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Innovative approaches to
anti-arrhythmic drug therapy
Stanley Nattel* and Leif Carlsson‡
Abstract | Normal cardiac function requires an appropriate and regular beating rate
(cardiac rhythm). When the heart rhythm is too fast or too slow, cardiac function can be
impaired, with derangements that vary from mild symptoms to life-threatening
complications. Irregularities, particularly those involving excessively fast or slow rates,
constitute cardiac ‘arrhythmias’. In the past, drug treatment of cardiac arrhythmias has
proven difficult, both because of inadequate effectiveness and a risk of serious
complications. However, a variety of recent advances have opened up exciting possibilities
for the development of novel and superior approaches to arrhythmia therapy. This article
will review recent progress and future prospects for treating two particularly important
cardiac arrhythmias: atrial fibrillation and ventricular fibrillation.
The normal heart beats approximately 100,000 times a of problems with side effects, particularly a paradoxi-
day, with beating rates finely tuned to the body’s needs. cal capacity to create more serious rhythm disorders
When the beating rate is inappropriately rapid or slow than the ones being treated, a phenomenon called ‘pro-
because of abnormalities in cardiac rhythm referred to as arrhythmia’6. Pro-arrhythmia is largely due to powerful
‘cardiac arrhythmias’, cardiac function can be impaired, effects of the drugs on ion channels, often in cardiac
producing derangements varying from mild symptoms regions other than the arrhythmic zone being treated,
to severe life-threatening complications. which create unexpected derangements in the presence
Two particularly important cardiac arrhythmias of a vulnerable substrate and induce rhythm instability.
with major clinical implications are atrial fibrillation Because of the potentially devastating effect of
(AF) and ventricular fibrillation (VF) (FIG. 1). AF is the arrhythmias, even low-probability events that occur
most common arrhythmia in the population1,2, and the in predisposed individuals at crucial times can be very
complex mechanisms leading to abnormal firing in AF dangerous, and pro-arrhythmic potential is a serious
are being rapidly elucidated3. Its age-related occurrence limitation of presently used anti-arrhythmic agents.
rate is growing alarmingly with the ageing of the popula- There is therefore a major unmet need for drugs that
tion, and it is estimated that if present trends continue will control arrhythmias more safely and effectively. New
more than 15 million Americans will be affected by AF developments in our understanding of the molecular
by 20504. It is also a common identifiable cause of stroke and biophysical factors controlling cardiac rhythm — as
(the single most common factor in stroke of the elderly) well as rapidly advancing approaches to high-through-
*Department of Medicine and is associated with particularly severe strokes5. VF is put screening (HTS) of molecular libraries, intelligent
and Research Center,
Montreal Heart Institute
the most common cause of sudden cardiac death, and is chemical modification of substance structure to achieve
and Université de Montréal, estimated to kill about 600,000 individuals per year in desired profiles of action, and cell and gene therapy
5000 Belanger Street, Europe and the United States combined. — are creating exciting opportunities in anti-arrhythmic
Montreal, Quebec, Anti-arrhythmic drugs have been used for more than therapeutic innovation. This paper reviews emerging
Canada H1T 1C8.
‡
a hundred years, ever since quinidine was identified as findings that promise the development of new types of
AstraZeneca Research
& Development, the active ingredient in Cinchona bark and subsequently safer and more effective anti-arrhythmic compounds,
Integrative Pharmacology, achieved widespread use in the 1920s6. Currently avail- addressing in particular drugs that target the two very
Pepparedsleden 1, able anti-arrhythmic drug options include less than a important arrhythmias, AF and VF, illustrated in FIG. 1.
S-431 83 Mölndal, Sweden. dozen rather old agents, the majority of which were spe-
Correspondence to S.N.:
e-mail:
cifically designed to target ion channels, with the most Key basic concepts
stanley.nattel@icm-mhi.org recent launch more than 5 years ago. Anti-arrhythmic The cellular basis of cardiac electrical activity is the car-
doi:10.1038/nrd2112 drug use has decreased over the past 15 years because diac action potential (AP), which is based on ion fluxes
through specific membrane structures, particularly ion intracellular potential to a positive value (causing a phase
channels (BOX 1). The ‘firing’ or depolarization of cardiac of the AP called ‘phase 0’), it goes through a series of reg-
cells and closely associated cardiac electrical conduction ulated repolarizing steps (AP phases 1 and 3), separated
depends on the movement of positive ions into the cell by a relatively flat phase of the AP (phase 2), to get back
(Na+ for atrial and ventricular tissue, Ca2+ for nodal to its resting potential (BOX 1). Cardiac cells are gener-
structures such as the sino-atrial node (SAN) and the ally inexcitable once they have fired, and the time taken
atrioventricular (AV) node). Once a cardiac cell is fired from initial depolarization to repolarization (called AP
by being depolarized from its normally negative resting duration (APD)) imposes a limit (called the refractory
period (RP)) on how soon a cell can be re-excited. APD
is controlled by the rate of repolarization, which depends
a Normal heart
on the balance between inward movement of Na+ and
SAN LA AV node Ca2+ that tends to keep the cell depolarized and outward
0 mV SAN RA movement of K+ through a series of highly specialized
mV
mV
0 mV channels with typical time-dependent opening and
–50 –60 closing properties.
The underlying cause of cardiac arrhythmias is
AV node
Atrium
abnormal impulse formation or impulse propagation
Atrium Ventricle (FIG. 2) resulting from defective (overactive or underac-
30 mV 30 mV tive) function of cardiac ion channels and exchangers.
mV
mV
concentration of K+. The cell is impermeable to Na+ and Final
Ca2+, but is permeable to K+ through a channel Upstroke IKACh↑ repolarization (3)
+
(0)
designated IK1. As a result, positively charged K ions If↓
IK1↑
flow slowly out of the cell, keeping the interior
IKACh↑ Pacemaker
negative. When the membrane potential reaches a function
crucial threshold voltage, the cells ‘fire’ as positive ions IK1↑
(Na+ in the case of atrium and ventricle, Ca2+ in the APD
–80
case of the sino-atrial and atrioventricular nodes) Resting
NCX↓
(4) 0.2 seconds
enter the cell and rapidly bring the cell to a
‘depolarized’, positive potential (a process known as IK1
the AP upstroke or AP phase 0). The large current (INa) INa
through Na+ channels provides the electrical energy Ito
IKur
for rapid conduction in the mammalian heart. ICaL
2+
Following depolarization, Ca enters the cell through IKr
the L-type Ca2+-channel (ICaL), helping the cell to IKs
remain depolarized after initial depolarization and NCX
If
inducing mechanical contraction. During the ‘plateau’ IKACh
2+ +
phase of the AP (phase 2), inward Ca and outward K
currents are relatively balanced. To bring the cell back
to its resting state (‘repolarization’), an outward flow of K+ has to occur and is produced by a series of K+ currents known
by their time-dependent properties as transient-outward (Ito) and ultra-rapid (IKur), rapid (IKr), and slow (IKs) delayed-
rectifier currents. Rapidly activating K+ currents such as Ito and IKur are responsible for very rapid initial repolarization
(phase 1), whereas slower components (IKr and IKs) primarily determine terminal repolarization (phase 3), which brings
the cell back to its resting state. The time elapsed between AP upstroke and the return to the resting potential is
referred to as AP duration (APD; green bracket). Cells are unable to manifest a normal AP upstroke during the
depolarized phase of the AP, a period of relative inexcitability called the refractory period, corresponding roughly to the
APD. Some cells have a ‘pacemaker current’, If, allowing them to depolarize gradually during phase 4 to ‘threshold’,
causing repetitive spontaneous firing at a frequency characteristic of the tissue. The extra Na+ and Ca2+ which have
entered the cell during the AP are extruded (and the K+ which has left the cell is brought back in) by exchanging
intracellular Na+ for extracellular K+ (through the Na+,K+-pump) and Na+ for Ca2+ (by an exchanger called the Na+,Ca2+-
exchanger (NCX)). The acetylcholine-regulated K+ current IKACh is an inward rectifier current with time and voltage
dependent properties roughly similar to those of IK1. The timing of each current in relation to the AP is shown in the
schematic below.
of arrhythmogenic remodelling. A list of new anti- One interesting potential target is IKur, carried by
arrhythmic agents, along with molecular structures, Kv1.5 subunits (FIG. 4), which in humans has a significant
target, therapeutic indication, stage of development role in the atria12,13 but is absent in the ventricles13–15.
and manufacturer, is provided in TABLE 1. Its inhibition should delay atrial repolarization and RP
without affecting ventricular tissue (and therefore be
Atrial-selective drug targets free of the risk of ventricular pro-arrhythmia). Many
The most common mechanism of AF is complex atrial pharmaceutical companies have developed IKur block-
reentry1 (FIG. 3). An effective way to prevent or terminate ers16 and some compounds are approaching or have
re-entry is to increase the RP. The RP can be increased by entered clinical trials. One representative of this group is
drugs that inhibit K+-channels, making cells take longer AVE0118 (Sanofi-Aventis), which initially was believed
to repolarize to their rested state, and the drugs that to be a specific IKur blocker but later found to block Ito
have traditionally been used to prolong the RP (such as and IKACh as well. AVE0118 has shown excellent anti-
quinidine, sotalol and dofetilide) target IKr6. The problem arrhythmic efficacy in a goat model of persistent AF17.
with IKr as a target is that it is crucial for repolarization Another example that very recently entered clinical test-
in all parts of the heart, and in predisposed patients IKr ing is XEN-D0101 (Xention), which is highly selective
blockers destabilize ventricular repolarization and cause for IKur and has demonstrated anti-arrhythmic efficacy
potentially lethal EAD-related arrhythmias (FIG. 2C)10,11. in two canine AF models18,19.
There has therefore been a search for newer agents with A key issue will be whether IKur block effectively pro-
atrial-selective actions. longs the atrial AP, because the AP changes induced by
IKur block will predominantly delay early repolarization A Accelerated normal automaticity
(phases 1 and 2, BOX 1) and move the plateau (phase 2) to
a more positive potential. A more positive plateau activates
more IKr and consequently accelerates late repolarization
(phase 3). The acceleration of phase 3 can totally offset 0
the delaying of phases 1 and 2, causing no net AP pro-
longation20,21. However, in rapidly firing fibrillating tissue
mV
and with atrial remodelling the role of IKr is small and IKur
block prolongs the AP. Another issue is potential accessory
effects on non-cardiac tissue as Kv1.5 is found in vascu-
lar, neural and pancreatic tissues as well as the heart22–24. –80
However, no such effects have been seen in preclinical
studies and results in humans will be a crucial test. B Delayed after-depolarizations
Another potentially interesting target is the acetyl-
choline-related K+ current, IKACh (carried by Kir3.1/3.4
heterotetramers, FIG. 4). IKACh is normally small or absent
in the absence of the parasympathetic neurotransmitter 0
acetylcholine. When acetylcholine is released from para-
sympathetic nerves, it activates IKACh, which has strong
b
mV
atrial AP-shortening and AF-promoting effects. Recent
studies have shown that AF alters IKACh properties, caus-
ing the channel to open even in the absence of acetylcho-
a
line25,26 and resulting in APD abbreviation that promotes –80
AF27. IKACh is absent in the ventricles: blocking IKACh has no
effect on ventricular-cell currents or APs27. IKACh blockers C Early after-depolarizations
therefore might suppress AF without causing ventricular
pro-arrhythmia. Efforts to develop IKACh blockers are still
in their infancy, but one candidate molecular series is
being developed28 and is approaching clinical testing. 0
Na+-channel blockade is highly effective in terminat-
ing AF by causing primary re-entry waves to extinguish29.
RSD1235 (vernakalant; Cardiome) is a recently devel-
mV
mV
function mediated largely by a mitochondrial KATP chan-
nel and electrical changes due to a sarcolemmal chan-
a c
nel42. Organic compounds (for example, HMR 1883 and –60
HMR1098/clamikalant; Sanofi-Aventis) selectively block –80 RP I
sarcolemmal KATP channels43, suppress ischaemia-induced
electrocardiographic changes44 and prevent associated Figure 3 | Re-entry. Re-entry as an electrical short-
ventricular fibrillation45. Because of the selectivity of circuit between two cells: re-entry depends on the
their action for acutely ischaemic tissue, they are poten- balance between refractory and conduction properties
of two adjacent tissue zones (I and II) that are
tially promising for the prevention of ischaemic sudden
connected, as shown in the inset. The solid lines
arrhythmic death. If such compounds prove to be suf- represent action potential recordings (a and b,
ficiently selective as to be both safe in relatively low-risk respectively) from zones I (lower trace) and II (upper
patients and effective against ischaemic arrhythmias, they trace) of the tissue without arrhythmia, and dashed
could be given chronically to patients with coronary artery potentials show recording with a re-entrant extra beat.
disease in order to prevent ischaemia-induced malignant Re-entry occurs when an impulse (b) leaves one cell (II
arrhythmias should an ischaemic event ensue. here) and arrives in another zone (I) before cells in the
The Brugada syndrome is a familial condition that, latter zone have fully repolarized (and therefore are
like acute myocardial ischaemia, involves elevation of refractory), setting up a delayed activation (c) of zone I
the ST segment on the electrocardiogram (reflecting (red dashed line). If a cell in zone II has now recovered its
excitability, this action potential (c) can propagate to
abnormal local repolarization; see also FIG. 6b) and
initiate an action potential (d) in zone II. This process can
an increased risk of sudden death due to ventricular occur repeatedly, causing a sustained rapid rhythm
fibrillation 46. As in acute myocardial ischaemia 47, (‘tachycardia’). In order for this mechanism to be
electrophysiological deterioration in the Brugada syn- maintained, the time for the impulse to traverse the
drome can be precipitated by Na+-channel blocking circuit has to be longer than the time required for cells
drugs48. Many genotyped cases involve loss-of-func- to regain excitability after initial firing as determined
tion mutations in cardiac Na+ channels and it has been by their refractory period (RP).
suggested that a key pathophysiological event is very
rapid repolarization in the outer (epicardial) layer of
heart muscle, which has a very large Ito early in the
AP, in the face of reduced inward INa to keep the cell Hyperpolarization-activated nonselective cation chan-
depolarized49. Similar pathophysiology might occur nels. A K+ current showing time-dependent inactiva-
in acute ischaemia, and ventricular tachyarrhythmic tion was initially believed to have a key role in cardiac
death in both acute ischaemia and Brugada syndrome pacemaking, but subsequent studies suggested that the
could be amenable to prevention by Ito blockers. At current involved carries both Na+ and K+ in a relatively
present, no selective Ito blockers are available; however, non-selective fashion and is activated in a time-depend-
the development of compounds targeting the under- ent way at negative potentials50. Because of its unusual
lying Kv4.3–KChIP2 subunit complex could produce ion-selectivity and voltage-dependent properties the
interesting new therapeutic possibilities. current was initially named If for ‘funny current’50. The
Finally, improved understanding of the basic mecha- underlying channel subunits have been cloned and
nisms of cell-to-cell coupling and their pharmacological named hyperpolarization-activated, cyclic nucleotide-
manipulation has yielded new approaches to ischaemia- gated cation channel (HCN) subunits. Four isoforms are
related uncoupling of intercellular communication. known, with HCN4 being particularly important in car-
diac pacemaking51, although various ionic currents con-
Targets that control spontaneous activity tribute to pacemaking function52. Recently developed,
A number of specific cardiac currents are involved in highly selective If inhibitors such as ivabradine (Servier)
the generation or regulation of spontaneous activity and (FIG. 4)53 might be useful for cardiac arrhythmias result-
abnormalities in these currents can cause abnormal local ing from abnormally increased pacemaker function in
cellular activity that generates arrhythmias (FIG. 2). regions that do not normally pace the heart54.
L-364,373
(agonist)
Calstabin2
2+
SR Ca JTV519
RyR2 (stabilizer of
RyR channels)
RSD1235 (vernakalant)
(blocker) GsMTx4 Mibefradil Rotigaptide (agonist)
Phase III iv/II oral (blocker) (blocker) Phase II
INa + ICaT
Nav1.5 Cav3.1/3.2
Cytosol
β β SAC SAC ?
Gap junction Extracellular space
Na+ + Ca2+
Connexin
Connexon
Drug Preclinical Drug Clinical trials (phase indicated) Drug Withdrawn from market/clinical trials
Figure 4 | Ion currents, ion channel subunits and ion transporters implicated in arrhythmogenesis. Schematic of a
cardiac cell, depicting ion channels and ion transporters that are targeted by investigational drugs. SR, sarcoplasmic
reticulum; SAC, stretch activated channel.
Azimilide
Dronedarone
O
HO
OH
O
SSR149744C
AVE0118
N OH
RSD1235
(Vernakalant)
HO H
Rotigaptide
CF3 CF3
NS1643
HMR-1556
F N
H
L-364,373
a Loss of plateau dome b Normal cell-to-cell coupling hypertrophy, and inherited arrhythmogenic diseases
because of INa/Ito imbalance: such as catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular
block Ito and/or IKATP tachycardia (CPVT)66. By promoting after-depolariza-
0 tions (FIG. 2B), Ca2+-handling abnormalities can lead to
arrhythmias including atrial and ventricular fibrillation.
Ca 2+ handling is a crucial and complex cardio-
myocyte function. Effective contraction requires rapid
mV
ST segment
AP Epicardial
AP
1s
Arrhythmic beat
Endocardial
Epicardial
Figure 6 | Examples of genetically based arrhythmia syndromes. a | Long QT syndrome. Long QT syndromes cause
paroxysmal ventricular tachyarrhythmias of characteristic, polymorphic morphology (Torsades de Pointes, electrocardiogram
(ECG) in upper panel) by impairing repolarization and causing arrhythmogenic early after-depolarizations (EADs) and
ectopic beats (action potential (AP) recordings s in lower panel). b | Brugada syndrome. The top panel shows a typical
Brugada ECG. The horizontal green lines delineate the ‘ST segment’. The characteristic electrocardiographic ST segment
elevation (dashed line, as opposed to normal ECG depicted by the solid line) is believed to be due to rapid repolarization in
the Brugada syndrome of the outer (epicardial) layer of the heart (see lower panel, the Brugada syndrome epicardial AP is
shown by the dashed line; a normal epicardial AP is shown by the black line). Rapid epicardial repolarization in Brugada
syndrome patients results from the large epicardial Ito, which overpowers a diminished Na+ current caused by the Na+
channel loss-of-function mutation that underlies Brugada syndrome. Electrical current flows from normally repolarizing
inner-layer (endocardial, red line) cells to the early-repolarizing epicardium. The resulting large voltage gradient produces
depolarization and reactivation of the endocardial cell, causing extra beats that can initiate ventricular tachyarrhythmias90.
reduces AF inducibility in dogs with sterile pericardi- constitutes a potential novel anti-arrhythmic strategy,
tis72. Atrial cardiomyocytes from patients with chronic although we are not aware of effective and non-toxic lead
AF or from dogs with pacing-induced AF show RyR2 compounds presently under study.
hyperphosphorylation and calstabin 2 unbinding, which
are corrected by JTV51973. JTV519 might therefore be an Targeting intercellular coupling mechanisms
important potential lead structure for identification of Gap junctions contain clusters of closely packed
compounds targeting calstabin 2–RyR2 binding. hemichannel subunits that connect adjacent cells to
Another important enzyme which forms part of the allow intercellular communication by the passage of ions
RyR2 macromolecular complex is the Ca2+/calmodulin- and small molecules, producing the continuous syncytial
dependent protein kinase (CaMKII), which has been function of myocardial tissue. The conducting structures
shown to contribute to arrhythmogenesis in conditions formed by oligomerization of transmembrane spanning
such as Torsades de Pointes (TdP). TdP is a potentially life- proteins are named connexins, six of which constitute
threatening ventricular arrhythmia that is associated with an individual connexon. Of >20 connexin genes in the
abnormal repolarization, EADs and myocardial re-entry. genome, connexins 43, 40 and 45 are the most abundantly
Because of the very rapid rate of TdP, it can cause ventricu- expressed in the myocardium. Connexin 43 dominates in
lar ischaemia and/or irregular re-entry that degenerates working ventricular and atrial myocytes. Connexin 40 is
into ventricular fibrillation74. CaMKII increases L-type also expressed in atrium, and along with connexin 45 in
Ca2+-channel open probability, potentially facilitating conduction tissue. Changes in gap-junction organization,
channel reactivation that causes EADs, effects attenuated expression and function create a substrate for arrhyth-
by CaMKII inhibitors75,76. CaMKII inhibition therefore mias77, and abnormalities in connexins occur in a range
development of selective Ito blockers (none of which are treatment of AF and VF when it becomes possible to
presently known) would present a new and valuable tool identify patients with arrhythmias due to intracellular
for the Brugada syndrome and related arrhythmias. Ca2+ leak and treat them with agents that are specific to
CPVTs result when a diastolic Ca 2+ leak occurs, their pathophysiology70–73.
which is typically caused by mutations affecting RyR2
or the SR Ca 2+ -binding protein calsequestrin 106–109 Cell and gene therapy
(BOX 2). This can lead to DADs (FIG. 2B), which, when The limitations in currently available therapy for man-
large enough, can reach firing threshold and cause trig- agement of cardiac arrhythmias have led to considerable
gered activity. Because catecholamines enhance Ca2+ interest in exploring the potential utility of gene- and
entry into cardiac cells by stimulating β-adrenoceptors, cell-transfer therapy. Efforts to date have centred on
situations of enhanced adrenergic drive are the approaches to recreate or amplify cardiac pacemaker
most common triggers for arrhythmias related to activity, to modify electrical conduction and to influ-
abnormal diastolic Ca2+ release. CPVT responds to ence cardiac repolarization110,111. Strategies that have
β-adrenoceptor blockers, but arrhythmias can also been used to create or enhance biological pacemaker
occur in the absence of β-adrenergic drive and many activity in the target region include overexpression of
patients require implanted defibrillators to prevent β2-adrenoceptors to augment adrenergic responsive-
potentially lethal arrhythmias. The development of ness, suppression of IK1 to permit a greater effect of
drugs that stabilize the Ca2+-release channel and prevent endogenous pacemaker currents, enhancement of If by
diastolic Ca2+ leak, such as JTV51970,71, might produce transfer of underlying HCN subunits, and cell therapy
valuable new agents for arrhythmic conditions such as (in combination with genetic engineering) to create new
CPVT associated with diastolic Ca2+ leak-related DADs. pacemaker cells from mesenchymal or embryonic stem
These insights could affect future pharmacological cells111. Strategies to modify intracardiac conduction
have focussed on interventions that suppress AV nodal Gene therapy has the promise to provide very specific
ICaL through gene transfer of adenoviral vectors carry- modulation of individual currents in selected cardiac
ing inhibitory G-protein (Gαi2) to the AV node or by regions. However, the area of arrhythmia gene- and
targeted Gem (a Ras-related small G-protein) gene cell-transfer therapy is presently still in its infancy. None
transfer to reduce trafficking of ICaL α-subunits to the of the applications described so far have been tested in
sarcolemma110,112. Both interventions reduced ventricu- humans and we are not aware of any ongoing clinical
lar response rate during AF, in pigs and guinea pigs, trials of gene therapy for cardiac arrhythmia treat-
respectively. A few studies have evaluated ion-channel ment. Major hurdles to circumvent include practical
or engineered cardiomyocyte gene transfer to alter approaches for successful transfer to the target region in
action potential morphology in canine ventricular humans, potential risks of pro-arrhythmia, the control
myocytes110. In vitro gene transfer of K+ currents accel- of amplitude, duration and location of gene expression,
erates repolarization in ventricular myocytes isolated and potential toxic effects of the vector or the transgene,
from mice, rats and rabbits113–116. Chamber-selective along with consequences of host immune responses.
gene therapy was recently reported in pigs: atrial gene
transfer of a dominant negative KCNH2 mutant elimi- Prevention of arrhythmogenic remodelling
nated IKr, specifically atrial repolarization, and left the During the past 10–15 years, the mechanisms by which a
ventricles unaffected117. variety of acquired conditions alter cardiac structure and
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