2.

1 THE CONDUCTION RATE EQUATION

Conduction heat transfer obeys Fourier law which was
derived from actual observation. Consider the
object given in fig-chp2\fig2.1.pptx . As it is
insulated on the lateral side, conduction heat transfer
will occur along the axial direction only. This heat
transfer is due to the temperature difference of the
two faces (T1>T2). The heat transfer qx will depend
on A, Δx and ΔT. It is observed that the conduction
heat transfer is proportional to A and ΔT, while it is
inversely proportional to Δx.

1
The collective effect can be represented by
T
qx  A T  T1  T2
x
The above can be written as an equation using a
proportionality constant k, thermal conductivity
(W/m.K) which is a property of the substance
T
q x  kA
x
To evaluate the heat transfer at any location x, needs
an imposition

2
limit Δx→0 which gives
dT
q x  kA (W ) (2.1)
dx
qx dT
 q x  k
'' 2
(heat flux W / m ) (2.2)
A dx
The negative sign is necessary as the slope dT/dx is
negative since heat is always transferred in the
direction of decreasing temperature.
"
q x is directional and normal to the isothermal
surface having a positive value.
3
Fourier’s law can be generalized in three dimensional
representation as
∂T ∂T ∂T
q  - k (i
"
j k )  -k∇T (2.3)
dx dy dz

Where  is del operator

The heat flux vector is in a direction normal to the
isothermal fig-chp2\fig2.2.pptx .
As an alternative fig-chp2\fig2.3.pptx

T
q  k
"
n (2.4)
n
4
The heat flux vector can be resolved as
q  iq  jq  kq
" "
x
"
y
"
z (2.5)
T T T
q  k
''
x q  k
''
y q  k
''
z (2.6)
x y z
All the above require the assumption that the thermal
conductivity k does not vary with x, y, or z. Such
substances are called isotropic.

5
2.2 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Thermal conductivity is a transport property on which
energy transfer by diffusion depends on.
From Fourier’s law
q x''
kx =
(∂T / ∂x )
Similar definitions follow for ky and kz. For isotropic
materials kx = ky = kz = k. fig-chp2\fig2.4.pptx gives
the ranges of k values. In general, the thermal
conductivity of a solid is larger than that of a liquid,
which is larger than that of a gas.
6
2.2.1 The Solid State
Solids-comprised of electrons and atoms bound in a
lattice. Transport of thermal energy due to a)
migration of free electrons 2) lattice vibrational
waves when quantized are termed as phonons
analogous to photons of electromagnetic waves.
Pure metals-electron contribution to conduction heat
transfer dominates.
Non-conductors-the phonon contribution is dominant.
According to kinetic theory
1
k  Cc mfp (2.7)
3 7
For conducting materials C≡Ce, electron specific heat
per unit volume, c , mean electron velocity, λ mfp ≡λe,
electron mean free path. Collision is either with an
imperfection or with a phonon. In non-conducting
solids C≡Cph, phonon specific heat, -average c
speed of sound and λmfp ≡ λph , phonon mean free
path. Thermal conductivity increases as the mean
free path of the energy carriers (electrons and
phonons) is increased.
When both (electrons and phonons) are considered
k=ke + kph (2.8) 1
ke ∝  e: electrical resistivity
e
8
Non-metallic solids-k is determined primarily by k ph.
Crystalline (well ordered) materials like quartz have
high kph.
Temperature dependence of k for some selected solids
is shown in fig-chp2\fig2.5.pptx . The analysis
becomes more complex when the material’s
characteristic dimensions are of the order of
microscale and nanoscale.
2.2.2 The Fluid State
Includes both liquids and gases.
• Intermolecular spacing is much larger
• Motion of molecules is more random 9
Due to the above reasons thermal energy transport is
less effective.
k for gases and liquids is lower. According to kinetic
theory of gases
1
k  cv c mfp (2.9)
3
For gases k increases with increasing temperature and
decreasing molecular weight (same as c )as shown
in fig-chp2\fig2.6.pptx .
Because ρ and λmfp are directly and inversely
proportional to the gas pressure, k is independent of
pressure except in extreme cases (perfect vacuum).
10
Physical mechanisms for explaining thermal
conductivity in liquids are not well understood.
fig-chp2\fig2.7.pptx shows the dependence of k on
temperature on selected nonmetallic liquid.
2.2.3 Insulation Systems
Consist of low thermal conductivity materials
combined to achieve an even lower system thermal
conductivity. Conventional forms are fiber-,
powder-, and flake-type insulations, where the solid
material is finely dispersed throughout the air space.
If small voids or hollow spaces are formed by bonding
portions of the solid material, a rigid matrix is
formed. Foamed systems are typical examples. 11
Reflective insulations are composed of multilayered,
parallel, thin sheets or foils of high reflectivity.
2.2.4 Other Relevant Properties
These are in general called thermophysical properties
classified as transport and thermodynamic
properties. The transport properties are the ones that
have direct effect on momentum, heat and mass
transfer. These are thermal conductivity, k (for heat
transfer), kinematic viscosity, υ(for momentum
transfer), and diffusion coefficient, D(for mass
transfer).
Extensively used thermodynamic properties are the
density, ρ, and specific heat, cp. The product ρcp12
(J/m3) is the volumetric heat capacity. It measures the
ability of a material to store thermal energy.
A very important property termed as thermal
diffusivity and designated by α is given by
k
 (m2 / s)
c
It measures the ability of a material to conduct thermal
energy relative to its ability to store thermal energy.
Large α has quick response to environmental
temperature change.

13
2.3 HEAT DIFFUSION EQUATION
2.3.1 Rectangular Coordinates
Major objective in conduction analysis is to determine
the temperature field T(x,y,z) in a medium resulting
from conditions imposed within or on its boundary.
This can help to determine
• heat flux
• Magnitude of temperature at locations of interest for
determination of thermal stresses, expansions, and
deflections etc..
A differential approach is used to derive the

14
governing differential equations by using a
homogeneous differential control volume shown in
fig-chp2\fig2.8.pptx .
Neglecting higher order terms in Taylor series, heat
transfers across opposite faces can be approximated
by
q x
q x  dx  q x  dx (2.10a)
x
q y
q y  dy  q y  dy (2.10b)
y
q z
q z  dz  q z  dz (2.10c)
z 15
energy generated due to internal energy source:
E  q ''' dx dy dz (2.11)
g
' ''
where q  is energy generation rate per unit volume,
W/m3.
Energy storage rate in the differential volume is

E  ∂ (c Tdm)  ∂ ( c TdV )  c ∂T dx dy dz
st P P P
∂t ∂t ∂t
(2.12)
Applying conservation of energy requirement

E in  E g  E out  E st 16
Substituting the corresponding expressions
q x  q y  q z  q (dx dy dz )  q x  dx  q y  dy  q z  dz
'''

T
 cP dx dy dz (2.13)

Using Taylor’s approximation
t
q x q y q z
q x  dx  qx  dx q y  dy  q y  dy q z  dz  qz  dz
x y z
Substitution in 2.13 gives

q x q y q z ''' T
 dx  dy  dz  q dxdydz  c p dxdydz
x y z t
17
Using Fourier’s law

T T T T
q x   kA x   k (dydz) ; q y   kA y   k (dxdz)
x x y y
T T
q z   kA z   k (dxdy)
z z

After substitution in the energy balance equation will

result in

18
    T    T    T 
 k    k    k  dx dy dz
 x  x  y  y  z  z 
T
 q dx dy dz  cP
'' '
dx dy dz (2.14)
t
Division by dV=dx dy dz gives

  T    T    T  T
   k    k   q  cP
'''
k
x  x  y  y  z  z  t
(2.15)
19
In vector form, the above equation becomes
T
.(k  T)  q  cP
' ''
(2.16)
t
The above is the heat diffusion equation whose
solution gives T(x,y,z,t)
For constant k, the equation simplifies to
T T T q
2 2 2
 ' ''
1 T
 2  2   (2.17)
x 2
y z k  t
q 1 T
'' '
 T
2
 (2.18)
k  t
k thermal diffusivity
where  
cP 20
Under steady state condition (∂T/∂t=0), the general
equation (2.15) reduces to
  T    T    T 
 k   
 k 
   k   q
 '' '
0 (2.19)
x  x  y  y  z  z 

For a one-dimensional heat transfer with no heat

generation the above equation reduces to
d  dT 
k 0 (2.20)
dx  dx 
With no heat generation, steady state assumption gives
"
dq
0
x
or q  cons tan t
"
x (2.21)
dx 21
EXAMPLE 2.1
The temperature distribution across a wall 1 m thick at
a certain instant of time is given as
T(x) = a + bx + cx2
Where T is in oC and x is in meters, while a=- 900oC,
b= -300oC/m, and c = -50 oC/m2. A uniform heat

generation, q  1000 W / m , is present in the wall

''' 3

of area 10 m2 having the properties ρ = 1600 kg/m3, k
= 40 W/m.K, and cP = 4 kJ/kg.K.
1. Determine the rate of heat transfer entering the wall
(x=0) and leaving the wall (x=1m).
2. Determine the rate of change of energy storage in
the wall 22
Figure for example 2.1
23
3. Determine the time rate of temperature change at x
= 0, 0.25, and 0.5 m.
SOLUTION
1. Incoming and outgoing heat transfer rate

T
q in  q x (0)   kA   kA( b  2cx ) x 0
x @ x  0
q in   bkA  300x 40x10  120000 W  120 kW
T
q out  q x ( L)   kA   kA( b  2cx ) x  L
x @ x  L
q out   ( b  2cL) kA  [ 300  2( 50) x 1 ] 40 x 10
 160000 W  160kW 24
2. Rate of change of energy storage can be
determined from
E  E  E  E ; E  q ''' AL
in g out st g

E  120  (1000x10x1) / 1000  160

st

E st  30 kW
3. Rate of temperature change at any location

T k  T q 2 '''
 
 t c P  x 2
c P
25
From the given temperature distribution
 2 T   T  
    ( b  2 cx )  2 c  2 (  50)   100 o
C / m 2

x 2
 x  x  x

which is a constant (independent of location).

T 40 1000
 ( 100)   6.25x10 4  1.56x10 4
t 1600x 4 1600x 4
4 o
 4.69x10 C / s

This temperature decrease rate is the same at any

location.

26
2.3.2 Cylindrical Coordinates
When the heat transfer problem involves cylindrical
objects such as pipes, the equation in cylindrical
coordinates will be more convenient for analysis.
Referring to fig-chp2\fig2.9.pptx

T T T
q r   k ( rddz ) q    k (dz dr ) q z   k (r d dr )
r r z
q r q r q z
q r  dr  q r  dr q   d  q   rd q z  dz  q z  dz
r r z
dV  rd dr dz

27
E g  q '''dV  q ''' (rd )dr dz

E   (c P Tdm)   (c P T[ dV])  c [rddrdz] T

st P
t t t

Using the energy balance equation

E in  E g  E out  E st
q r  q  q z  q ( rd )drdz  (q r dr  q d  q z dz )
 '' '

T
 c P ( rd )drdz
t
28
 q r q  q z '' ' T
 dr  rd  dz  q (rd )drdz  c P (rd )drdz
r r z t
Substitution of Fourier’s law
  T    T    T 
 krddz dr   kdzdr  rd   krddr dz
r  r  r  r  z  z 
' '' T
 q (rd )drdz  c p (rd )drdz
t
After substitution and division by dV  rd dr dz will
give
1   T  1   T    T  ''' T
 kr  2  k    k   q  cP
r r  r  r     z  z  t
(2.22)
29
For constant k, the equation becomes
1 ∂  ∂T  1 ∂  ∂T  ∂  ∂T  q ''' 1 ∂T
r  2      
r ∂ r  ∂ r  r ∂   ∂   ∂z  ∂ z  k  ∂ t
(2.23)
The same result would have been achieved if the del
operator expressed in cylindrical coordinates had
been used

1     1  2
 2
 
2
r   2  2 (2.24)
r r  r  r  2
z

30
2.3.3 Spherical Coordinates
If heat transfer involves spherical shapes then the
conduction heat transfer equations in spherical
coordinates will be convenient for analysis.
The spherical differential control volume is shown in
fig-chp2\fig2.10.pptx.
If we directly use the Laplacian in spherical
coordinates as
1   2   1     1    
  2 r  2 2    2  sin 
2

r r  r  r sin      r sin     
(2.25)
31
For constant k, the conduction equation in spherical
coordinates becomes

1   2 T  1   T  1   T 
r  2 2    2  sin  
r r  r  r sin      r sin   
2
 
q ''' 1 T
  (2.26)
k  t

32
Example 2.2
Passage of an electric current through a long
conducting rod of radius ri and thermal conductivity
kr results in uniform volumetric heating at a rate of
q '''
. The conducting rod is wrapped in an
electrically nonconducting cladding material of
outer radius ro and thermal conductivity kc, and
convection cooling provided by an adjoining fluid.
For steady state conditions, write appropriate forms
of the heat equations for the rod and cladding.
Express appropriate boundary conditions for the
solution of these equations.
33
Figure for example 2.2
34
Solution
Appropriate equation for the rod in cylindrical
coordinates is given by

1   T  '' '
 kr   q  0
r  r  r 

For the cladding

1   T 
 kr 0
r  r  r 

35
Boundary conditions

1. By simple observation, the temperature distribution

is symmetric in the rod.
2. Tr(ri) = Tc(ri) (intermediate temperature)
3.
dTr dTc
kr  kc
dr @ r  ri dr @ r  ri

4. dTc
kc  h[Tc (ro )  T ]
dr @ r  ro

36
2.4 BOUNDARY AND INITIAL CONDITIONS
The complete solution of the heat equation requires
the state at the boundaries and if the situation is time
dependent, initial condition will be required.
Since the heat equation is a second order in spatial
coordinates, two boundary conditions must be
expressed for each coordinate needed to describe the
system. As the equation is also first order in time,
one initial condition must be satisfied.
Three kinds of boundary conditions commonly
encountered in heat transfer are:

37
1. Constant Surface Temperature:- The surface is
maintained at a fixed temperature at any time.
T(0,t) = Ts ( fig-chp2\fig2.11.pptx )
This is termed as Dirichlet condition or boundary
condition of the first kind. This is closely
approximated by surfaces in contact with phase
changing fluids.
2. Constant Surface Heat Flux:- This heat flux
related to the temperature gradient at the surface is
expressed as
T
q ( 0)   k
''
x  q s''
x @ x  0
38
This is termed as Neumann condition or boundary
condition of the second kind. This may be realized
by bonding a thin film electric heater to the surface
or allowing solar radiation on the surface.
A special case is a perfectly insulated surface, or
adiabatic surface where (∂T/∂x)x=0 = 0.
3. Boundary condition of the third kind involves
convective heat transfer at the surface (cooling or
heating) expressed as
T
k  h[T  T(0, t )]
x @ x  0
39
Example 2.3
A long copper bar of rectangular cross-section, whose
width w is much greater than its thickness L, is
maintained in contact with a heat sink at its lower
surface, and the temperature throughout the bar is
approximately equal to that of the sink, To. Suddenly,
an electric current is passed through the bar and an
airstream of temperature T∞ is passed over the top
surface, while the bottom surface continues to be
maintained at To. Obtain the differential equation and
the boundary and initial conditions that could be
solved to determine the temperature as a function of
position and time in the bar.
40
Figure for example 2.3
41
Solution
The appropriate equation is
 T q
2
1 T
' ''
 
x 2
k  t

One initial condition and two boundary conditions are

required to solve this PDE.
IC: T(x,0) = To
BC: 1) T(0,t) = To
2) T
k  h[T ( L, t )  T ]
x @ x  L
42
43
44