Chapter 2: Heat Conduction

Equation

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 Objectives
• Understand multidimensionality and time dependence of heat transfer,
and the conditions under which a heat transfer problem can be
approximated as being one-dimensional,
• Obtain the differential equation of heat conduction in various
coordinate systems, and simplify it for steady one-dimensional case,
• Identify the thermal conditions on surfaces, and express them
mathematically as boundary and initial conditions,
• Solve one-dimensional heat conduction problems and obtain the
temperature distributions within a medium and the heat flux,
• Analyze one-dimensional heat conduction in solids that involve heat
generation, and
• Evaluate heat conduction in solids with temperature-dependent
thermal conductivity.
 Introduction
• Although heat transfer and temperature are
closely related, they are of a different nature.
• Temperature has only magnitude
it is a scalar quantity.
• Heat transfer has direction as well as magnitude
it is a vector quantity.
• We work with a coordinate system and indicate
direction with plus or minus signs.
 Introduction ─ Continue
• The driving force for any form of heat transfer is the
temperature difference.
• The larger the temperature difference, the larger the
rate of heat transfer.
• Three prime coordinate systems:
– rectangular (T(x, y, z)) ,
– cylindrical (T(r, f, z)),
– spherical (T(r, f, q)).
 Introduction ─ Continue
Classification of conduction heat transfer problems:
• steady versus transient heat transfer,
• multidimensional heat transfer,
• heat generation.
Steady versus Transient Heat Transfer
• Steady implies no change with time at any point
within the medium

• Transient implies variation with time or time

dependence
 Multidimensional Heat Transfer
• Heat transfer problems are also classified as being:
– one-dimensional,
– two dimensional,
– three-dimensional.
• In the most general case, heat transfer through a
medium is three-dimensional. However, some
problems can be classified as two- or one-dimensional
depending on the relative magnitudes of heat transfer
rates in different directions and the level of accuracy
desired.
• The rate of heat conduction through a medium in
a specified direction (say, in the x-direction) is
expressed by Fourier’s law of heat conduction
for one-dimensional heat conduction as:
dT
Qcond  kA (W) (2-1)
dx
• Heat is conducted in the direction
of decreasing temperature, and thus
the temperature gradient is negative
when heat is conducted in the positive x-
direction.
 General Relation for Fourier’s Law of
Heat Conduction
• The heat flux vector at a point P on the surface of
the figure must be perpendicular to the surface,
and it must point in the direction of decreasing
temperature
• If n is the normal of the
isothermal surface at point P,
the rate of heat conduction at
that point can be expressed by
Fourier’s law as
dT
Qn  kA (W) (2-2)
dn
 General Relation for Fourier’s Law of
Heat Conduction-Continue
• In rectangular coordinates, the heat conduction
vector can be expressed in terms of its components as
Qn  Qx i  Qy j  Qz k (2-3)
• which can be determined from Fourier’s law as
 T
Qx   kAx x

 T
Qy   kAy (2-4)
 y
 T
Qz  kAz
 z
 Heat Generation
• Examples:
– electrical energy being converted to heat at a rate of I2R,
– fuel elements of nuclear reactors,
– exothermic chemical reactions.
• Heat generation is a volumetric phenomenon.
• The rate of heat generation units : W/m3 or Btu/h · ft3.
• The rate of heat generation in a medium may vary
with time as well as position within the medium.
• The total rate of heat generation in a medium of
volume V can be determined from
Egen   egen dV (W) (2-5)
V
 One-Dimensional Heat Conduction
Equation - Plane Wall
Rate of heat Rate of heat Rate of heat Rate of change of
conduction - conduction + generation inside the energy content
at x at x+Dx the element
= of the element

DEelement
Qx Qx Dx  Egen,element 
Dt
(2-6)
 DEelement
Qx  Qx Dx  Egen ,element  (2-6)
Dt

• The change in the energy content and the rate of heat

generation can be expressed as
 Eelement  Et Dt  Et  mc Tt Dt  Tt    cADx Tt Dt  Tt  (2-7)
D

 Egen,element  egenVelement  egen ADx (2-8)

• Substituting into Eq. 2–6, we get

Tt Dt  Tt (2-9)
Qx  Qx Dx egen ADx   cADx
Dt
• Dividing by ADx, taking the limit as Dx 0 and Dt 0,
and from Fourier’s law:
1   T  T
 kA 
 gen
e   c (2-11)
A x  x  t
The area A is constant for a plane wall  the one dimensional
transient heat conduction equation in a plane wall is
  T  T
Variable conductivity: k   egen   c (2-13)
x  x  t
 2T egen 1 T k
Constant conductivity:   ;  (2-14)
x 2
k  t c
The one-dimensional conduction equation may be reduces
to the following forms under special conditions
d 2T egen
1) Steady-state: 2
 0 (2-15)
dx k
 2T 1 T
2) Transient, no heat generation:  (2-16)
x 2
 t
d 2T
3) Steady-state, no heat generation: 2
0 (2-17)
dx
 One-Dimensional Heat Conduction
Equation - Long Cylinder
Rate of heat Rate of heat Rate of heat Rate of change of
conduction - conduction + generation inside the energy content
at r at r+Dr the element
= of the element

DEelement
Qr Qr Dr  Egen,element 
Dt
(2-18)
 DEelement
Qr  Qr Dr  Egen,element  (2-18)
Dt

• The change in the energy content and the rate of heat

generation can be expressed as
 Eelement  Et Dt  Et  mc Tt Dt  Tt    cADr Tt Dt  Tt  (2-19)
D

 Egen,element  egenVelement  egen ADr (2-20)

• Substituting into Eq. 2–18, we get

Tt Dt  Tt (2-21)
Qr  Qr Dr  egen ADr   cADr
Dt
• Dividing by ADr, taking the limit as Dr 0 and Dt 0,
and from Fourier’s law:
1   T  T
 kA 
 gen
e   c (2-23)
A r  r  t
Noting that the area varies with the independent variable r
according to A=2prL, the one dimensional transient heat
conduction equation in a cylinder becomes
1   T  T (2-25)
Variable conductivity:  rk 
 gen
e   c
r r  r  t
1   T  egen 1 T
Constant conductivity: r   (2-26)
r r  r  k  t
The one-dimensional conduction equation may be reduces
to the following forms under special conditions
1 d  dT  egen
1) Steady-state: r   0 (2-27)
r dr  dr  k
1   T  1 T
2) Transient, no heat generation: r  (2-28)
r r  r   t
d  dT 
3) Steady-state, no heat generation: r 0 (2-29)
dr  dr 
 One-Dimensional Heat Conduction
Equation - Sphere

1   2 T  T
Variable conductivity: r k   egen   c (2-30)
r r 
2
r  t

1   2 T  egen 1 T
Constant conductivity: r   (2-31)
r r  r  k
2
 t
General Heat Conduction Equation

Rate of heat Rate of heat Rate of heat Rate of change

conduction - conduction
+ generation
= of the energy
at x, y, and z at x+Dx, y+Dy, inside the content of the
and z+Dz element element

DEelement
Qx  Qy  Qz QxDx  Qy Dy  Qz Dz  Egen ,element  (2-36)
Dt
Repeating the mathematical approach used for the one-
dimensional heat conduction, the three-dimensional heat
conduction equation is determined to be
Two-dimensional

Constant conductivity:  2T  2T  2T egen 1 T

 2 2   (2-39)
x 2
y z k  t

Three-dimensional

 2T  2T  2T egen
 2  2   0 (2-40)
1) Steady-state: x 2
y z k
 2T  2T  2T 1 T
2) Transient, no heat generation:  2 2  (2-41)
x 2
y z  t
 2T  2T  2T
3) Steady-state, no heat generation: 2  2  2  0 (2-42)
x y z
 Cylindrical Coordinates

1   T  1 T  T    T  T
 rk  2 k  k   egen   c
r r  r  r f  f  z  z  t
(2-43)
 Spherical Coordinates

1   2 T  1   T  1   T  T
 kr  2 2 k  2  k sin q   egen   c
r r 
2
r  r sin q f  f  r sin q q  q  t

(2-44)
 Boundary and Initial Conditions
• Specified Temperature Boundary Condition
• Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition
• Convection Boundary Condition
• Radiation Boundary Condition
• Interface Boundary Conditions
• Generalized Boundary Conditions
 Specified Temperature Boundary
Condition
For one-dimensional heat transfer
through a plane wall of thickness
L, for example, the specified
temperature boundary conditions
can be expressed as
T(0, t) = T1
T(L, t) = T2 (2-46)

The specified temperatures can be constant, which is the

case for steady heat conduction, or may vary with time.
 Specified Heat Flux Boundary
Condition
The heat flux in the positive x-
direction anywhere in the medium,
including the boundaries, can be
expressed by Fourier’s law of heat
conduction as
dT Heat flux in the
q  k  positive x- (2-47)
dx direction

The sign of the specified heat flux is determined by

inspection: positive if the heat flux is in the positive
direction of the coordinate axis, and negative if it is in
the opposite direction.
 Two Special Cases
Insulated boundary Thermal symmetry

k
T (0, t )
0 or
T (0, t )
0  2 
T L , t
0
x x x
(2-49) (2-50)
 Convection Boundary Condition

Heat conduction Heat convection

at the surface in a
selected direction = at the surface in
the same direction

T (0, t )
k  h1 T1  T (0, t )  (2-51a)
x
and
T ( L, t )
k  h2 T ( L, t )  T 2  (2-51b)
x
 Radiation Boundary Condition

Heat conduction Radiation exchange

at the surface in a
selected direction
= at the surface in
the same direction

T (0, t )
k  1 Tsurr
4
 T (0, t ) 4
 (2-52a)
x
,1

and
T ( L, t )
k   2 T ( L, t ) 4  Tsurr
4

,2 
(2-52b)
x
 Interface Boundary Conditions
At the interface the requirements are:
(1) two bodies in contact must have the same
temperature at the area of contact,
(2) an interface (which is a
surface) cannot store any
energy, and thus the heat flux
on the two sides of an
interface must be the same.
TA(x0, t) = TB(x0, t) (2-53)
and
TA ( x0 , t ) T ( x , t )
k A  k B B 0 (2-54)
x x
 Generalized Boundary Conditions
In general a surface may involve convection, radiation,
and specified heat flux simultaneously. The boundary
condition in such cases is again obtained from a surface
energy balance, expressed as
Heat transfer Heat transfer
to the surface
in all modes
= from the surface
In all modes

Heat Generation in Solids

The quantities of major interest in a medium with heat
generation are the surface temperature Ts and the
maximum temperature Tmax that occurs in the medium
in steady operation.
Heat Generation in Solids -The Surface
Temperature
Rate of Rate of
heat transfer
from the solid
= energy generation
within the solid
(2-63)

For uniform heat generation within the medium

Q  egenV (W) (2-64)
The heat transfer rate by convection can also be
expressed from Newton’s law of cooling as
- Q  hAs Ts  T  (W) (2-65)

egenV
Ts  T  (2-66)
hAs
Heat Generation in Solids -The Surface
Temperature
For a large plane wall of thickness 2L (As=2Awall and
V=2LAwall)
egen L
Ts , plane wall  T  (2-67)
h
For a long solid cylinder of radius r0 (As=2pr0L and
V=pr02L) egen r0
Ts ,cylinder  T  (2-68)
2h
For a solid sphere of radius r0 (As=4pr02 and V=4/3pr03)
egen r0
Ts ,sphere  T  (2-69)
3h
END