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1 INTRODUCTION
The heat flux given
. in equation (1.4)
Q dT (1.4)
q= = −k
A dx
or q = −(iqx + jq y + kqz )
(2.2)
2.1 INTRODUCTION…
Fig. 2.1 Differential control volume, dx.dy.dz, for conduction analysis in Cartesian
coordinates
2.1 INTRODUCTION…
The conservation of energy principle is used to find the
conduction (energy diffusion) equation.
Referring to Fig. 2.1,
.
E in = rate of energy entering to the control volume
.
E out = rate of energy leaving the control volume
.
E gen = rate of energy generated in the control volume
.
= q dxdydz
.
E st = rate of energy stored in the control volume
T
= ρc p dxdydz
t
2.1 INTRODUCTION…
Applying the energy balance equation to the control volume,
. . . .
(2.3)
E in + E gen − E out = E st
.
(q x dydz + q y dxdz + q z dxdy) + q dxdydz−
T (2.4)
(q x+dx dydz + q y +dy dxdz + q z +dz dxdy) = c p dxdydz
t
3
ρ = density (kg / m )
c p =specific heat capacity (J/kg.K)
Equation (2.7) is a general transient three dimensional
diffusion equation in rectangular coordinate system
with energy generation.
2.1 INTRODUCTION…
For materials with constant thermal conductivity k,
equation (2.7) can be written as
.
q 2T 2T 2T c p T 1 T
+ 2 + 2 + 2 = =
k x y z k t t
k
=
is called thermal diffusivity (m2/s ). It is clear
c p
from the above equation that the ability of a material
to let heat pass through it increases with increasing
thermal diffusivity. This can be due to a high thermal
conductivity k or a low heat capacity of the material.
2.1 INTRODUCTION…
Derivation of heat equation in
cylindrical coordinate
Fig. 2.2 Differential control volume, dr.rdf.dz, for conduction analysis in cylindrical
2.1 INTRODUCTION…
The heat flux in cylindrical coordinates is
T 1 T T
q = −kT = −k i +j +k (2.8)
r r f z
Where T k T T
q r = −k , qf = − , q z = −k
r r f (2.9) z
Applying the principle of conservation of energy, the
energy diffusion equation can be obtained as
. 1 T 1 T T T
q+ kr + 2 k + k = c p (2.10)
r r r r f f z z t
2.1 INTRODUCTION…
For constant thermal conductivity,
.
q 1 T 2 T 1 2 T 2 T ρc p T 1 T (2.11)
+ + 2 + 2 + 2 = =
k r r r r φ 2
z k t α t
= hTc (ro ) − T
dTc
kc
dr ro
convection heat transfer at outer surface
2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION
2.2.1 One Dimensional Steady State Conduction
In "one-dimensional“ system:
only one coordinate is needed to describe the spatial
variation of the dependent variables.
temperature gradients exist along only a single
coordinate direction and heat transfer occurs
exclusively in that direction.
Equation (2.7) for one dimensional steady state heat
conduction with no energy generation in rectangular
coordinate system reduces to
d dT (2.14)
k =0
dx dx
2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…
Integration of equation (2.14) gives us
dT C
= = C1 constant slope (2.15)
dx k
and
T ( x) = C1 x + C2 linear variation (2.16)
The constants C1 and C2 are obtained from boundary conditions.
Similarly for cylindrical coordinate system (equation (2.11)) reduces
to 1 d dT
kr =0
r dr dr (2.17)
Integration of equation (2.17) gives
T (r ) = C ln(r ) + C (2.18)
1 2
2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…
2.2.2 Thermal Resistance Concept
Consider equation (2.16) applied to the slab
shown in Fig.2.4. Applying boundary
conditions L
T2 − T1 dT T −T
C1 = , C 2 = T1 and = C1 = 2 1
L dx L
The heat transfer rate in the slab becomes
. dT T −T T −T T −T T −T
Q = −kA = −kA 2 1 = kA 1 2 = 1 2 = 1 2
dx L L L R
kA
. T −T L Fig. 2.4 Thermal Resistance Concept
Q= 1 2 , R= (2.19)
R kA
Where R is called thermal resistance.
2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…
Defining resistance as the ratio of a driving potential to the corresponding
transfer rate, the conduction thermal resistance can be written as,
T1 − T2 L (2.20)
Rcond = .
=
Q kA
For electrical conduction in the same system, Ohm’s law provides an
electrical resistance of the form
E − E2 L (2.21)
R = 1 =
elect
I A
We can also write a thermal resistance for convection heat transfer from
Newton’s Law of cooling
. . (Ts − T ) (Ts − T )
Q conv = hA(Ts − T ) or Q conv = =
1 R
hA
Alternatively,
. T,1 − Ts ,1 Ts ,1 − T2 T2 − T3 T3 − Ts , 4 Ts , 4 − T, 4
Q= = = = =
1 LA LB LC 1 (2.25)
h1 A kA A kB A kC A h4 A
In terms of an overall heat transfer coefficient,
.
(2.26)
Q = UAT
Where ΔT is the overall temperature difference.
2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…
From equations (2.23) and (2.26) we see that UA = 1 /ΣR. Hence, for the composite wall of
Fig. 2.5,
1 1
U = = (2.27)
AR 1 L A LB LC 1
+ + + +
h1 k A k B k C h4
In general, we may write
1 T
Rtot = R = = .
AU (2.28)
Q
The thermal resistance concept can be applied to radial systems too (Fig.2.6).
Assuming heat transfer only in the radial direction, equation (2.18) can be used to obtain an
expression for the thermal resistance.
T (r ) = C1 ln(r ) + C2
Introducing the boundary conditions T(r1)=Ts,1 and T(r2)=Ts,2 , the constants C1 and C2
can be obtained and equation (2.18) becomes
T −T r (2.29)
T (r ) = s ,1 s , 2 ln + Ts , 2
r
ln 1 2
r
r2
2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…
The conduction heat transfer rate in the cylinder will be
obtained from Fourier’s law,
. dT dT T −T T −T
Q = −kA = −k 2rL = −k 2rL s ,1 s , 2 = 2kL s ,1 s , 2
dr dr r r
r ln 1 ln 2
r2 r1
. T − Ts , 2 T
Q = s ,1 =
r2 R
ln (2.30)
r1
2kL
Equation (2.30) shows that conduction thermal resistance in
cylindrical coordinate system is given by
r2
ln
r1 (2.31)
R=
2kL
2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION…
For the hollow cylinder shown in Fig. 2.6, the total thermal resistance can
be written as r2
ln
r
R =
1
+ 1
+
1 (2.32)
h1 2r1 L 2kL h2 2r2 L
tot
Fig. 2.11 Use of fin to enhance heat transfer from a plane wall
2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …
To determine the heat transfer rate associated with a fin, we
must first obtain the temperature distribution along the fin.
The following assumptions in determining the temperature
distribution:
one-dimensional conduction in the x direction,
Steady-state conditions,
Constant thermal conductivity,
Negligible radiation from the surface,
heat generation effects are absent, and
Convection heat transfer coefficient h is uniform over the
surface.
2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …
2
− m 2 = 0
dx (2.46)
hP
Where m= . The general solution of differential equation (2.46) is
kAc
( x) = C1e mx + C 2 e − mx (2.47)
hP (2.50)
( x) − x
=e
kAc
b
2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …
The heat removed by the fin at base is
. dT d
Q base = − kAc = − kAc
dx x =0 dx x =0
. hP
Q base = kAc b m = kAc b
kAc
.
Q base = b hPkAc
(2.51)
2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …
d
dx = 0
II. Negligible heat loss from fin tip x=L
d
dx
( )
= m C1e mL − C 2 e −mL = 0
(2.52)
x= L
Or
d
hAc = −kAc
x=L
dx x= L
(2.56)
Solving for the constants C1 and C2
( x) coshm( L − x) + (h / mk )sinhm( L − x)
= (2.57)
b cosh(mL) + (h / mk )sinh(mL)
The corresponding heat loss from fin base will be,
. sinh( mL) + (h / mK ) cosh(mL)
Q = hPkA
base
cosh(mL) + (h / mk ) sinh( mL)
b c (2.58)
2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …
Example 2.3
A brass rod 100mm long and 5mm in diameter extends
horizontally from a casting at . The rod is in an air
environment with and . What is the temperature of
the rod 25, 50 and 100mm from the casting? Take
thermal conductivity of brass to be k=133W/m.K.
2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …
2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES …
Solution
Based on the assumption of convection heat loss from
fin tip, the temperature distribution, from equation
(2.57), has the form
coshm( L − x) + (h / mk )sinhm( L − x)
( x) = b
cosh(mL ) + (h / mk )sinh( mL )
2L 2 2 k
The temperature distribution becomes
.
q L2 x 2 Ts , 2 − Ts ,1 x Ts , 2 + Ts ,1 (2.64)
T ( x) = 1 − 2 + +
2k L 2 L 2
The temperature
.
distribution
.
for (-L≤x≤L) is
q 2 qL . 2b 2 3 L
T ( x) = − x − x + q L + + + T
2k f kf k
s h 2 kf
2.4 CONDUCTION WITH THERMAL
ENERGY GENERATION…
(b) The temperature distribution is shown in the
following three regions
dT
− ( L + b) x − L : = 0, T = Tmax
dx
dT
−L x L: with x
dx
dT
L x L+b: = cons tan t
dx
2.5 TRANSIENT CONDUCTION
Practical problems in heat transfer, in general, involve
the variation of temperature with
Position (x,y,z) and
Time (t).
Analysis of transient heat conduction is more
complicated than that of steady state conduction and
making simplifying assumptions is more appropriate.
Lumped capacitance method and
One dimensional assumptions.
2.5 TRANSIENT CONDUCTION…
2.5.1 Lumped Capacitance System
The temperature variations within some bodies remain
essentially uniform at a given time during a heat transfer
process (Fig. 2.18).
Such bodies are said to act like a ‘lump’.
Consider a hot metal forging that is initially at a uniform
temperature Ti and is quenched by immersing it in a liquid
of lower temperature T∞<Ti (Fig.2.18).
The essence of the lumped capacitance method is the
assumption that the temperature of the solid is spatially
uniform at any instant during the transient process
(T=f(t)).
2.5 TRANSIENT CONDUCTION…
T (t ) − T − hA
ln = t
Ti − T mC p
Or − hA
T (t ) − T t
=e
mC p
Ti − T (2.71)
The temperature of the metal gradually decreases and
eventually equals the ambient air temperature.
2.5 TRANSIENT CONDUCTION…
The rate of convection heat transfer is
.
Q = hA[T (t ) − T ] (2.72)
Total amount of heat transfer from the hot body to the
surrounding, time 0-t, is
T (t )
(2.73)
Q = − mC p dT = −mC p [T (t ) − Ti ]
Ti
Or
Lc / k Conduction Re sis tan ce within the Body
Bi = =
1/ h Convection Re sis tan ce at the Surface of the Body
2.5 TRANSIENT CONDUCTION…
The lumped capacitance analysis assumes uniform
temperature distribution within the body.
This is true when the conduction resistance within the
body is zero, which is in turn true only when the Biot
number is zero.
Therefore, the lumped capacitance analysis is exact
only when Bi=0 and approximate when Bi>0.
From experience the lumped capacitance method is, in
general, acceptable if Bi≤0.1.
2.5 TRANSIENT CONDUCTION…
2.5.2 Transient heat conduction in large plane walls,
long cylinders and spheres
A more realistic assumption than lumped capacitance
method is the case where temperature varies with time
and position in one dimension, T(x, t) or T(r, t), which is
applicable for large plane walls, long cylinders and
spheres (Fig. 2.19).
If heat transfer takes place between the environment (h
and Ti>T∞) and the large plane wall (initially at Ti ) of
Fig. 2.19(a) by convection, the temperature at the surface
of the wall drops.
2.5 TRANSIENT CONDUCTION…
2T 1 T
= (2.77)
x 2
t
The solution of equation (2.77) results in infinite series
which are inconvenient and time consuming to
evaluate.
Therefore, the solutions are presented in tabular or
graphical form.
2.5 TRANSIENT CONDUCTION…
Before presenting the solutions graphically, some
parameters need to be nondimensionalzed to reduce
number of parameters.
T ( x, t ) − T
( x, t ) = Dimensionless temperature
Ti − T
x
X= Dimensionless distance from center
L
hL
Bi = Biot number (Dimensionless heat transfer coefficient)
k
t
= 2 Fourier number (Dimensionless time)
L
2.5 TRANSIENT CONDUCTION…
For Fourier number , the infinite series solutions of
equation (2.77) can be approximated by taking only
the first terms of the series. These solutions are given
below,
T ( x, t ) − T − 1 x
( x, t ) wall = 0.2 (2.78)
2
= A1e cos ,
1
Ti − T L
T (r , t ) − T 1r
(r , t ) cyl = = A1e J o ,
−12
0.2 (2.79)
Ti − T ro
1r
sin (2.80)
T (r , t ) − T −12 ro ,
(r , t ) sph = = A1e 0.2
Ti − T 1r
ro
2.5 TRANSIENT CONDUCTION…
The constants A1 and 1 are obtained from table 2.3.
The function J0 is the zeroth-order Bessel function of the
first kind whose value can be determined from Table 2.4.
The temperature of the body changes from Ti to T∞ at the
end of the transient heat conduction.
The maximum amount of heat transfer during this process
can be obtained by
Qmax = mC p (T − Ti ) = VC p (T − Ti ) (2.81)
2.5 TRANSIENT CONDUCTION…
The fraction of heat transfer within time t is obtained
by the following equations for the large wall, long
cylinder and sphere.
Q − sin(1 ) (2.82)
2
Q = 1 − A1e
1
max wall 1
Q −12 J 1 (1 )
(2.83)
= 1 − 2 A1e
Qmax cylinder 1
Q 2 sin( ) − cos( )
(2.84)
= 1 − 3 A1e −1 1 1 1
Qmax wall 1
3
2.5 TRANSIENT CONDUCTION…
Example 2.5
A load of peas at a temperature of 250C is to be cooled
down in a room at constant air temperature of 10C.
(a) How long the peas will require to cool down to 20C when the
surface heat transfer coefficient of the pea is 5.81W/m2K?
(b) What is the temperature of the peas after a lapse of 10
minutes from the start of cooling?
(c) What air temperature must be used if the peas were to be
cooled down to 50C in 30 minutes? The peas are supposed to
have an average diameter of 8 mm, their density is 750kg/m3
and specific heat 3.35 kJ/kgK.
2.5 TRANSIENT CONDUCTION…
Solution
The problem can be solved by making use of the lumped
capacitance method, neglecting any variation of
temperature within the peas due to its small diameter.
From equation (2.68)
− hA
T (t ) − T t
=e
mC p
Ti − T
(a) Solving for time t,
* 0.0083
− 750* * 3350
− mC p T (t ) − T 2 −1
=
6
t= ln ln = 1835s = 30.6 min
hA −
i
T T 5.81* * 0.008 2
25 − 1
2.5 TRANSIENT CONDUCTION…
(b) From equation (2.65)
−5.81* *0.008 *600
2
− hA *0.0083
T (t ) − T t
T (600) − 1 750*
= 0.353 T (600) = 9.480 C
*3350
=e =e
mC p 6
Ti − T 25 − 1
(c)
−5.81* *0.008 *1800
2
− hA *0.0083
T (t ) − T t
5 − T 750* *3350
=e =e = 0.044 T = 4.080 C
mC p 6
Ti − T 25 − T
2.6 NUMERICAL METHODS
Most of the practical problems encountered in
engineering involve:
Complicated geometries,
Complex boundary conditions, and
Variable properties.
Since such problems cannot be solved analytically,
the need for numerical solution methods,
especially in cases of multidimensional problems,
is inevitable.
2.6 NUMERICAL METHODS…
2.6.1 Finite Difference Equation
There are several types of numerical methods. Some
are:
Finite Difference Method,
Finite Element Method,
Boundary Element Method, and
Control Volume Method.
Because of its ease of application, the finite-
difference method is well suited for an
introductory treatment of numerical techniques.
2.6 NUMERICAL METHODS…
A numerical solution enables determination of the
temperature at only discrete points.
The first step in any numerical analysis must,
therefore, be to select these points.
This is done by subdividing the medium of interest
into a number of small regions and assigning to each a
reference point that is at its center.
The reference point is frequently termed as nodal
point (or simply a nod), and the aggregate of points is
termed a nodal network, grid, or mesh.
2.6 NUMERICAL METHODS…
The nodal points are designated by a numbering
scheme that, for a two-dimensional system, may take
the form shown in Fig.2.21.
The x and y locations are designated by the m and n
indices, respectively.
The temperature of node (m, n) is assumed to be the
average of the surrounding shaded area.
The accuracy of a numerical analysis is increased by
increasing the number of nodes (fine nodes).
But the increased number of nodes requires more
computing time and capacity.
2.6 NUMERICAL METHODS…
T −T T −T T −T T −T
kx.1 ( m,n+1) ( m,n ) + kx.1 ( m,n−1) ( m,n ) + ky.1 ( m+1,n ) ( m,n ) + ky.1 ( m−1,n) ( m,n ) = 0
y y x x
xh 2xh
T( m,n+1) + 2T( m−1,n ) ) + T( m,n−1) − 2 2 + ( m,n )
T + T = 0 (2.88)
k k
2.6 NUMERICAL METHODS…
T = A−1C (2.92)
A good example of iterative methods of solving linear
system of equations is the Gauss-Seidel Iteration
method.
2.6 NUMERICAL METHODS…
Consider the following system of equations for
explanation of the solution procedure.
x1 + 3x2 + x3 = 10
2 x1 + 5 x2 + x3 = 4
− x1 + x2 − 2 x3 = −13
a) Solve each equation for one of the variables (one with
larger coefficient) in terms of other variables,
x1 = 10 + 3x2 − x3 (a)
x2 = (4 − 2 x1 − x3 ) / 5 (b)
x3 = (−13 + x1 − x2 ) /(−2) (c )
2.6 NUMERICAL METHODS…
b) Make initial guess for each unknown,
Let x2=0 and x3=0
c) Using equations from step 1, find new values for each
unknown,
Using the initial guess and equation (a) of step 1,
x1=10+3(0)-0=10
Using the updated value x1=-5 and equation (b) of step 1,
x2=(4-2(10)-0)/5=-3.2
From equation (c), x3=(-13+10-(-3.2))/(-2)=-0.1
d) Repeat step 3 until a desired convergence criterion is
satisfied.
2.6 NUMERICAL METHODS…
Example 2.6
Consider the square channel shown in the sketch operating
under steady-state conditions. The inner surface of the
channel is at a uniform temperature of 600K, while the
outer surface is exposed to convection with a fluid at 300K
and a convection coefficient of 50W/mK.
a) Beginning with properly defined control volume, derive
the finite-difference equations for interior and boundary
nodes. Due to symmetric nature of the problem, take one
eighth of the geometry with Δx=Δy=0.01m. Calculate the
temperatures for all nodes.
b) Calculate the heat loss per unit length from the channel.
2.6 NUMERICAL METHODS…
. . . .
Q1→2 + Q 6→2 + Q 3→2 + Q Conv = 0
x T1 − T2 T6 − T2 x T3 − T2
k + kx +k + hx(T − T2 ) = 0
2 x x 2 x
solving this equation gives
T1 + 2T6 + T3 − 5T2 = −300 (2)
2.6 NUMERICAL METHODS…
Node 3: Similar to Node 2,
T2 + 2T7 + T4 − 5T3 = −300 (3)
Node 4:
. .
Q 3→4 + Q Conv = 0
x T3 − T4 x
k +h (T − T4 ) = 0
2 x 2
solving this equation gives
T3 − 1.5T4 = −150 (4)
2.6 NUMERICAL METHODS…
Node 5:
. . .
Q1→5 + Q 6→5 + Q 8→5 = 0
x T1 − T5 T6 − T5 x T8 − T5
k + kx +k =0
2 x x 2 x
solving this equation gives
T1 + 2T6 − 4T5 = −600 (5)
2.6 NUMERICAL METHODS…
Node 6: Interior node
. .
Q 3→7 + Q 6→7 = 0
T3 − T7 T6 − T7
kx + kx =0
x x
solving this equation gives
T3 + T6 − 2T7 = 0 (7 )
2.6 NUMERICAL METHODS…
Equations (1) through (7) can be solved simultaneously
using either matrix inversion method or Gauss-Seidel
iteration method. But since the number of equations is
few, the matrix inversion method can be used.
T2 + T5 − 2.5T1 = −150
T1 + 2T6 + T3 − 5T2 = −300
T2 + 2T7 + T4 − 5T3 = −300 (8)
T3 − 1.5T4 = −150
T1 + 2T6 − 4T5 = −600
T2 + T5 + T7 − 4T6 = −600
T3 + T6 − 2T7 = 0
2.6 NUMERICAL METHODS…
,
Equation (8) can be written in matrix form as
[A]{T}={C} where