with the internal sweep generator switched off.
The standard frequency is adjusted until the pattern appears as a circle or
an ellipse, indicating that both signals are of the same frequency. Where it
is not possible to adjust the standard signal frequency to the exact
frequency of the unknown signal, the standard is adjusted to a multiple or
submultiple of the frequency of the unknown source so that the pattern
appears stationary. Two signal generators was used, consider the first
generator as the standard frequency source where as frequency from the
second function generator is consider as unknown. Set the frequency of
generator one to 1 kHz, vary the frequency of second function generator
until a stable Lissajous pattern is displayed to the screen of CRO. Trace the
 pattern, record the number of horizontal and vertical tangents and
frequency of second function generator. Repeat the procedure for
different known and unknown frequencies it will give different Lissajous
pattern. In figure 16. There are some examples of lissajous pattern of the
signals on y and x channels with zero phase shift.

The ratio of the frequencies is given by: Fy/Fx = No. of Horizontal tangents /
No. of vertical Tangents

OBSERVATION: (Draw the patterns for the different phase shift and
frequencies.)
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2

Objective: Measurement of Self-Inductance by Maxwell's Bridge.

Theory: In this bridge, an inductance is measured by comparison with a
standard variable capacitance. The connection is shown in Figure 1.

[Fig 1: Circuit diagram for Maxwell's Bridge]

Here,

L = Unknown Inductance,

R4 = Effective resistance of unknown Inductance coil,

R1, R2, R3 = Known non inductive resistance,

C1 = Standard variable capacitor.

The balance equation for the branch can be written as:

(R4+jωL)∗(R1/1+jωC1R1) = R2R3;

R1R4+jωLR1 = R2R3+jωR2R3C1R1;
Equating the real and imaginary parts,

R4=R2R3/R1......(1)

L=R2R3C1......(2)

Two variables R1 and C1 which appear in one of the two balance equations (i.e.
equation (1) and (2)) and hence the two equations are independent. The
expression for Q factor can be written as:

Q=ωL/R4=ωC1R1

PHASOR DIAGRAM:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect all the components and the air coiled as shown in the figure.
2. Set the product of R2R3R2R3 at a convenient value and obtain the
balance by varying R1R1 and C1C1.
3. Decide the ranges for R1R1 and C1C1 through which they can varied
without bringing database at noise C.R.O.
4. Repeat the procedure with different values of the
product R2R3R2R3 and decide upon readings that permit maximum
accuracy for the measurement.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.NO. R1(ohm) R2(ohm) R3(ohm) C1(nf) Lx(H) R(ohm)
1 385953 1110000 1 4.1 0.045 28.75997
 EXPERIMENT NO. 3

OBJECTIVE: To determine the self inductance of a high quality factor of

unknown coil.

THEORY: The Hay's bridge is a modification of Maxwell's bridge. The

connection diagram is shown in figure 1. This bridge uses a resistance in series
with the standard capacitor (unlike the Maxwell bridge which uses a
resistance in parallel with capacitor).

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Let,

L1= Unknown inductance having resistance R1.

R2, R3, R4= known non inductive resistance.

C4 = Standard capacitor.

At Balance,

(R1+j⋅ω⋅L1)⋅(R4−j/ω⋅C4)=R2⋅R3
 R1⋅R4+L1/C4+j⋅ω⋅L1⋅R4−j⋅R1/ω⋅C4 = R2⋅R3

separating the real and imaginary terms, we get

R1R4+L1/C4 = R2R3.........(1)

j⋅ω⋅L1R4−jR1/ωC4 = 0......(2)

Solving the above two equations(1) and (2), we have,

L1 = R2R3C4/1+ω2C24R24

R1 = ω2C24R4R2R3/1+ω2C24R24

The Quality factor of the coil

Q = ωL1/R1=1/ωC4R4

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect all the components and the air cored coil as shown in circuit
diagram.
2. Set the voltage at a convenient value (say, V=3V) . Set the resistances
R2, and R3 at a convenient value and obtain the balance by varying R4
and C4.
3. Decide the ranges for R4 and C4 through which they can varied until
milivoltmeter (mV) value would be zero.
4. Repeat the procedure with different values of the product R2R3 and
decide upon readings that permit maximum accuracy for the
measurement.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.No. R2(ohm) R3(ohm) R4(ohm) C4(F) L1(H) R(ohm) Q
1 94409 1 70222 3.34e-8 0.000057 1.02 0.17916
 EXPERIMENT NO. 4

OBJECTIVE: To determine the self-inductance of an unknown coil.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY: This bridge may be used for measurement of an inductance in terms

of capacitance. Fig. 1. shows the connections for this bridge, under balance
conditions.

Let,

L1= Unknown self Inductance of resistance R1,

R2= Variable non-inductive resistance,

R3= Fixed non-inductive resistance,

C2= Variable standard capacitor,

C4= Fixed standard capacitor.

At balance condition,

(R1+jωL1)*(1/jωC4) = (R2+1/jωC2)*R3........(1)
Equating both the real and imaginary parts in eq.(1) and seperating them,

L1=R2R3C4........(2)

R1=R3⋅C4/C2........(3)

The balance may be obtained by variation of resistance R2 and capacitor C2.

PROCEDURE:

1. Apply supply voltage from the signal generator with arbitary

frequency (V=3v). Also set the unknown inductance value from
“Set Inductor Value” tab.
2. Then switch on the supply to get millivoltmeter deflection.
3. Choose the values of R2, R3, C2 and C4 from the resistance
and capacitance box. Varry the values of R2 and C2 by fixing the
values of R3 and C4 to some particular values to achieve Null.
4. Observe the millivoltmeter pointer to achieve "NULL".
5. If "NULL" is achieved, switch to 'Measure Inductor value' tab
and click on 'Simulate'. Observe the calculated values of
unknown inductance (L1) and unknown internal resistance (R1)
of the inductor.
6. Also observe the Dissipation factor of the unknwown inductor
which is defined as ωL/R. Where, ω=2πf.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.No. R2(ohm) C2(F) C4(F) R3(ohm) L1(H) R1(ohm)

1 1 3.0345e 1e-10
-9
1 1 0.0329539
 .EXPERIMENT NO. 5

OBJECTIVE: To Determine the Capacitance of an unknown Capacitor.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Let,

`C_1`=capacitor whose capacitance is to be measured.

`r_1`= a series resistance representing the loss in the capacitor `C_1`.

`C_2`= a standard capacitor.

`R_3`= a non inductive resistance.

`C_4`= a variable capacitor.

`R_4`= a variable non inductive resistance.

At balance,

`(r_1+1/(jomegaC_1)) * (R_4 / (jomegaC_4R_4+1)) = R_3/(jomegaC_2)......(1)`

`r_1R_4-(jR_4)/(omegaC_1) = -(jR_3)/(omegaC_2) + (R_3R_4C_4)/C_2......(2)`

Or Equating the real and imaginary terms in equa. (2), we obtain

`r_1 = R_3*C_4/C_2......(3)`

`C_1 = R_4*C_2/R_3......(4)`

And, Two independent balance equations (3) and (4) are obatined if `C_4` and
`R_4` are chosen as the variable elements.

Dissipation factor

`D_1 = omegaC_1r_1......(5)`

PROCEDURE:
1. Apply Supply voltage from the signal generator with arbitrary frequency.
( V =3v). Also set the unknown Capacitance value from 'Set Capacitor
Value' tab.
2. Then switch on the supply to get millivoltmeter deflection.
3. Choose the values of C2, C4, R3 and R4 from the capacitance and
resistance box. Varry the values to some particular values to achieve
"NULL".
4. Observe the millivoltmeter pointer to achieve "NULL".
5. If "NULL" is achieved, switch to 'Measure Capacitor Value' tab and click
on 'Simulate'. Observe the calculated values of unknown capacitance
(C1) and it's internal resistance (r1).
6. Also observe the Dissipation factor of the unknwown capacitor which is
defined as `omega*C*r`. Where, `omega=2pif`.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.No. R3(ohm) C4(F) R4(ohm) C2(F) C1(uF) R1(ohm)

-7
1 1 0.00001111 1 9.96e 0.99640 11.151
 EXPERIMENT NO. 6

OBJECTIVE: To determine the self-inductance of an unknown coil.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
Let, `L_1`=Self inductance is to be measured.

`R_1`= Resistance of self inductor.

`r_1`= Resistance connected in series with self inductor.

`r,R_2,R_3,R_4`= Known non inductive resistances.

`C`= Fixed standard capacitor.

At balance,

`I_1= I_3 and I_2=I_C+I_4`

now,

`I_1R_3 =I_C/(jomegaC)` then `I_C=I_1jomegaCR_3...(1)`

Writing the other balance equations,

`I_1(r_1+R_1+jomegaL_1) = I_2R_2+rI_C...(2)`

`I_C(r+1/(jomegaC)) = (I_2-I_C)R_4`

Substituting the value of `I_C` in equation (2) , we get

`I_1(r_1+R_1+jomegaL_1) = I_2R_2+I_1jomegaCrR_3`

or,

`I_1(r_1+R_1+jomegaL_1-jomegaCrR_3) = I_2R_2...(3)`

and

`jomegaCR_3I_1(r+1/(jomegaC)) = (I_2-I_1jomegaCR_3)R_4`

or,

`I_1(jomegaCrR_3+jomegaCR_3R_4) = I_2R_4...(4)`

From equations (3) and (4) , we get by equating real and imaginary parts,

`R_1 = (R_2R_3)/R_4-r_1...(5)`

`L_1 = C(R_3/R_4)[r(R_4+R_2)+R_2R_4]...(6)`

An examination of balance equation reveals that to obtain easy convergence of

balance , alternate adjustments of `r_1` and `r` should be done as they appear
in only equ. (1) and (2).

PROCEDURE:
1. Apply Supply voltage (3V) from the signal generator with arbitrary
frequency. ( say 50Hz). Also Set the value of the unknown air cored coil
from 'Set Inductor Value' tab.
2. Then switch on the supply to get millivoltmeter deflection.
3. Choose the values of r1, R2, R3, R4, r, and C from the resistance and
capacitance box. Vary the values to some particular values to achieve
"Null".
4. Observe the millivoltmeter pointer to achieve "NULL".
 5. If "Null" is achieved, switch to 'Measure Inductor Value' tab and click on
'Simulate'. Observe calculated values of unknown Inductor (L1) and it's
Internal Resistance (R1).
6. Also observe the Dissipation factor of the unknwown capacitor which is
defined as `(omegaL)/r`. Where, `omega=2pif`.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.No. r1(ohm) R2(ohm) R3(ohm) R4(ohm) C(F) r(ohm) L1(mH)

1 1 1 1 1 1e- 111111110 2.2222
10
 EXPERIMENT NO. 7

OBJECTIVE: Measurement of Capacitance by De Sauty's Modified Bridge

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
`C_1`= A standard capacitor.

`C_2`= A capacitor whose capacitance has to be measured.

`r_1`,`r_2`= Representing losses of their corresponding capacitors.

`R_4`,`R_3`= Non-inductive resistances.

`R_1`,`R_2`= They are connected in series with `C_1` and `C_2` respectively.

At balance condition,

`(R_1 + r_1 + 1/ (jomegaC_1))*R_4 = (R_2 + r_2 + 1/ (jomegaC_2))*R_3`

`(r_1 + R_1)*R_4 + R_4/(jomegaC_1) = (r_2 + R_2)*R_3 + R_3/(jomegaC_2)`

Equating both the real and imaginary parts and separate them,

`R_4/R_3 = (R_2 + r_2)/(R_1 +r_1)`

`C_2 = (R_3/R_4)*C_1`
`C_2 = ((R_1 + r_1)/(R_2 + r_2))*C_1`

`C_2 /C_1 = (R_1 + r_1)/(R_2 + r_2) = R_3 /R_4` ... eq.(1)

The balance may be obtained by variation of resistances `R_1`, `R_2`, `R_3` and
`R_4`.

PHASOR DIAGRAM:

The angles `delta_1` and `delta_2` are the phase angles of `C_1` and `C_2`
respectively. The dissipation factors for corresponding capacitors are

`D_1 =tan(delta_1) =omegaC_1r_1` and `D_2 =tan(delta_2) =omegaC_2r_2`

From the eq.(1),

`C_2 /C_1 = (R_1 + r_1)/(R_2 + r_2)`

`C_2R_2 + C_2r_2 = C_1R_1 + C_1r_1`

Multiplying both sides by `omega`,

`omegaC_2R_2+ omegaC_2r_2 = omegaC_1R_1 + omegaC_1r_1`

`D_2 - D_1 = omega*C_2*(R_1*R_4/R_3 - R_2)`

Therefore, if the dissipation factor of one of the capacitors is known, the

dissipation factor for the other can be determined .
PROCEDURE:
1) Set the voltage (V=3V) and Frequency (50Hz). Also set the unknown
capacitance value from 'Set Capacitor Value' tab

2) Then switch on the supply to get millivoltmeter deflection.

3) Choose the values of R1, R2, R3 R4 and C1 from the resistance and
capacitance box through which they can varied wihout bringing database at
noise milivoltmeter.

4) Observe the milivoltmeter pointer to achieve "NULL".

5) If "NULL" is achieved, switch to 'Measure Capacitor Value' tab and click on

'Simulate'. Observe calculated values of unknown capacitance (C2) and
unknown internal resistance (r2) of the capacitor.

6) Also observe the Dissipation factor of the unknwown capacitor which is

defined as `omega*C*r`. Where, `omega=2*pi*f`.

OBSEVATION TABLE:

S.No. R1(ohm) R2(ohm) R3(ohm) R4(ohm) C1(F) Cm(uF) Ct(uF)

1 747974 1 1 1 1e-10 0.0001 0.000
5 1
 EXPERIMENT NO. 8

OBJECTIVE: Three phase power measurement by two wattmeter method.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
The connection diagram for the measurement of power in three phase power
measurement circuit using two wattmeter's method is shown in figure 1. This
is irrespective of the circuit connection star or delta. The circuit may be taken
as balanced or unbalanced one, balanced type being only a special case. Please
not the connection of two wattmeter's. The current coil of the wattmeter's 1
and 2 in series with R and B phase with the pressure voltage coils being
connected across R-Y and B-Y respectively. Y is the third phase in which no
current coil is connected.

If star connected circuit is taken as an example the total instantaneous power

consumed in the circuit is,

`W= I_(RN)*V(RN) + I_(YN)*V(YN) + I_(BN)*V_(BN)` . . . (1)

Each of the terms in the above expression equation (1) is the instantaneous
power consumed by the phases. From the connection diagram, the circuit in
and the voltages across the respective (current, pressure or voltage) coils in
the wattmeter, W1 are `I_(RN)` and ` V_(RY) = V_(RN) - V_(YN)`.

So, the instantaneous power measured by the wattmeter W1 is `W_1 =

I_(RN)*V_(RY)`.

Similarly the instantaneous power measured by the wattmeter W2 is . `W_2 =

I_(BN)V_(BY) = I_(BN) (V_(BN) - V_(YN))`

Some of the two readings as given above is,

Equation (1) is compared with equation (3) to give the total instantaneous
power consumed in the circuit . They are found to be same. The phasor
diagram of three phase balanced star connected circuit is shown in figure 2.

[Fig 2: Phasor diagram of three phase balanced star connected circuit]

PROCEDURE:
BALANCED LOAD

Fig. 1. Three phase power measurement circuit under balance condition

1.Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 1.

2.Adjust the ganged rheostat for the maximum resistance.

3.Switch on the supply.

4.Close switch `S_1`.

5.Read the meters to obtain `V_L, I_1, I_2` and `I_3`. Note the wattmeter
reading `W_1` and `W_2`(Note the multiplying factor on the wattmeter).

6.Vary the load resistance and obtain at least five sets of observations, the
current should not exceed the limit (4.1 A).
UNBALANCED LOAD

Fig. 2. Three phase power measurement circuit under unbalance condition

1.Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 2.

2.Replace the ganged rheostat by three separate rheostats of 26 Ω, 4.1 A and

connect in a star.

3.Adjust the three rheostats at the maximum values.

4.Switch on the supply and set the autotransformer to 110 V.

5.Close switch S1 and take five sets of observation for different rheostat
settings such that the reading of `I_1`, `I_2`and `I_3` in each set is appreciably
different to create unbalanced loading condition. The current should not
exceed the limits in each arm.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
BALANCED LOAD:
UNBALANCED LOAD:
 EXPERIMENT NO. 9

OBJECTIVE: To determine accurate Quality Factor of an unknown coil.

THEORY:
The determination of the storage factor Q is one of the most widely used
means in the laboratory for testing radio frequency coils, inductors and
capacitors. The storage factor is equal to `Q=(omega_0 L)/R` where `omega_0`
is the resonant frequency, L is the inductance and R is the effective resistance
of the a coil. The effective resistance R, is never determined directly since its
value depends upon the value of frequency.

PRINCIPLE OF WORKING

The principle of working of this useful laboratory instrument is based upon the
well-known characteristics of a resonant series R-L-C circuit.

At resonant frequency `f_0`, we have `X_C = X_L` where capacitive reactance

`X_C = 1/(2 pi f_0 C)`, inductive reactance `X_L = 2 pi f_0 L`, resonant frequency
`f_0 = 1/(2 pi sqrt(LC))` and current at resonance `I_0 = E/R`.

The voltage across the capacitor `E_C=I_0*X_C=I_0*X_L=I_0*omega_0L` and

input voltage `E=I_0*R`

then `E_C/E=(omega_0L)/R=Q` and `E_C=QE`.

If the input voltage is kept constant the voltage across capacitor is Q times E
and a voltmeter connected across the capacitor can be calibrated to read the
value of Q directly.

Practical Circuit:

The practical circuit is shown in Figure 1. It consists of self contained variable

frequency RF oscillator. This oscillator delivers current to a low value shunt
resistance `R_(sh)`: value may be 0.02 Ohm. The small value of input voltage E
is injected into circuit that would be measured by thermocouple voltmeter. An
electronic voltmeter is connected across this capacitor. The coil under test is
connected to terminals T1 and T2.

Measurement of Q:

The circuit for measurement of Q shown in Figure 1. The oscillator is set to the
desired frequency and then the tuning capacitor is adjusted for maximum
value `E_0`. The input voltage E is kept constant then the voltage across
capacitor is calibrated to read the value of Q directly. The measured value of Q
is defined whole circuit not of the coil. There are errors caused due to shunt
resistance and distributed capacitance of the circuit.

Correction of Shunt Resistance:

`Q_(meas)=(omega_0L)/(R+R_(sh))...............(1)`

True value, `Q_(true)=(omega_0L)/R=Q_(meas)(1+R_(sh)/R)`

Correction of Distributed Capacitance:

`Q_(true)=Q_(meas)(1+C_d/C)......(2)`

Where, `C_d`=distributed capacitance and C=tuning capacitance.

Measurement of Self Capacitance:

The value of Inductance is given by

`L=1/(4pi^2f_0^2C).................(3)`

The values of `f_0` and C are known and therefore the value of inductance may
be calculated.
Measurement of Effective Resistance:

The value of effective resistance may be computed from the relation

`R=(omega_0L)/Q_(true)......(4)`

Measurement of Self Capacitance:

The self capacitance is measured by making two measurements at different

frequencies. The capacitor is set to a high value and the circuit is resonated by
adjustment of the oscillator frequency. Resonance is indicated by the circuit Q
meter. Let the values of tuning capacitor be C1 and that of frequency be f1
under these condition. Therefore,

`f_1=1/(2pisqrt(L(C_1+C_d)))...............(5)`

The frequency is now increased to twice its initial value and the circuit is
resonated again this time with the help of the tuning capacitor. Let the values
of tuning capacitor be C2 and that of frequency be f2 under these condition.
Therefore,

`f_2=1/(2pisqrt(L(C_2+C_d)))...............(6)`

Now, `f_2=2*f_1`

The distributed capacitance, `C_d=(C_1-4C_2)/3..............................(7)`

PROCEDURE:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
1.Set the Shunt Resistance (Rsh) value as small as possible (Say 0.02 Ohm). Set
all the parameters (R, L, C) by yourself.

2.Set the voltage value of the oscillator (E=10 V).

3.At f=100 Hz. Check the value of voltage drop across capacitor. (EC).

4.Change the frequency until EC reach at the maximum value. Then calculate
the value Q measured using this formula `Q_(meas)=(omega_0L)/(R+R_(sh))`.

5.Calculate the true value of unknown coil by using this formula

`Q_(true)=(omega_0L)/R`

6.First resonance occurs due to frequency (say f1). Note down the value of
tuning capacitor C. (say C1). Double the input frequency (f1) (say f2=2*f1).
Change the tuning capacitor value until resonance occurs. Note down the value
of tuning capacitor C. (say C2). Discharge capacitance (Cd) would be =(C1-
4*C2)/3.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.No. Vc(volt) Vsh Qm Qt Cd(F)

1. 0.00033 10 3.31434 3.31501 2e-11
 EXPERIMENT NO. 10

AIM: To understand working principle of LVDT

THEORY:
LVDT is linear Variable Differential Transformer. It is electromechanical
transducer. It converts the rectilinear displacement of any object to which it is
coupled mechanically in electrical signal proportional to it.

Construction:

LVDT is made of two main components: the movable armature and the outer
transformer windings.

LVDT consists of 3 windings. Centre one is Primary winding while the other two
are secondary windings. The secondary's are identical and placed symmetrical
about the primary. The secondary coils are connected in series-opposition.

Moving element of LVDT is called core. It is a cylindrical armature made of

ferromagnetic material. It is free to move along the axis of the tube. At one
end, the core is coupled to an object whose displacement is to be measured,
while the other end moves freely inside the coil's hollow bore.

Working:

An alternating current is connected to the primary. This current must be of

appropriate amplitude and frequency.

It is also called as Primary Excitation. The frequency is usually in the range 1 to

10 kHz. This current causes a voltage to be induced in each secondary
proportional to its mutual inductance with the primary. While the frequency of
induced voltage is same as that of excitation frequency, its amplitude varies
with the position of the iron core.

As the core moves, the voltages induced in the secondary's changes due to
change in mutual inductance.
The coils are connected in series but in opposite phase , so that the output
voltage is the difference between the two secondary voltages. When the core
is exactly at central position, i.e at equal distance from the two secondary's,
equal but opposite voltages are induced in these two coils, so the output
voltage is zero.

When the core is displaced in one direction, the voltage in one coil increases
with respect to the other, causing the output voltage to increase from zero to a
maximum value. This voltage is in phase with the primary voltage.

When the core moves in the other direction, the output voltage also increases
from zero to a maximum value, but the phase is opposite to that of the
primary. The magnitude of the output voltage is proportional to the distance
moved by the core. The phase of the voltage indicates the direction of the
displacement.

Case 1:

When no displacement is applied to the core and the core remains in the null
position without any movement then the voltage induced in both the
secondary windings is equal which results in net output is equal to zero

i.e., E s1 - E s2 = 0

Case 2:

When displacement is applied in such a way that the core moves in the left
direction then the voltage induced in that (left) secondary coil is greater as
compared to the emf induced in the other secondary coil. Therefore the net
output is E s1-E s2

Case 3:

When force is applied to core such that it moves in the right hand side
direction then the emf induced in the secondary coil 2 is greater compared to
the emf voltage induced in the secondary coil 1,therefore the net output
voltage is E s2- E s1.

As seen, the voltage undergoes 180 degrees phase shift while going through
null. The output E is out of phase with the excitation.

Usually this AC output voltage is converted by suitable electronic circuitry to

high level DC voltage or current that is more convenient to use.

Residual Voltage: Output voltage at the null position is ideally zero. But
because of harmonics in the excitation voltage and stray capacitance coupling
between primary and secondary a non zero voltage exists at null position.
This is called residual voltage. If it is less than 1 % of full scale output voltage (
which is the normal case) it is in the acceptable limits.

Eddy Currents: When alternating current is passed through the coil, a magnetic
field is generated in and around the coil. When a rod is brought in close
proximity to a conductive material, the rod's changing magnetic field generates
current flow in the material. These are called as eddy currents.

The eddy currents produce their own magnetic fields that interact with the
primary magnetic field of the coil.

As the eddy current flows through conducting core, it creates heat. This causes
power loss in the core. To reduce the eddy current losses, the core is provided
with a slot. This slot cut the magnetic field created hence reducing the flux.
Laminated core is also used for the same purpose.

Types of LVDT based on applications:

1. General Purpose LVDT: for use in many industrial and research
applications.

2. Precision LVDT: for sensitive gauging and quality control applications

3. Submersible LVDT: Hermetically sealed for use in industrial and research

environments involving corrosive fluids and gases, high temperature and
vibrations, etc.

Types of LVDT based on range of operation:

1. Short stroked: full-scale linear ranges from ±0.01 inch (±0.25 mm) to ±0.5
inch (±12.7 mm)

2. Long stroked: full-scale linear ranges from ±0.5 inch (±12.7 mm) to ±18.5
inch (±470 mm)

Types of LVDT based on excitation used

1. AC LVDT: AC LVDTs are excited by a AC voltage having frequency between

50 hertz and 25 Kilohertz with 2.5 Kilohertz as a nominal value. The carrier
frequency is generally selected to be at least 10 times greater than the highest
expected frequency of the core motion. AC-operated LVDT's are generally
smaller in size and more accurate than DC versions. They are able to tolerate
the extreme variations in operating temperature than the DC LVDT.

Modern circuits often supply phase detection circuits along with the LVDT. A
phase sensitive detector circuit (PSD) is useful to make the measurement
direction sensitive. It is connected at the output of the LVDT and compares the
phase of the secondary output with the primary signal to judge the direction of
movement. The output of the phase sensitive detector after passing through
low pass filter is in the dc voltage form used for steady deflection.
2. DC LVDT: The DC LVDT is provided with onboard oscillator, carrier amplifier,
and demodulator circuitry.

The major advantages of DC-operated ("DC-to-DC") LVDT's are ease of

installation and signal conditioning, the ability to operate from dry cell
batteries in remote locations, and lower system cost (especially in multipoint
applications). The DC LVDT is temperature limited operating from typically - 40
deg C to +120degC

Types of LVDT based on armature:

1. Unguided Armature: This is simplest configuration in which armature fits

loosely in the cavity of the coils bore. This requires proper installation to
ensure proper movement along the axis. This allows frictionless movement
with no wear. This type have unlimited fatigue life, good repeatability with
infinite resolution.

Free armature is mainly suitable for short range, high speed applications.

2. Guided (Captive) Armature: In this type, armature is restrained and guided

by low friction bearing assembly.These are suitable for long working ranges. To
avoid possibility of misalignment the armature is guided.

3. Spring Extended Armature – This armature is similar to guided armature

LVDT with an addition that ,it has internal spring to push the armature
continuously to its fullest possible extension. This maintains light and reliable
contact with the measured object.

Most suitable for static or slow moving applications.

Applications:

LVDTs are commonly used for

-position feedback in servomechanisms

-automated measurement in machine tools and many other industrial and
scientific applications.

-measurement of displacement ranging from fraction of mm to cm

-Acting as a secondary transducer, it can be used for force, weight and

pressure measurement.

PROCEDURE:
1.First you need to configure the LVDT. Click on ' Show panel' tab at the right
bottom For making the circuit, drag and drop the primary coil, Armature and
secondary coils at the loactions shown on left hand side.

2.Now select No of Turns, peak to peak supply volatge and frequency from the
drag and drop menu, available below LVDT diagram. Click on configure block to
configure LVDT.

3.Now click on the black rectangular core placed between primary and
secondary windings.

4.Drag the core to left hand side and observe the effect on the output
magnitude. This can be observed on the time vs output volatge waveform and
on the Distance vs output voltage graph. The core displacement is indicated in
the square box below the diagram

5.Drag the core to right hand side and observe the effect on the output
magnitude. Also observe the change in the phase.

6.Repeat steps 2 to 4 by changing supply volatge keeping frequency and no of

turns constant. Study the effect on the output voltage. For this click on blue
color 'Configure' tab in the right side panel. You need to select required
parameter value from drop down menu. After selecting the values click on
green ' Configure' tab to set the parameter values.

7.Repeat steps 2 to 4 by changing supply frequency keeping and no of turns

constant. Study the effect on the output voltage.
8.Now keep supply voltage and frequency constant. Change the no of turns
and observe the effect on the output voltage by repeating steps 2 to 4

OBSERVATION TABLE:

No. of turns-1000

Supply voltage-7v

Supply frequency-1000Hz