CHAPTER 4

SINUSOIDAL STEADY-STATE ANALYSIS

In the previous chapter 3, we learned that the forced or steady-state response of circuits to sinusoidal
inputs can be obtained by using phasors. We also know that Ohms’s and Kirchhoff’s laws are
applicable to ac circuits. In this chapter, we learn how nodal analysis, mesh analysis, Thevenin’s
theorem, Norton’s theorem, superposition, and source transformations are applied in analyzing ac
circuits.
Analyzing AC circuits usually requires 3 steps:
1. Transform the circuit to the phasor or frequency domain.
2. Solve the problem using circuit techniques (nodal analysis, mesh analysis, superposition, etc)
3. Transform the resulting phasor to the time domain.

4.1 NODAL ANALYSIS

The basis of nodal analysis is KCL.
Example 1. Find ix in the circuit of Figure 4.1 using nodal analysis.

Figure 4.1
S: We first convert the circuit to the frequency domain:
20cos 4t 20 0 0, ω = 4rad / s
1H jωL = j 4
0.5H jωL = j 2
0.1F 1/(jωC) = - j 2,5
Thus, the frequency domain equivalent circuit will be (Figure 4. 2)

Figure 4. 2

Applying KCL at node 1,

1
 20  V1 V1 V  V2
  1 .......... .......... ......... Or
10  j 2,5 j4

(1  j1,5)V1  j 2,5V2  20.......... .......... .......... (1)

At ....node...... 2
V  V2 V2
.......... ..2 I x  1 
j4 j2

But I x = V1 / -j 2,5

Substituting this gives

2V1 V  V2 V2
 1 
 j 2,5 j4 j2

By simplifying, we get
11V1 +15V 2 = 0 (2)

This Eq 1 and 2 can be put in matrix

1  j1.5 j 2,5 V1  20


 11
 15  V2   0 
We obtain the determinant as

1  j1,5 j 2,5
  15  j 5
11 15

20 j 2,5 1  j1,5 20
1   300,......... .. 2   220
0 15 11 0

1 300
V1    18,9718,430 V
 15  j 5

2  220
V2    13,91198,30 V
 15  j 5

The current I x is given by

V1 18,9718,430
Ix    7,59108,4 0 A
 j 2,5 2,5  90 0

2
Transforming this to the time domain,
i x  7,59 cos(4t  108,4 0 ) A

Example 2. Compute V1 and V2 in the circuit in Figure 4.3

Figure 4.3

Solution: Nodes 1 and 2 form a super-node as shown in Figure 4.4

Figure 4.4

Applying KCL at the super-node gives

V1 V V
3  2  2 ........ Or
 j 3 j 6 12

36  j 4V1  (1  j 2)V2 .......... .......... (1)

But a voltage source is connected between nodes 1 and 2, so that

V1  V2  10450.......... .......... ..( 2)

Substituting Eq 2 in Eq 1 results in

36  401350  (1  j 2)V2 
V2  31,41  87,180 V
from..... Eq..2
V1  V2  10450  25,78  70,480 V

3
4.2 MESH ANALYSIS
KVL forms the basis of mesh analysis.
Example 1. Determine current Io in the circuit of Figure 4.5 using mesh analysis.

Figure 4.5

Solution: Applying KVL to mesh 1, we obtain

(8  j10  j 2) I 1  ( j 2) I 2  j10I 3  0.......... .....(1)

for..mesh..2,

(4  j 2  j 2) I 2  ( j 2) I 1  ( j 2) I 3  20900  0........( 2)

for..mesh..3,..... I 3  5

Substituting this in Eq 1 and 2 we get

(8  j8) I 1  j 2 I 2  j 50.......... .......... ..(3)

j 2 I 1  (4  j 4) I 2   j 20  j10.......... ..( 4)

Equations 3 and 4 can be put in matrix

8  j8 j 2   I 1   j 50 

 j2
 4  j 4  I 2   j 30

From which we obtain the determinants

4
 8  j8 j2
  32(1  j )(1  j )  4  68,
j2 4  j4
8  j8 j 50
2   340  j 240  416,17  35,220
j2  j30

 2 416,17  35,220
I2    6,12  35,220 A
 68

The desired current is

I 0  I 2  6,12144,780 A

Example 2. Solve for Vo in the circuit below using mesh analysis

Figure 4.6

Solution: Meshes 3 and 4 form a super-mesh due to the current source between the meshes.

Figure 4.7

For mesh 1, KVL gives

5
-10 + (8-j2) I1 - (-j2) I2 – 8 I3 = 0 or

(8-j2) I1 + j2 I2 – 8 I3 = 10 (1)

For mesh 2
I 2 = -3 (2)

For the super-mesh,

(8-j4) I 3 - 8 I1 + (6 + j5) I4 - j5 I2 = 0 (3)

Due to the current source between meshes 3 and 4, at node A,

I4 = I 3 + 4 (4)
Combining Eq 1 and 2

(8-j2) I1 – 8 I3 = 10 + j6 (5)

Combining Eqs 3 and 4

-8I1+(14+j ) I3 = -24 - j35 (6)

From Eq 5 and 6, we get the matrix

8  j 2  8   I 1   10  j 6 
  8 14  j   I    24  j 35
  2   

We obtain the determinants

8  j2 8
  112  j8  j 28  2  64  50  j 20,
 8 14  j

10  j 6 8
1   140  j10  j84  6  192  j 280
 24  j 35 14  j
 58  j186

Current I1 is obtained as
 1  58 j  j186
I1    3,618274,5 0 A
 50  j 20
The...Voltage...V0 ..is
V0   j 2( I 1  I 2 )   j 2(3,618274,5 0  3)  7,2134  j 6,568
 9,756222,320 V

6
4.3 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
Since ac circuits are linear, this theorem applies to it. The theorem becomes important if the circuit
has sources operating at different frequencies. In this case, since the impedance depend on
frequency, we must have a different frequency-domain circuit for each frequency. The total response
must be obtained by adding individual responses in the time domain.
It is incorrect to try to add the responses in the phasor or frequency domain. Because the exponential
factor e -jωt is implicit in sinusoidal analysis, and that factor would change for every angular
frequency ω. It would therefore not make sense to add responses at different frequencies in the
phasor domain. Thus, when a circuit has sources operating at different frequencies, one must add the
responses due to the individual frequencies in the time domain.

Example 1. Use the superposition theorem to find I o in the circuit of Figure 4.8a

Figure 4.8a

Solution:
Let
I 0  I 0|  I 0||.......... (1)
/ //
where Io and Io are due to the voltage and current sources respectively. To find Io\, consider the
circuit in Figure 4.8b

Figure 4.8b
If we let Z be the parallel combination of –j2 and 8+j10, then

 j 2(8  j10)
z  0,25  j 2,25
 j 2  8  j10
and...current..I 0| ....is
j 20 j 20
I o|   ......Or
4  j 2  z 4,25  j 4,25

I 0|  2,353  j 2,353.......... .......... .......... ..( 2) 7

 //
To get Io consider the circuit in Figure 4.8c

Figure 4.8c

For mesh 1
(8  j8) I 1  j10I 3  j 2 I 2  0.......... ...(3)

For mesh 2
(4  j 4) I 2  j 2 I 1 j 2 I 3  0.......... .....( 4)
For mesh 3
I 3  5.......... .......... ..(5)
From Eqs 4 and 5
(4  j 4) I 2  j 2I1  j10  0

Expressing I1 in terms of I2 gives,

I1  (2  j 2) I 2  5.......... .....( 6)

Substituting Eqs 5 and 6 into Eq 3, we get

(8  j8)(2  j 2) I 2  5  j 50  j 2 I 2  0.......... ....Or

40  j90
I2   2,647  j1,176
j 34
//
Current Io is obtained as

I 0//  I 2  2,647  j1,176.......... .......... ....( 7)

From Eqs 2 and 7, we write

I 0  I 0//  I 0/  5  j3,529  6,12144,780 A

8
Example 2. Find vo in the circuit of figure 4.9 using the superposition theorem.

Figure 4.9

Solution: Since the circuit operates at 3 different frequencies (ω = 0 for the dc voltage source), one
way to obtain a solution is to use superposition, which breaks the problem into single-frequency
problems.
So we let vo = v1 + v2 + v3 (1)
where v1 is due to the 5V dc voltage source, v2 is due to the 10cos2t V voltage source, and v3 is
due to the 2 sin5t A current source.
To find v1 , we set to 0 all sources except 5V dc source. We recall that at steady state, a capacitor is
an open circuit to dc, while an inductor is a short circuit to dc. There is an alternative way of looking
at this.
Since ω = 0, jωL = 0, 1/(jωC) = ∞, the equivalent circuit is in (Figure 4.9a)

Figure 4.9a Setting all sources to 0 except the 5V dc source

By voltage division
1
 v1  (5)  1V .......... ....( 2)
1 4

To find v2, we set to 0 both the 5V source and the 2sin5t current source and transform the circuit to
the frequency domain (Figure 4.9b).

10 cos 2t  100 0.......... ..  2rad / s

2 H  jL  j 4
1
0,1F    j 5
jC

9
Figure 4.9b Setting all sources to 0 except the ac voltage source
Let
 j5 x4
Z   j5 4   2,439  j1,951
4  j5
By voltage division,
1 10
V2  (100 0 )   2,498  30,790
1  j4  Z 3,439  j 2,049
In the time domain
v2  2,498cos(2t  30,79)......... (3)
To obtain v3, we set the voltage sources to 0 and transform what is left to the frequency domain
(Figure 4.9c).
2 sin 5t  2  900 ,   5rads / s
2 H  jL  j10
1
0,1F    j 2
jC

Figure 4.9c. Setting all sources to zero except the ac current source.

Let Z1 = - j2 || 4 = -j 2 x 4 / 4 -j2 = 0,8 - j1.6 Ω

By current division,
I1= j10 / [j10 +1 + Z1] ( 2 -90° ) A
V3 = I1 x 1 = j10/ [1,8 +j8,4] (-j2) = 2,328 -77,91° V

In the time domain,

v 3 = 2,33 cos (5t -80o ) = 2,33 sin (5t + 10 o )V [4]

Substituting Eq 2 to 4 into Eq 1, we have

v0 (t )  1  2,498cos(2t  30,790 )  2,33sin(5t  100 )V

10
4.4 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION.
Source transformation in the frequency domain involves transforming a voltage source in series with
an impedance to a current source in parallel with an impedance, or vice-versa.
As we go from one source type to another, we must keep the following relationship in mind.
VS = ZS IS I S = VS / ZS (4.1)

Figure 4.10 Source transformation.

Example 1. Calculate Vx in the circuit of Figure 4.11a using the method of source transformation.

Figure 4.11a
Solution: We transform the voltage source to a current source and obtain the circuit in Figure 4.11b,
where

20  900
Is   4  900   j 4 A
5

Figure 4.11b

The parallel combination of 5ohm resistance and (3 + j4) impedance gives

5(3  j 4)
Z1   2,5  j1,25
8  j4
11
Converting the current source to a voltage source yields the circuit in Figure 4.11c, where
Vs  I s Z1   j 4(2,5  j1,25)  5  j10V

Figure 4.11c
By voltage division,

10
Vx  (5  j10)  5,519  280 V
10  2,5  j1,25  4  j13

4.5 THEVENIN AND NORTON EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS .

These theorems are applied to ac circuits in the same way as they are to dc circuits.
The only additional effort arises from the need to manipulate complete numbers.
The frequency-domain version of a Thevenin equivalent circuit is in Figure 4.12, where a linear
circuit is replaced by a voltage source in series with an impedance.

Figure 4.12 Thevenin equivalent

The Norton equivalent circuit is in Figure 4.13, where a linear circuit is replaced by a current source
in parallel with an impedance.

Figure 4.13 Norton equivalent

The two equivalent circuits are related
VTh = ZNIN , ZTh = ZN (4.2)
just as in source transformation VTh is the open-circuit voltage, IN is the short-circuit current.

12
If the circuit has sources operating at different frequencies, the Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit
must be determined at each frequency.
This leads to entirely different equivalent circuits one for each frequency, not one equivalent circuit
with equivalent sources and equivalent impedances.
Example 1. Obtain the Thevenin equivalent at terminals a-b of the circuit in Figure 4.14.

Figure 4.14a
Solution: We find ZTh by setting the voltage source to 0.

Figure 4.14b Finding ZTh

The 8Ω resistor is now in parallel with the –j6 reactance, so
 j 6 x8
Z1   j 6 8   2,88  j 3,84
8  j6
Similarly the 4Ω resistance is in parallel with the j12 reactance, and
j12x 4
Z 2  4 j12   3,6  j12
4  j12
The Thevenin impedance is the series combination of Z1 and Z2,
ZTh = Z1+Z2 = 6,48-j2,64Ω

To find VTh we use the circuit in Figure 4.14c

13
Figure 4.14c Finding VTh

Current I1 and I 2 are

120750 120750
I1  A,......... ....... I 2  A
8  j6 4  j12

Applying KVL around loop bcdeab gives

VTh – 4I2 + (-j6) I1 =0 or

480750 720750  900

VTh  4 I 2  j 6 I 1   
4  j12 8  j6

37,953,430  72201,87 0  28,936  j 24,55 

37,95220,310 V

Example 2. Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Figure 4.15a as seen from terminals a-b.

Figure 4.15a
Solution: To find VTh, we apply KCL at node 1 Figure 4.15b

15 = I0 + 0,5I0 I0 = 10A

14
Figure 4.15b Finding VTh
Applying KVL to the loop on the right-hand side, we obtain
-I0(2-j4) + 0,5I0 (4+j3) + VTh = 0 or VTh =10(2-j4) –(4+j3) = -j55
Thus, the Thevenin voltage is VTh = 55 <-900 V
To find the ZTh, we remove the independent source. Due to the presence of the dependent current
source, we connect a 3A current source (3 is an arbitrary value chosen for convenience, a number
divisible by the sum of current leaving the node) to terminals a-b (Figure 4.15c)

Figure 4.15c Finding ZTh

At the node, KCL gives
3 = I0 + 0,5 I0 I0 = 2A
applying KVL to the outer loop gives Vs = I0 (4+j3+2-j4) = 2(6-j)
The Thevenin impedance is
Vs 2(6  j )
Z Th    4  j 0,6667
Is 3
Example 3 Obtain current I0 using Norton’s theorem.

Figure 4.16a

15
Solution: Our 1st objective is to find the Norton equivalent at terminals a-b.
We set the sources to 0 ( Figure 4.16b). The (8-j2) and (10 + j4) impedance's are short-circuited, so
ZN = 5Ω.

Figure 4.16b Finding ZN

To get IN, we short-circuit terminals a-b (Figure 4.16c) and apply mesh analysis meshes 2 and 3 form
a super-mesh because of the current source linking them.

Fig 4.16c Finding VN

For mesh 1
-j40 +(18+j2) I1 –(8-j2) I2 –(10+j4) I3 = 0 (1)

For the super-mesh

(13-j2)I2 + (10+j4)I3 – (18+j2)I1 = 0 (2)

At node a, due to the current source between meshes 2 and 3

I3 = I 2 + 3 (3)

Adding Eqs 1 and 2 gives

-j40 + 5I2 = 0 I2 = j8

From Eq 3
I3 = I2 + 3 = 3 +j8

The Norton current is

IN = I3 = (3 +j8)A

16
Norton’s equivalent circuit along with the impedance at terminals a-b will be (Figure 4.16d )

Figure 4.16d Calculating Io

By current division,

5 3  j8
I0  IN   1,46538,480 A
5  20  j15 5  j3

The concepts we learned in this chapter will be applied for determining frequency response (Ch5).
These concepts are also used in analyzing coupled circuits, three-phase circuits, ac transistor circuits,
filters, oscillators, and other ac circuits.

17