Course

October 2022

Introduction to
Sandcasting Mould Design
for Steel Alloys
Nawaz Mahomed
Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering

Photo by Stefan Els

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What is Sandcasting

• Sand casting is a process that uses a pattern made from either metal, wood, wax or some bonded
materials (either produced in a mould or from 3D printing) that will be used to form the cavity for
the molten metal.
• This cavity is then filled with a molten metal that is left to cool and solidify.
• Once the metal has solidified, the mould can be hit with a hammer or any hard object to loosen the
sand mould and expose the metal object.

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Sandcasting Mould

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Sandcasting – the Mould Material

• Most commonly silica sand (SiO₂) is mixed with a binder to create rigid structure.
• Advantages to using sand:
– Inexpensive
– Reclamation (can be reused in other uses, such as bricks)
– Resistant to high temperatures. Fusion/melting point of 1760°.
• Different preparations for the sand yields different surface properties of castings (fine sand versus
coarse sand, different types of binders).

Surface roughness
Nucleation during
solidification – effect
on microstructure
Reactive layer on cast
surfaces
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Sandcasting - the Melting the Metal

• TA furnace is required to produce molten metal.

• Metals used in sand casting include FERROUS METALS (gray cast iron, malleable and ductile iron,
cast steel) and NON-FERROUS METALS (aluminum, brass, bronze, etc.).

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Sandcasting – the Pattern

• For sandcasting, we first start with a pattern (an image of the cavity – PART + CORES + FEEDER
SYSTEM). Patterns are typically made from wood, plaster, plastics, various metals, and, for lost
foam castings, from polystyrene foam.
• Patterns must be slightly larger than the finished product to account for shrinkage during solid
thermal contraction of the metal (from solid at solidus temperature to room temperature).

Or Better

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Design Guidelines – Pattern Design

Draft angles:
• Sand: 1½° to 2°, investment (ceramic shell mould) casting ½°

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Sand Casting – Pattern Design

• Think about the PART plus the CORES.

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Sand Casting – Core Design

• For creation of cavities in parts

• Cores are produced through either blowing, ramming
or investing sand into a core box
• Sand Mould Machining – latest technology.

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Design Guidelines – Core Design

Cores:
• Minimise number
• Allow for gas escape; allow for cleaning.

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Design Guidelines – Parting Line

Parting line:
• The parting line is line or plane separating the upper (cope) and lower (drag)
halves of mould. In general, the parting line should be along a flat plane rather
than be contoured.

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Sand Casting: Pattern
Pattern = Part + Core + Feeding System

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Example: Solid Fraction Evolution in
Sandcasting
FLOW TRACE SOLID FRACTION

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Design Guidelines –
Filling System
• Minimise turbulence to avoid trapping gasses and breaking off pieces of the sand
mould.

Further
improvement

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Design Guidelines –
Filling System
• Avoid sharp corners. These cause turbulence and
can break off and wash into the mould.
• Bottom-up gating system.
• Thick areas of the casting that cannot be fed
from the main runner should have a riser to feed
them.
• Fill the mould before the metal starts to solidify
(continuous movement).

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Design Guidelines –
Filling System

Improved
Design

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Design Guidelines –
Filling System

Poor system gated at joint Recommended economical and

effective system

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Design Guidelines –
Filling System
• Correctly size sprue to avoid turbulence – taper to match the falling stream.

Improved
Design

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Design Guidelines –
Filling System
• External runner system arranged around
the part.
• Maximum entrance velocity: 0.5 m/s.
Calculate sprue exit area and gate area –
avoid expansion flow to reduce velocity –
why?

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Design Guidelines –
Feeding System
• Feeders are necessary to counter
solidification shrinkage.
• Differentiate between solidification
shrinkage and solid thermal
shrinkage/contraction!

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Design Guidelines –
Feeding System
• Freezing time of feeder > freezing time of casting. (Use 1.2 as factor of safety –
see later).
• Volume of feeder/s: 𝑉𝑓 ≈ 𝛼𝑉𝑐 (α = shrinkage fraction)
• Taking account of shrinkage within the feeder itself:
𝑉𝑓 − 𝛼𝑉𝑓 = 𝛼𝑉𝑐
• However, feeders have low levels of feeding efficiency e:

𝑒𝑉𝑓 = 𝛼(𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑓 )
Exercise: Determine feeder volume : cavity volume ratio for an Fe-Ni alloy of weight
% Fe = 90%, and a feeding efficiency of 40%.

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Design Guidelines –
Feeding System
• Metal melt data for pure metals
(including solidification shrinkage):

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Design Guidelines –
Feeding System
• Optimum feeder has the least volume – why?
• Feeder volume and geometry (shape) are further governed by solidification time
requirements:
𝑡𝑠 � < 𝑡𝑠 � 𝑡𝑠 � = 1.2 𝑡𝑠 �
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

• Solidification time can be calculated using Chvorinov’s Rule: 𝑉

𝑛
𝑡𝑠 = 𝐵
B is the mould constant, V is the casting volume, 𝐴
A is the surface area through which heat is lost,
and n is a constant (2 for simple shaped castings in silica sand moulds).
• V/A is known as the modulus m of a casting, and can be used to size the feeder/s
(since B is the same for both feeder and casting).
𝑉 𝑉
= 1.2
𝐴 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓/𝑠
𝐴 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

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 (a)
Design Guidelines –
Feeding System
Effect of Modulus ratio on
POROSITY.

(b)

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Design Guidelines –
Gate size and fill time
• Area ratio - sprue exit area : runner area : gate area

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Design Guidelines –
Gate size and fill time
• Decide on a fill time tfill . (Practical Considerations)
• Calculate flowrate Q to fill the cavity volume + feeders:

𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑓
𝑡𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 =
𝑄
• Calculate velocity at bottom of sprue using energy conservation:
𝑣𝑠𝑠 = 2𝑔𝑔
• Calculate area of sprue exit = runner area (1:1) using continuity:
𝑄 = 𝑣𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝑠𝑠 → 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 → 𝐴𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
• If area is too large/small, increase/decrease fill time, and iterate.

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Design Guidelines –
Porosity
Design Considerations:
• Grain size and porosity
• Positioning of Risers (feeders)

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Design Guidelines –
Porosity
• Hot spots (shrinkage cavities):

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Design Guidelines –
Solid Contraction
Shrinkage:
• Three stages – liquid cooling (liquid), solidification shrinkage (mushy zone) and thermal
contraction (solid).
Solidification Shrinkage Solid Thermal Shrinkage

• Pattern shrinkage allowance to be specified for solid thermal contraction. Example:

Al alloys = 1.3%; Gray cast iron = 0.8-1.3 %; Steel = 1.6-2.1%.

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Design Guidelines –
Tolerances
Dimensional Tolerances:
• Centreline positional tolerance -
tolerance zone. Add additional machining
allowance.

• As the casting gets larger, allowances must

be made for variations in pattern
manufacture, mould assembly, cores, and
even head pressure of the molten metal.

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Design Guidelines –
Tolerances
• Allowable tolerances for different sized
dimensions, depending on the required
tolerance grade.

• Casting Tolerance (CT) grade depends on

the type of casting process and whether
moulds and cores are produced using
traditional manual methods or machining
methods (such as sand mould machining
using CNC), and whether ferrous or non-
ferrous metals are involved.

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Design Guidelines –
Machining Allowance
• Recommended machining allowances
(RMA) for different sized dimensions (a),
depending on the required
tolerance/RMA grade (b).
• Machining allowance depends on the
type of casting process and whether
moulds and cores are produced using
traditional manual methods or
machining methods (e.g. core shooting
for core production).

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Example – Sandcast mould design
50 40

∅40 ± 0.5

70
40 ± 0.2

60
45 ± 0.2 machined

∅10 ± 0.2, 8mm deep

30 ± 0.2

50
20
20 100

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Example – Sandcast mould design
First determine DIMENSIONS of cavity:

Patttern Casting allowance Patttern

Shrinkage Machining
Dimension (mm): Dimension
Part Allowance: allowance
(round to Tolerance Grade (round to
Dimension 1.6 – 2.1% 1 – 3 mm
nearest 10 (8-12) Ferrous nearest
Using 1.8% Using 2 mm
.5mm) Not Required .5mm)
50+40 = 90 +1.6 91.5 91.5
70 +1.2 71.0 71.0
60 +1.1 61.0 61.0
∅40 ± 0.5 -2.0 38.0 -2.6 35.5
40 ± 0.2 +0.7 +2.0 42.5 +2.6 45.0
centre-to-centre!
Cannot change

45 ± 0.2 +0.8 46.0 46.0

20 +0.4 20.5 20.5
50 +0.9 51.0 51.0
30 ± 0.2 +0.6 30.5 30.5
∅10 ± 0.2 -2.0 8.0 -2.0 6.0
8 +0.1 8.0 8.0

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Example – Sandcast mould design

Volume of cavity 𝑉𝑐 (also approximately equal to part volume):

𝜋 𝜋
𝑉𝑐 ≈ 50 70 + 40 60 20 − 402 20 − 2 102 8 + 10 20 = 109 210 𝑚𝑚3
4 4

𝜋
Area of cavity: 𝐴𝑐 ≈ 2 50 70 − 402 + 2 40 60 + 2 100 + 2 70 20 +
4
𝜋
20 50 2 + 8 20 + 50 + 20 + 15 + 15 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 4 102 = 19 235 𝑚𝑚2
4

Two risers: 𝑒𝑉𝑓 = 𝛼(𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑓 )

From table, solidification shrinkage 𝛼 = 0.0316; riser efficiency 𝑒 = 0.14:

0.14𝑉𝑓 = 0.0316(𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑓 ) ⇒ 𝑉𝑓 = 0.29𝑉𝑐 ⇒ 𝑉𝑓 = 31 836 𝑚𝑚3

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Example – Sandcast mould design

𝑉𝑐
Modulus: 𝑚𝑐 = = 5.7
𝐴𝑐
𝜋𝜋2
𝑉𝑓 4
𝐿
Hence: 𝑚𝑓 = = 1.2 6.0 = = 6.8 ⇒ 𝐷 = 27 𝑚𝑚
𝐴𝑓 𝜋𝜋𝜋

𝜋𝜋 2 𝐿
Substituting D into 𝑉𝑓 : 𝑉𝑓 = = 31836
4
⇒ 𝐿 = 56 𝑚𝑚
• Note: For two risers, each riser has a volume of 15 918 𝑚𝑚3 . We will calculate for
1 riser.

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Example – Sandcast mould design

Total volume of cavity and risers: 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑓 = 141 047 𝑚𝑚3

𝑉𝑐 +𝑉𝑓 141047
Flowrate: 𝑡𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = ⇒ 𝑄= = 35 262 𝑚𝑚3 ⁄𝑠
𝑄 4
Height of sprue: Determine from your design: (height of part above gate) + (height of riser – depth
of riser below top of part):
ℎ = 70 + 54 − 20 = 104 𝑚𝑚

Velocity at sprue exit: 𝑣𝑠𝑠 = 2𝑔𝑔 = 2 9810 114 = 1 428 𝑚𝑚/𝑠

35 262
Area at sprue exit: 𝑄 = 𝑣𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝑠𝑠 ⇒ 𝐴𝑠𝑠 = = 25 𝑚𝑚2
1 428
2 ⁄
Diameter at sprue exit: 𝐴𝑠𝑠 = 𝜋 𝐷𝑠𝑠 4⇒ 𝐷𝑠𝑠 = 5.6 𝑚𝑚
Gate dimensions for ratio 1:1:1 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑜𝑜 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 1
25
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠: = 5 𝑚𝑚 𝑥 5 𝑚𝑚
1

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Example – Sandcast mould design

• Based on the new dimensions of

the part, the riser dimensions and
the gate size, the mould can now
be accurately designed. We can
start by sketching a layout, after
which the CAD drawings can be
completed. It is possible to import
the CAD drawings into a casting
simulation programme to simulate
the mould filling, solidification of
part and risers, cooling time, etc.

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Thank you
Enkosi
Dankie

Photo by Stefan Els

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