Republic of the Philippines

PARTIDO STATE UNIVERSITY

Goa, Camarines Sur

PARTIDO STATE UNIVERSITY TINAMBAC CAMPUS

Name of Campus/ College

Module I
INTRODUCTION TO PLANT BIOLOGY: THE NATURE AND OVERVIEW OF PLANT LIFE

Name of Student: _________________________________ Week No: Week 1 1

Course Code: CSBIO2 Name of Faculty: For. Ceazar Ian B. Pesimo
Course Title: GENERAL BOTANY

I. OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, the students should be able to:

 Outline the important milestones and definition of botany as a discipline and its importance to
people and the environment; and
 Apply the principle of scientific method in solving a query related to botany
Laboratory objective:
 Operate microscopes and other basic laboratory equipment; and
 Demonstrate knowledge of laboratory and behaviour in a botany laboratory.

II. LESSON

This module is an introduction to the basic concepts and overview of Plant Biology. Specifically, we will define
Botany and discuss its historical background to be able to relate how each milestone contributed to its
establishment as a branch of biology and, ultimately, its importance to humanity. We will also review the
concepts of scientific method and microscopy, despite being discussed already in the prerequisite course of this
subject. This review is essential because scientific method is the core of all sciences and microscopy is a basic
skill for any life science subjects and a necessity to further understand our proceeding topics. And for the last
part, there will be a detailed discussion on the characteristics unique to plants which will provide snippets of
topics that we will grace throughout the whole semester.

Let’s start!

INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY: PLANT SCIENCE

Botany is simply the branch of biology that deals with study of all living
organisms under the Kingdom Plantae. It is defined as the study of plant.
Plants are any organisms belonging to the Kingdom Plantae.

Kingdom Plantae is made up

of multicellular and eukaryotic
plants broadly composed of
four evolutionarily related
groups: bryophytes (mosses),
(seedless vascular plants),
gymnosperms (cone bearing
seed plants), and
angiosperms (flowering seed
plants)
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PARTIDO STATE UNIVERSITY
Goa, Camarines Sur

Biological Classification: Kingdom Plantae

Figure 1.Plantae
Characteristics common to all organisms under the Kingdom
 Plants are eukaryotic and multicellular.
o Eukaryotic organisms meaning they are more complex and have cells with true and
enclosed nucleus.
o Multicellular meaning they are composed of more than one cell.

Figure 2. Plants as eukaryotic and multicellular organism Figure 3. Alternate occurrence of

Photosynthesis and Respiration

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 Plants take in and use energy.

o Through the processes of photosynthesis (make energy) and respiration (use uo energy).
 Plants grow and develop.
o Through a series of process of cell growth, differentiation
and maturity.
 Growth
 Need inorganic elements
 Water absorption
 Food distribution
 Development Figure 4. Plant Growth and Development
 Hormones external signals
 Plants respond to stimuli.
o Stimuli refers to the changes in the environment to which the organisms respond and
react.
o Coordination refers to the working together of the various organs of an organism in a
systematic manner so as to produce a proper response to the stimulus
o Tropism refers to the growth pattern in response to an environmental stimulus
 Types:
 Positive tropism is movement or growth towards a stimulus.
 Negative tropism is the movement or growth away from a stimulus.
 Phototropism
o growth response of a plant in response to light direction
o Stems exhibit positive phototropism while most roots exhibit
Figure 4. Plant stem
exhibiting positive negative phototropism.
phototropism and plant  Geotropism
root exhibiting positive o growth response of a plant in response to gravity.
geotropism o Roots exhibit positive geotropism while stems and leaves
exhibit negative geotropism.
 Thigmotropism
o growth response of a plant to physical contact (touch).
o Plants that cling to physical structures such as walls exhibit
positive thigmotropism.
Figure 5. Plant tip (neon green) exhibiting positive thigmotropism

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Table 1. Important Macro- and  Hydrotropism

Microelements to Plants o growth response of a plant to water.
o Roots exhibit positive hydrotropism.
 Chemotropism
o growth response of a plant to a particular
chemical.
o Roots grow toward useful minerals in the
soil but away from acids.
 Plants have defense mechanisms
o Through series of mechanical and chemical defense and other
adaptations.
Figure 6. Plant roots
 Mechanical Defense - first line of defense in plants is an intact
exhibiting positive
and impenetrable barrier composed of bark and a waxy
hydrotropism
cuticle.
 Chemical Defense – secondary metabolites that are toxic and can be lethal to
animals when ingested. There are many forms of these secondary metabolites.
 Oils of Mint and Sage - Discourage predators w/ odor
 Bitterness of Quinine - Repellant taste
 Caffeine of Coffee - Excessive simulation
 Opoids - Lethargy
 Cassava Roots - Toxic after ingestion in the form of Glycol cyanide
 Foxgloves - Toxic after ingestion in the form of cardiac and steroidal
glycosides

Figure 7. Examples of Mechanical Defense of Plants Figure 8. Examples of Chemical Defense of Plants

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 Plants live and adapt.

o Plants thrive to a wide variety of environments.
 Plants reproduce.
Figure 9. Formula of Wildlife Formation
o Modes of Reproduction
 Sexual Reproduction - two parents give rise to offspring that have unique
combinations of genes inherited from the two parents. Offsprings have high
genetic diversity.
 Asexual Reproduction - one parent produces genetically identical offspring by
mitosis:
 Vegetative Reproduction is an asexual reproduction in which new roots
and shoots grow from a parent plant or pieces of it.

Figure 10. Pollination in Plants

 Plants have wide variety of uses.

o Ethnobotany is the study of plants and their practical uses through the traditional
knowledge of a local culture and people.
 Plants undergo evolution.
 Plants exhibit diversity.

Figure 12. Plants evolution promoting plant diversity

Figure 11. Wide uses of Plants

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Characteristics Unique to Plants

 At the cellular level, plants have cellulosic cell wall, central vacuole, plasmodesmata, and unique
plastids such as the chloroplasts.
 Plants are photosynthesizing organism using the green pigment chlorophyll.
 Plants exhibit heteromorphic alteration of generation
o Which means plant both have a sporophyte and gametophyte version within their life
cycle.
 Plants exhibit open development.
o Plants have meristematic cells and tissues that is retained throughout its life to give rise to
many types of cells.

Brief History of the Field of Botany

The timeline for the history will be broken down into five (5) time periods:

 Pre-17th Century
o Historically speaking, biology or the study of life has been divided into two (2)
classification only: Botany, for plants, and Zoology for animals.
o During the 4th Century B.C.E. Aristotle and Theophrastus got involved in Figure 13. Theophrastus
identifying plants and describing them. (look for reference)
 Theophrastus was hailed as the “Father of botany” because of his two
surviving works on plant studies.  
 Although Aristotle also wrote about plants, he received more recognition
for his studies of animals.
o In A.D. 60, Pedanios Dioscorides wrote the De Materia Medica which described a
thousand medicines, majority of which came from plants and for 1500 years, it
remained the guidebook on medicines in the Western world until the invention of
the compound microscope.
Figure 14. Pedanios Dioscorides

 17th Century
o In 1640, Johannes van Helmont measured the uptake of water in a tree.  
o In 1665, Robert Hooke outlined his various studies using the microscopes in his
publication entitled Micrographia.
 However, the cells he described showed no signs of nucleus or other major
organelles.
 Despite this, his publication was known because he discovered that cork and plant
tissues are made up of small “cavities” separated by walls
 Cavities = “cells” from Latin term “cella” meaning storerooms/chambers.
 This led to the coining of the term: Cells.
Figure 15. o It is in 1674 when Anton van Leeuwenhoek saw a live cell under a Figure 16. Robert
Johannes van microscope. Hooke
Helmont  He is considered to be the ”Father of Microbiology” as he discovered
bacteria, free-living and parasitic microscopic protists, sperm cells, blood cells,
microscopic nematodes and many other microscopic organisms.
 The discovery of bacteria broke the notion that all biology is only divided into botany
and zoology which led to the current classification of living organisms we have today.

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o Rudolf Camerarius established plant sexuality in his book entitled De Sexu Plantarum Epistola
which translates to “Epistle on the sex of plants” in 1694.
 18 Century
th

o During 1727, Stephen Hales successfully established plant physiology as a science.

 He published his experiments about plant nutrition and respiration in his publication
entitled Vegetable Statick.
o ”Father of Taxonomy” - Carolus Linnaeus (Carl von Linne) introduced the science of taxonomy
and devised system for naming, ranking, and classifying organisms in 1758.
o In 1774, Joseph Priestley laid foundation for the chemical analysis of plant metabolism and
published his works as Experiment and Observation on Different Kinds of Air.
 This paper demonstrated that green plants absorb “fixed air” (carbon dioxide) from the
atmosphere, give off “gas” or “dephlogisticated air”, which is now known as oxygen.

Figure 17. 17th and 18th Century Scientists (from left to right): Anton van Leeuwenhoek, Rodulf Camerarius, Stephen Hales,
Carolus Linnaeus, and Joseph Priestley

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PARTIDO STATE UNIVERSITY
Goa, Camarines Sur

 19th Century
o There has been progress in the study of plant fossils in the early part of the 19th century.
o Chlorophyll was discovered in 1818.
o The Cell doctrine that states all living organisms are made-up of cell was created.
 In 1838, Matthias Schleiden stated that cell is the basic unit of plant structures.
 The year after (1839), Theodor Schwann then defined the cell as the basic unit of
animal structure.
o In 1840, advances were made in the study of plant diseases because of the potato blight that
killed potato crops in Ireland.
o In 1874, the process of photosynthesis was first elucidated by Julius Robert von Mayer 
o In 1859, Charles Darwin proposed his theory of evolution and adaptation, or more commonly
referred to as “survival of the fittest” 
 The theory was presented on his paper entitled On the origin of Species by Means of
Natural Selection.
o In 1856, however, Gregor Mendel became the “Father of Genetics” because of his experiments
on the inheritance among pea plants.
 The results of the experiments showed that both parents pass distinct physical factors
which code information to their offspring at conception.
 This means that the offspring then inherits one unit for each trait from each of its
parents.
 20th Century
up to Present
o In the early 20th century,
the process of nitrogen
fixation, nitrification, and
ammonification was
discovered.
o In 1903, the two types of
chlorophyll—a and b were

Figure 18. 19th Century Scientists (from left to right): Matthias Schleiden, Theodor Schwann, Julius Robert von Mayer,
Charles Darwin, and Gregor Mendel

discovered.
o In 1936, Alexander Oparin demonstrated the mechanism of the synthesis
of organic matter from inorganic molecules.
o In the 1940s, Ecology became a separate discipline.
o Technology has helped botanists and related specialists to see and
understand the three-dimensional nature of cells, and genetic
engineering of plants.
Figure 19. Alexander
Oparin

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Scientific method refers to the principles and procedures being followed in the generation, understanding and
confirmation of knowledge, making it the core of sciences.

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The scientific method is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge that has characterized the development of
science. It involves careful observation, applying rigorous skepticism about what is observed, given that cognitive
assumptions can distort how one interprets the observation.

Basic steps of the scientific method:

STEP 1: Make Observation

- An observation is the act of recognizing and recording
something that is happening. Observing often involves the use
of measurements and instruments to take measurements with.
STEP 2: State the Problem
- A problem is a question to be thought about and either solved or
answered.
STEP 3: Form a Hypothesis
- A hypothesis is an educated guess meaning an explanation for
something that happens based on facts that can then be tested
to try and find logical answers.
STEP 4: Experiment
- An experiment is a step-by-step procedure that is carried out
under controlled conditions to attempt to prove a hypothesis,
discover and unknown effect or law, or to illustrate a known law.
STEP 5: Draw a Conclusion
- A conclusion is a reasonable judgment based on the
examination of data from an experiment. The result or outcome
of an act or process.
STEP 6: Replication
- Reproduce the experiment until there are no discrepancies Figure 20. Diagram of the Scientific Method
between observations and theory.

Some key underpinnings to the scientific method

- The hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable.
- Research must involve deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning.
o Deductive reasoning is the process of using true premises to reach a logical true conclusion
while inductive reasoning takes the opposite approach.
- An experiment should include a dependent variable (which does not change) and an independent
variable (which does change).
- An experiment should include an experimental group and a control group.
o The control group is what the experimental group is compared against.

MICROSCOPY

Microscopy or the use of microscope is an essential skill that allows human to see and view objects that can’t be
seen by the naked eye alone. It is the
technical field of using microscopes to view
samples and objects that can’t be seen by
the unaided eye.
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Historians credit the invention of the compound microscope to the Dutch spectacle maker, Zacharias Janssen,
around the year 1590.

Figure 21. Zacharias Janssen and his invented microscope

There are various types of microscopes that
you will encounter as environmental students. We will define these types, however, we will focus on the parts
and functions of a compound microscope.

Types of Microscope

Simple Microscope
- The simple microscope is generally considered to be the first microscope.
- It was created in the 17th century by Antony van Leeuwenhoek, who combined a convex
lens with a holder for specimens.
- Magnifying between 200 and 300 times, it was essentially a magnifying glass.
- Although simple, it was still powerful enough to provide van Leeuwenhoek information about Figure 22. Simple
biological specimens, including the difference in shapes between red blood cells.
Microscope
- Today, simple microscopes are not used often because the introduction of a second lens led
to the more powerful compound microscope.
Compound Microscope
- With two lenses, the compound microscope offers better
magnification as the second lens magnifies the image of the first.
- Compound microscopes are bright field microscopes, meaning that
the specimen is lit from underneath, and they can be binocular or
monocular.
- These devices provide a magnification of 1,000 times, which is
considered to be high, although the resolution is low. Figure 23. Compound Microscope
- This high magnification allows users to take a close look at objects (Light and Electronic)
too small to be seen with the naked eye, including individual cells.
- Specimens are usually small and have some degree of transparency.
Stereo Microscope
- Also called a dissecting microscope, provides magnification of up to 300 times.
- These binocular microscopes are used to look at opaque objects or objects that are too large to
be viewed with a compound microscope, since they do not require a slide preparation.
- Although their magnification is relatively low, they are still useful.
- They provide a close-up, 3-D view of objects’ surface textures, and they allow the operator to
manipulate the object during viewing. Figure 24. Stereo
Confocal Microscope Microscope
- Unlike stereo and compound microscopes, which use regular light for image formation, the
confocal microscope uses a laser light to scan samples that have been dyed.
- These samples are prepared on slides and inserted; then, with the aid of a dichromatic mirror, the
device produces a magnified image on a computer screen.
- Operators can create 3-D images, as well, by assembling multiple scans.
- Like the compound microscope, these microscopes offer a high degree of magnification, but their
resolution is much better.
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
- The scanning electron microscope, or SEM, uses electrons rather than light for image formation.
- Samples are scanned in vacuum or near-vacuum conditions, so they must be specially prepared by
first undergoing dehydration and then being coated with a thin layer of a conducive material, such as
gold.
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- After the item is prepared and placed in the chamber, the SEM produces a 3-D, black-and-white
image on a computer screen.
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
- Like the scanning electron microscope, the transmission electron microscope (TEM) uses electrons in
creating a magnified image, and samples are scanned in a vacuum so they must be specially prepared.
- Unlike the SEM, however, the TEM uses a slide preparation to obtain a 2-D view of specimens, so it's
more suited for viewing objects with some degree of transparency.

Figure 25. (from left to right): Confocal Microscope, Scanning Electron Microscope, and Transmission Electron Microscope

Compound Microscope and its parts and functions

PART FUNCTION
Eyepiece Lens The lens at the top that you look through and are usually 10X or 15X power.
Tube Connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses
Arm Supports the tube and connects it to the base. It is  used along with the base to carry the microscope
Base The bottom of the microscope, used for support
Illuminator A steady light source (110 volts) used in place of a mirror.
Stage The flat platform where you place your slides.  Stage clips hold the slides in place.
Revolving Nosepiece  This is the part that holds two or more objective lenses and can be rotated to easily change power.
Objective lenses Usually you will find 3 or 4 objective lenses on a microscope. 
They are almost Scanning (4x), Low (10x), High (40x), and Oil Immersion (100x).
When coupled with a 10X (most common) eyepiece lens, we get total magnifications of 40X (4X
times 10X), 100X, 400X and 1000X.
The shortest lens is the lowest power, the longest one is the lens with the greatest power. 
The high power objective lenses are retractable (i.e. 40XR) which
means that if they hit a slide, the end of the lens will push in (spring loaded) thereby protecting the lens a
nd the slide.
Rack stop This is an adjustment that determines how close the objective lens can get to the slide. 
It is set at the factory and keeps students from cranking the high power objective lens down into the slide 
and breaking things.
Diaphragm/ Iris Many microscopes have a rotating disk under the stage. 
This diaphragm has different sized holes and is used to vary the intensity and size of the cone of
light that is projected upward into the slide. 
There is no set rule regarding which setting to use for a particular power. 
Rather, the setting is a function of thetransparency of the specimen, the degree of contrast you desire an
d the particular objective lens in use

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Coarse adjustment This is used to focus the microscope. 

It is always used first, and it is used only with the low power objective
Fine adjustment This is used to focus the microscope. 
It is used with the high power objective to bring the specimen into better focus.

How to Focus your Microscope:

1) The proper way to focus a microscope is to start with the lowest power objective lens
first and while looking from the side, crank the lens down as close to the specimen as
possible without touching it.
2) Now, look through the eyepiece lens and focus upward only until the image is sharp.
3) If you can’t get it in focus, repeat the process again.
4) Once the image is sharp with the low power lens, you should be able to simply click in
the next power lens and do minor adjustments with the fine adjustment knob.
5) If your microscope has a fine focus adjustment, turning it a bit should be all that’s
necessary.
6) Continue with subsequent objective lenses and fine focus each time.
Notes:
- Both eyes should be open when viewing through the microscope as this prevents
eye fatigue, which occurs when the nonviewing eye is kept closed.
- Keeping both eyes open does take some practice, but it is highly recommended.
- Also, you should never let your eye touch the ocular lens.
- If your eyelashes touch the lens you are to close.
Figure 26. Compound
- Always remove eyeglasses when viewing through a microscope.
- If your eyeglass lens touches the microscope it may get scratched. Light Microscope

Required YouTube links for microscopy:

- How to Use a Compound Microscope by Elon TLT: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=7WIZWoOLCEs&list=LL&index=2
- How to Focus a Microscope & How the Field of View Changes by Dr. Joyce Patrick
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zzamomqlwxU&list=LL&index=1

The lesson ends here.

Thank you!

III. ACTIVITIES

To better understand the lesson, follow the instruction below. You can use MS Word and follow the prescribed
format of times new roman as font style; 11 as font size; and 1.5 as line or paragraph spacing. You also have the
option to write your output on a yellow pad paper, however, kindly refrain from too much erasures. Follow the
format for file name: (ACTIVITY_SURNAME_MODULE1)

a. The laboratory activity for this module is on microscopy and there is a separate laboratory worksheet.
b. You may access the worksheet by downloading it from our moodle classroom entitled: CSBIO1-21-2-
Laboratory Worksheet 1.
c. This task is worth 20 points.

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IV. ASSESSMENT

To assess your learning, follow the instructions below for every item. You can use MS Word and follow the
prescribed format of times new roman as font style; 11 as font size; and 1.5 as line or paragraph spacing. You
also have the option to write your output on a yellow pad paper, however, kindly refrain from too much erasures.
Always write your complete name, section, subject and date of submission. Follow the format for file name:
(ASSESSMENT_SURNAME_MODULE1)

a. Make a timeline based on your understanding of the links in task # 1.

Indicate the important dates and the major activities that had occurred leading
to the field of Botany we know today. Emphasize on the necessary discoveries,
beginning of the subfields of botany (such as Genetics and Ecology) and other
important milestones. This task is worth 20 points. Beside is a sample of a
timeline.

b. Create and design a diagram reflecting the steps of the scientific method in
order to understand the problem in the picture below: Photo source: https://www.slideteam.net/timeline-example-of-
great-ppt.html

Do this and be able to apply your understanding of the

scientific method. This task is worth 30 points.

Photo source: Benti, F. and Balemi, T. (2019). Effect if Land Use Types on
Soil Quality and Productivity in Mi’essa Micro-watershed, Ethiopia.
Science, Technology, and Arts Research Journal. Retrieved at DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/star.v4i3.13

V. SUGGESTED REFERENCES

Schooley, J. (1997). Introduction to Botany. Delmar Publishers, International Oublishing Inc., United States of
America. ISBN 0-8273-7378-3.
Stephens, N. (2006). Plant Cells and Tissues. Chelsea House, 132 West 31st Street New York, United States of
America. ISBN 0-7910-8560-0.
bioexplorer.net. (N.d.). History of Botany. Retrieved at https://www.bioexplorer.net/history_of_biology/botany/ on
September 20, 2020.

OER: https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-life-science-2.0/section/7.1/primary/
lesson/plant-characteristics-ms-ls

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