Fluid Flow Phenomena

Md. Nafizur Rahman

Dept. of Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology,
Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, Sylhet.

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 FLUID FLOW PHENOMENA
Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics that studies the mechanics of fluids (liquids, gases, and plasmas) and the forces
on them. Fluid mechanics can be divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest; and fluid dynamics.

Fluid statics: The fluid which is in state of rest is called as static fluid and its study is called as fluid statics.

Properties of static fluid:

The particles of static fluid are either at rest or moving at a constant velocity (so there is no relative motion among them).
1. Static fluid exerts pressure equally in all direction. And the pressure is same everywhere in the fluid at a given depth.
Otherwise the pressure difference will exert a force and the fluid will accelerate.
2. Pressure always acts perpendicular to any surface. If the pressure acted at any angle other than 90°, there would be
a component of force parallel to surface. The fluid will accelerate in the direction of parallel component.
3. An external pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted unchanged throughout the fluid. This is the basis of
Pascal’s principles and it is the basis of all hydraulics.
4. The deeper in the fluid, more pressure is felt. This increase in pressure is due to the weight of the fluid above. For a
static fluid with constant density ρ,
the pressure at depth h is P=P0+ ρgh,
Where, P0 is the external pressure applied to the fluid at the surface.

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Pascal’s law for Static Fluid:
pressure exerted anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid is transmitted equally in all directions throughout the fluid
such that the pressure variations (initial differences) remain the same.

P=ρgh.
The pressure in a static fluid arises from the weight of the fluid and
is given by the expression-

A pressure gauge is a mechanical instrument designed to measure the internal pressure and/or vacuum of a vessel or
system.

Pressure gauges are widely used all over the world, for tasks ranging from checking the tire pressure in a car before a trip
to monitoring, the pressure of various systems inside a nuclear power plant.

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Principles of Operation:
A very common type of pressure gauge constructed with bourdon tube sensing element. When the sensing element is
subjected to pressure, it flexes and the resulting motion is transmitted as a measurement through a mechanical movement
to the dial face pointer.
Some pressure gauges provide a pressure reading when compared to a complete vacuum, while others measure pressure
relative to ambient air pressure. In both cases, the device is often mechanical in nature, with an element inside the gauge
moving in response to pressure changes and pushing the part of the gauge which provides a metered reading.

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Different Types of Pressure Gauges

1. Air pressure gauges

Air pressure gauges measure the amount of air needed to maintain the optimum use of the object containing this gas. A
common container of air is a tire. Using an air pressure gauge ensures the correct amount of air fills the tire for optimum
performance. Too little air in a tire eventually makes it flatten while too much air makes it wear unevenly or even explode.
2. Oil pressure gauges

Machine engines use oil to lubricate the moving parts while in motion to prevent the natural friction from damaging the
motor components. Oil pressure gauges indicate safe or unsafe levels of oil.

3. Differential pressure gauges

Differential pressure gauges, such as a liquid-column manometer (measuring vacuum pressures), show the variation in
pressure between two points by observing the fluid used in a u-tube. Such instruments contain two entrance ports with
each connected to one of the monitored pressure capacities. Using this type of pressure gauge allows operators to monitor
pressure at one point rather than having to check two pressure gauges and calculate the difference.
4. Digital pressure gauges

Used in a variety of industries, digital pressure gauges’ convert applied pressure into signals that read out in numerical
displays. These gauges have pharmaceutical, food processing and automotive applications as well as use for containment
and monitoring of hazardous materials.

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 5. Diaphragm Pressure Gauges

Instead of using a liquid level to measure the difference between an unknown and a reference pressure as with the
differential pressure gauge, the diaphragm pressure gauge uses the expandable deformation of a diaphragm or membrane.
This pressure gauge contains a capsule divided by a diaphragm open to the external targeted (unknown) pressure while the
other side of the diaphragm connects to the known pressure. Mechanically, the undesirable pressure difference exhibits
with the deflection of the diaphragm from a leveled position.

Management of fluid pressure

A substance, as a liquid or gas, that is capable of flowing and that changes its shape at a steady rate when acted upon by a
force tending to change its shape.
- Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area.
- Units of pressure are N/m2, which is called a Pascal(Pa).
- As Pressure is defined by the force per unit area, it can be written as

P= F/A, here, F = force(N),

A = area(m2)
P = pressure(N/m2)
- Pressure in a fluid acts equally in all directions
- Pressure in a static liquid increases linearly with depth
- The pressure at a given depth in a continuous, static body of liquid is constant.
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Considering a fluid held in a container and in the interior of the fluid, away from the walls of the container, each fluid particle
feels the pressure due to its contact with the surrounding fluid. The fluid particle experiences a bulk strain and a bulk stress
since the surrounding fluid exerts a pressure on all the surfaces that define the fluid particle. The pressure induced by these
fluid particles is considered as fluid pressure.

Factors for Fluid pressure management

The factors responsible for the management of fluid pressure in a tank or a container are: -
• Tank configuration (depth versus open area)
• Tank configuration (presence of unusual shape where waves aren’t reflected back into parts)
• Positioning of parts within the open volume of a tank
• Location of transducers within a tank.
• operating temperature.
• Air content and Water quality
• Fluid circulation within the tank.
• Accumulation of the debris within the tank.
• Smoothness of the parts surface.

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 Properties of fluid pressure:
* The forces exerted by a fluid on the wall of a container are always perpendicular.
* The fluid pressure is directly proportional to the depth of the fluid and to its density.
* At any particular depth, the fluid pressure is the same in all directions.
* Fluid pressure is independent of the shape or area of its container.
* Pressure has a magnitude but not a specific direction and thus it is a scalar quantity.

Pressure Measurement:
Pressure is an important variable in fluid mechanics and many instruments have been devised for its measurement. Many
devices are based on hydrostatics such as barometers and manometers, for example, determine pressure through
measurement of a column of a liquid using the pressure variation with elevation equation for an incompressible fluid.
The differential manometer (shown below) is used to calculate the pressure difference among two vessels. Solve the
equation for the pressure difference (pA - pB) in terms of the liquid heights and densities. Fig: Differential Manometer

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 MEASURING PRESSURE DROPS:
Manometers are well suited to measure pressure drops across valves, pipes, heat exchangers etc. Relation for pressure
drops P1 -P2 is obtained by starting at point 1 and adding or subtracting ρgh terms until we reach point 2.
If fluid in a pipe is a gas ρ2 >> ρ1 and P1 -P2 = ρgh.

THE BAROMETER:
Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the
barometric pressure. Pc can be taken to be zero, since there is only Hg vapor above point C and it is very low relative to
Patm. Change in atmospheric pressure due to elevation has many effects: cooking, nose bleeds, engine performance, air -
craft performance.

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FLUID VELOCITY PROFILE:

Fluid Velocity profile is a factor that helps to know the direction of the fluid particles. Basically, the profile of velocity not
only shows the magnitude of velocity but also shows the characteristics of the flow like direction, change due to shape of
the domain or increase-decrease in the velocity magnitude with respect to the geometry and so on.

Velocity profile exists for both Laminar flow and Turbulent flow. Smoke from a candle rises in a smooth plume for the first
few centimeters and then starts fluctuating randomly in all directions as it continues its rise. Other plumes behave
similarly. Likewise, a careful inspection of flow in a pipe reveals that the fluid flow is streamlined at low velocities but turns
chaotic as the velocity is increased above a critical value, as shown. The flow regime in the first case is said to be laminar,
characterized by smooth streamlines and highly ordered motion, and turbulent in the second case, where it is
characterized by velocity fluctuations and highly disordered motion. The transition from laminar to turbulent flow

does not occur suddenly; rather, it occurs over some region in which the flow fluctuates between laminar and turbulent
flows before it becomes fully turbulent. Most flows encountered in practice are turbulent. Laminar flow is encountered
when highly viscous fluids such as oils flow in small pipes or narrow passages.

Here is a brief comparison between laminar flow and turbulent flow_

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Velocity Profile in Laminar flow:
In fully developed laminar flow, each fluid particle moves at a constant axial velocity along a streamline and the velocity
profile u(r) remains unchanged in the flow direction. There is no motion in the radial direction, and thus the velocity
component in the direction normal to flow is everywhere zero. There is no acceleration since the flow is steady and fully
developed.

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In laminar flow Velocity profile can be divided into three regions:
Hydro dynamically developing flow: Flow in the entrance region. This is the region where the velocity profile develops.
Hydro dynamically fully developed region: The region beyond the entrance region in which the velocity profile is fully
developed and remains unchanged.
Fully developed region: When both the velocity profile the normalized temperature profile remain unchanged.

Because of the regularity of the velocity profile in laminar flow, we can define an equation for the local velocity at any
point within the flow path. If we call the local velocity U at a radius r, the maximum radius r0 and the average velocity v,
then:
U = 2v [1 - (r/r0)2]

Velocity Profile in Turbulent flow:

Unlike laminar flow, the expressions for the velocity profile in a turbulent flow are based on both analysis and
measurements, and thus they are semi-empirical in nature with constants determined from experimental data. In
turbulent velocity flow velocity profile is quite complex. They can be described with several layers:
Viscous sublayer: The very thin layer next to the wall where viscous effects are dominant is the viscous (or laminar or
linear or wall) sublayer. The velocity profile in this layer is very nearly linear, and the flow is streamlined.
Buffer layer: Next to the viscous sublayer is the buffer layer, in which turbulent effects are becoming significant, but the
flow is still dominated by viscous effects.

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Overlap layer: Above the buffer layer is the overlap (or transition) layer, also called the inertial sublayer, in which the
turbulent effects are much more significant, but still not dominant.
Outer layer: Above the overlap layer is the outer (or turbulent) layer in the remaining part of the flow in which turbulent
effects dominate over molecular diffusion (viscous) effects.
The velocity profile for turbulent flow is far different from the parabolic distribution for laminar flow. The fluid velocity
near the wall of the pipe changes rapidly from zero at the wall to a nearly uniform velocity distribution throughout the
bulk of the cross section. If we call the local velocity U at radius r, the maximum radius ro, the average velocity v and
friction factor f then:

Velocity gradient:
The velocity gradient is a measure of the local change in the velocity of the adjacent layers of fluid relative to the distance
between them.
Mathematically, Velocity Gradient= velocity/distance
Example:
The speed of water 1m from the side of a river is 1m/s.
The speed of water 3m from the side of the river is 6m/s.
Speed change = 6-1 = 5m/s
So over a distance of (3m - 1m =) 2m the speed has changed by 5m/s.
The velocity gradient = velocity-change/distance = 5/2 = 2.5(m/s)/m
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Importance of velocity gradient:
velocity gradients play an important role in the theory of turbulent flow, the field of strophometry, which deals with the
measurement of velocity gradients. In flow of fluids specially in liquids fluids flow in different layers each layers slip over
other thereby causing internal resistive force between the layer and thus fluids have property to oppose relative velocity
between that layers. Velocity gradient is change in velocity with distance perpendicular to flow of fluids. thus much
velocity gradient more resistance i.e. more oppose in different layers thus it represents more external force requirements
to overcome viscosity that it to maintain the flow of fluid. The study of velocity gradients is useful in analyzing path
dependent materials and in the subsequent study about stresses and strains, e.g. Plastic deformation of metals. The near-
wall velocity gradient of the unburned reactants flowing from a tube is a key parameter for characterizing flame stability.
Stable flames exist when the velocity gradient disallows flashback into the tube, but is not so high that the flame blows-off
of the end of the tube, and is thus extinguished.

One dimensional flow:

Flow is one dimensional if the flow parameters (such as velocity, pressure, depth etc.) at a given instant in time only vary
in the direction of flow and not across the cross-section. The flow may be unsteady; in this case the parameter varies in
time but still not across the cross-section.
An example of one-dimensional flow is the flow in a pipe. Note that since flow must be zero at the pipe wall-yet non-zero
in the center-there is a difference of parameters across the cross-section.

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Boundary Layer:
A very thin layer of fluid is called the boundary layer, in the immediate neighborhood of the solid boundary, where the
variation of velocity from zero at the solid boundary to free stream velocity in the direction normal to the boundary take
𝑑𝑢
place. In this region, the velocity gradient exists and hence the fluid exerts a shear stress on the wall in the direction of
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
motion. The value of shear stress is given by τ =µ
𝑑𝑦

The remaining fluid, which is outside the boundary layer. The velocity outside the boundary layer is constant and
𝑑𝑢
equal to free stream velocity. As there is no variation of velocity in this region, the velocity gradient becomes zero. As a
𝑑𝑦
result of this shear stress is zero.

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Formation of the boundary layer:

we noted that the boundary layer grows from zero when a fluid starts to flow over a solid surface. As is passes over a
greater length more fluid is slowed by friction between the fluid layers close to the boundary. Hence the thickness of the
slower layer increases.
The fluid near the top of the boundary layer is dragging the fluid nearer to the solid surface along. The mechanism for this
dragging may be one of two types:
The first type occurs when the normal viscous forces (the forces which hold the fluid together) are large enough to exert
drag effects on the slower moving fluid close to the solid boundary. If the boundary layer is thin then the velocity gradient
normal to the surface, (du/dy), is large so by Newton's law of viscosity the shear stress, t = m (du/dy), is also large. The
corresponding force may then be large enough to exert drag on the fluid close to the surface.
As the boundary layer thickness becomes greater, so the velocity gradient become smaller and the shear stress decreases
until it is no longer enough to drag the slow fluid near the surface along. If this viscous force was the only action, then the
fluid would come to a rest.
It, of course, does not come to rest but the second mechanism comes into play. Up to this point the flow has been laminar
and Newton's law of viscosity has applied. This part of the boundary layer is known as the laminar boundary layer.
The viscous shear stresses have held the fluid particles in a constant motion within layers. They become small as the
boundary layer increases in thickness and the velocity gradient gets smaller. Eventually they are no longer able to hold the
flow in layers and the fluid starts to rotate.

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This causes the fluid motion to rapidly becomes turbulent. Fluid from the fast moving region moves to the slower zone
transferring momentum and thus maintaining the fluid by the wall in motion. Conversely, slow moving fluid moves to the
faster moving region slowing it down. The net effect is an increase in momentum in the boundary layer. We call the part
of the boundary layer the turbulent boundary layer.
At points very close to the boundary the velocity gradients become very large and the velocity gradients become very
large with the viscous shear forces again becoming large enough to maintain the fluid in laminar motion. This region is
known as the laminar sub-layer. This layer occurs within the turbulent zone and is next to the wall and very thin - a few
hundredths of a mm.

Fig: formation of boundary layer on flat plate

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Laminar flow:
Smooth, orderly movement of a fluid, in which there is no turbulence, and any given sub current moves more or less in
parallel with any other nearby sub current. Laminar flow is common in viscous fluids, especially those moving at low
velocities.

Properties of laminar flow:

 Re < 2000
 'low' velocity
 Dye does not mix with water
 Fluid particles move in straight lines
 Simple mathematical analysis possible
 Rare in practice in water systems.

Application of laminar flow:

1. Laminar flow is the normal condition for blood flow throughout most of the circulatory system
2. A common application of laminar flow is in the smooth flow of a viscous liquid through a tube or pipe.
3. The flow of air over an aircraft wing
4. Laminar airflow is used to separate volumes of air, or prevent airborne contaminants from entering an area.
5. A laminar flow reactor (LFR) is a reactor that uses laminar flow to study chemical reactions and process
mechanisms.

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Turbulent flow:
flow of a fluid in which its velocity at any point varies rapidly in an irregular manner. On the other hand, Movement
of a fluid in which sub currents in the fluid display turbulence, moving in irregular patterns, while the overall flow is in one
direction. Turbulent flow is common in no viscous fluids moving at high velocities.

Properties of turbulent flow:

• Re > 4000
• 'high' velocity
• Dye mixes rapidly and completely
• Particle paths completely irregular
• Average motion is in the direction of the flow
• Cannot be seen by the naked eye
• Changes/fluctuations are very difficult to detect. Must use laser.
• Mathematical analysis very difficult - so experimental measures are used
• Most common type of flow.

Examples of Turbulence:
1. Smoke rising from a cigarette is mostly turbulent flow. However, for the first few centimeters the flow is laminar.
The smoke plume becomes turbulent as its Reynolds number increases, due to its flow velocity and characteristic length
increasing.
2. Clear-air turbulence experienced during airplane flight, as well as poor astronomical seeing.
3. The oceanic and atmospheric mixed layers and intense oceanic currents.

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 4. The flow conditions in many industrial equipment (such as pipes, ducts, precipitators, gas scrubbers, dynamic
scraped surface heat exchangers, etc.) and machines (for instance, internal combustion engines and gas turbines).
5. The external flow over all kind of vehicles such as cars, airplanes, ships and submarines.
6. A jet exhausting from a nozzle into a quiescent fluid. As the flow emerges into this external fluid, shear layers
originating at the lips of the nozzle are created. These layers separate the fast moving jet from the external fluid, and at a
certain critical Reynolds number they become unstable and break down to turbulence.

Laminar vs Turbulent Flow:

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Viscosity:
Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over
another adjacent layer of the fluid. Which two layers of a fluid a distance ‘dy’ apart move one over the other at different
velocities, say u and (u+dy) the viscosity together with relative velocity causes a shear stress acting between the fluid layers.
The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while the lower layer causes a shear stress on the
adjacent top layer. This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of velocity with respect to y.
It is denoted by symbol 𝜏 (tau).
Mathematically,

𝑑𝑢
τ ∞ ……………. 1.1
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
τ =µ ……………….1.2
𝑑𝑦

Here,
τ = share stress
µ = it is the constant of proportionality and is known
as the co efficient of dynamic viscosity or only viscosity.
𝑑𝑢
= its represent the rate of share strain, Fig: velocity variation near a solid body.
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
So that, τ =µ ……………… 1.3
𝑑𝑦

Thus viscosity is also defining as the share stress required to produce unit rate of share strain.
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Newton’s law of viscosity:
It states that the share stress (τ) on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to the rate of share strain. The
constant of proportionality is called the co-efficient of viscosity. Mathematically, it is expressed as given by equation (1.2)
or as
𝑑𝑢
τ =µ
𝑑𝑦

those fluid obey the above relation are known as newtonian fluids and the fluid which do not obey the above relation are
called non-newtonian fluids.

Types of viscosity:
1. Dynamic Viscosity: Dynamic (absolute) viscosity is the tangential force per unit area required to move one
horizontal plane with respect to another plane - at a unit velocity - when maintaining a unit distance apart in the
fluid. It is written as… τ = μ du/dy
2. Kinematic Viscosity: Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of - absolute (or dynamic) viscosity to density - a quantity in
which no force is involved. Kinematic viscosity can be obtained by dividing the absolute viscosity of a fluid with the
fluid mass density. It is written as…. ν=μ/ρ
3. Relative Viscosity: Relative viscosity is an important parameter when testing polymers in solutions. For most
polymers there is a definite relationship between molar mass and viscosity. The higher the molar mass is, the more
viscous the polymer solution is. The relative viscosity is calculated by dividing the viscosity of the polymer solution η
by the viscosity of the pure solvent ηs. It is written as… ηr = η/ ηs
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Coefficient of viscosity:
The ratio of the shearing stress to the velocity gradient is a measure of the viscosity of the fluid and is called the
coefficient of viscosity. It is denoted by

η = Fx / Av. F = tangential force

Where, A= area
X= distance between layers
V= velocity

SI unit of Coefficient of viscosity (η) is Pascal-second.

Experiments have shown that the coefficient of viscosity of liquids decreases with increasing temperature, while the
coefficient of viscosity of gases increases with increasing temperature. In liquids an increase in temperature is
associated with the weakening of bonds between molecules; since these bonds contribute to viscosity, the
coefficient is decreased. On the other hand, intermolecular forces in gases are not as important a factor in viscosity
as collisions between the molecules, and an increase in temperature increases the number of collisions, thus
increasing the coefficient of viscosity.

Viscosity measurement:
Viscosity is measured with various types of viscometers and rheometers. A rheometer is used for those fluids which
cannot be defined by a single value of viscosity and therefore require more parameters to be set and measured
than is the case for a viscometer.

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For some fluids, viscosity is a constant over a wide range of shear rates (Newtonian fluids). The fluids without a
constant viscosity (non-Newtonian fluids) cannot be described by a single number. Non-Newtonian fluids exhibit a
variety of different correlations between shear stress and shear rate.
One of the most common instruments for measuring kinematic viscosity is the glass capillary viscometer.
In paint industries, viscosity is commonly measured with a Zahn cup, in which the efflux time is determined and
given to customers. The efflux time can also be converted to kinematic viscosities (centistokes, cSt) through the
conversion equations.
Also used in paint, a Stormer viscometer uses load-based rotation in order to determine viscosity. The viscosity is
reported in Krebs units (KU), which are unique to Stormer viscometers.
A Ford viscosity cup measures the rate of flow of a liquid. This, under ideal conditions, is proportional to the
kinematic viscosity. Vibrating viscometers can also be used to measure viscosity.

Viscosity and Temperature:

The viscosity of a fluid is highly temperature dependent - and for dynamic or kinematic viscosity to be meaningful
the reference temperature must be quoted. In ISO 8217 the reference temperature for a residual fluid is 1000 C. For
a distillate fluid the reference temperature is 400 C.
for a liquid - the kinematic viscosity decreases with higher temperature
for a gas - the kinematic viscosity increases with higher temperature

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Applications of Viscosity in Liquids:
The viscosity of liquids is an important property that must be measured precisely in some industries. For
example, the viscosity of paints, varnishes, and similar household products is closely regulated so that the paints
and varnishes can be applied smoothly and evenly with a brush roller. However, the viscosity has been increased to
produce an almost gel-like texture, so that the product is easier to apply and sticks well to the surface of the
furniture.
The viscosity of some medications, such as the various liquids used to remove warts, has also been modified
for easier application. Drug companies manufacture medicines, such as cough syrup, that have a high viscosity yet
are still drinkable, in order to coat and soothe the throat.

Factors affecting Viscosity:

o Temperature: viscosity of liquids can decrease with increasing temperature and viscosity of gases increase
with increasing temperature
o Concentration: increase in concentration can increase viscosity
o Attractive force: when the attractive force between particles increases, viscosity increases, on the other hand
lower attractive force cause decreasing viscosity
o Particle size: small particle has lower viscosity and large particle has higher viscosity

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