2 STATIONARY CONDUCTION

2.1 FOURIER’S LAW

1-Dimensional Steady-State form of Fourier’s Law states for conduction heat transfer
rate

dT
qx � � kA (2-1)
dx

, and for conduction heat flux

dT
q"x � �k . (2-2)
dx

Direction of conduction heat flow is always normal to surface of constant temperature,

isothermal surface. Generalization of conduction rate equation to 3-dimensional form
gives

�T ˆ �T ˆ �T ˆ
q " � � k� T � � k i �k j�k k (2-3)
�x �y �z

2.1.1 Analogy of Fourier’s, Ohm’s and Fick’s Laws

Origin of Fourier’s Law is phenomenological meaning that it is derived from observer
phenomenon rather than first principles of physics. Fourier Law has various numbers of
important analogies: Ohm’s and Fick’s Laws being examples of electrical and mass
transfer analogies.

Table 2-1 Analogy of Fourier’s, Ohm’s and Fick’s Laws

Fourier’s Conduction heat flux q " � � k�T Thermal conductivity k
Law Temperature gradient �T
Ohm’s Law Electrical current density J " � ���V Electrical conductivity �
Voltage gradient V
Fick’s Law Mass diffusion flux q " � � �D�m Diffusion coefficient D
Mass concentration gradient �m

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2.2 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Thermophysical properties of materials are classified to two categories: transport and
thermodynamic properties. Thermal conductivity is transport property, and density and
specific heat are common thermodynamic properties (Table 2-2).

Table 2-2 Transport and thermodynamical material properties (Note analogy in transport properties)
Transport
Thermal conductivity k Heat Transfer, Conduction: q � � k�T
"

Diffusivity D Mass Transfer, Diffusion: q � � D�m

"

Viscosity � Friction, shear stress: � � �� u

Thermodynamic
Density �
Specific heat cp
Volumetric heat capacity �c p Describes the ability of system to store thermal energy

Thermal diffusivity � � k �c p [m2/s] is ratio of heat conducted through the material to

heat stored per unit volume.

2.2.1 Thermal Conductivity

As stated earlier in Fourier’s Law, thermal conductivity is defined as
"
� qx
k� [W/mK] (2-4)
��T / �x�
Conductivity depends on physical atomic and molecular structure of matter, which are
related to state of matter.

Solids: Thermal conductivity for solids can be expressed as

k � ke � kl (2-5)

k e �� Conductivity associated with freely moving electrons

k l �� Conductivity related to vibration of lattice

Structure of refractory materials is porous and their effective thermal conductivity is

formed as a sum of different heat transfer modes: conduction, convection and radiation.

Liquids and gases: For fluids thermal energy is transported with molecular motion. As
molecular spacing is much larger in case of liquid and gases compared to solids,
thermal energy transport is less effective, therefore meaning smaller conductivities than
that of solids. Similarly gases have generally smaller conductivities than liquids.

Typical conductivities and temperature dependence of materials are shown in Figure

2-1 figure.

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Figure 2-1 Range and temperature dependency of thermal conductivities of various materials

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2.3 GENERAL HEAT DIFFUSION EQUATION
Suitable statement of the first law of thermodynamics for heat transfer analysis for
control volume, as described earlier, can be given as Thermal and mechanical energy
equation:

dE� st
E� st � � E� in � E� out � E� g (2-6)
dt
Est = Stored thermal and mechanical energy
Ein / out = Energy entering/leaving system
Eg = Thermal energy generation

Figure 2-2 Differential Cartesian control volume for conduction analysis

The conduction heat rates at opposite surfaces can be given as Taylor series expansion:

�q x
q x � dx � q x � dx (2-7)
�x
�q y
q y � dy � q y � dy (2-8)
�y
�q z
q z � dz � qz � dz (2-9)
�z

Energy source term can written as

E� g � q� dx dy dz (2-10)

q� = Energy generation rate in unit volume W/ m 3

Change of thermal energy in control volume with time can be written as

�T
E� st � �c p dx dy dz (2-11)
�t

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Writing energy equation by substituting conduction rates as energy flow terms,
following form can be obtained:

� �q � � �q � � �q � �T
q x � q y � q z � � q x � x dx � � �� q y � y dy �� � � q z � z dz � � q� dxdydz � �c p dxdydz
� �x � � �y � � �z � �t

�q x �q y �q �T
� � dx � dy � z dz � qdxdydz
� � �c p dxdydz (2-12)
�x �y �z �t

Conduction heat rates can be written according Fourier’s Law:

�T
q x � � k dy dz (2-13)
�x
�T
q y � � k dx dz (2-14)
�y
�T
q z � � k dx dy (2-15)
�z

By substituting conduction heat rates to energy equation the general form of heat
diffusion equation (also heat equation) in Cartesian coordinates can be obtained

� � �T � � � �T � � � �T � �T
� k � � � k � � � k � � q� � �c p (2-16)
�x � �x � �y � �y � �z � �z � �t

Heat diffusion equation is simplified, if thermal conductivity is constant (isotropic

conditions), and can be written as

� 2 T � 2 T � 2 T q� 1 �T
� � � � (2-17)
�x 2 �y 2 �z 2 k � �t

Initial Condition
As heat equation is first order in time, only one condition, termed initial condition has
to be specified. Typical condition is known temperature distribution T(x, y, z, t=0) at
time t.

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Boundary Conditions
For each coordinate (2nd order) in heat equation two boundary conditions has to given
to describe system. Typical boundary conditions are shown in Figure 2-3.

Figure 2-3 Boundary conditions for heat diffusion equation at the surface (Incropera)

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