57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 3

Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005

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3.4 Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces

For a static fluid, the shear stress is zero and the only stress
is the normal stress, i.e., pressure p. Recall that p is a
scalar, which when in contact with a solid surface exerts a
normal force towards the surface.

Fp = − ∫ p ndA
A

For a plane surface n = constant such that we can separately

consider the magnitude and line of action of Fp.

F p = F = ∫ pdA
A

Line of action is towards and normal to A through the

center of pressure (xcp, ycp).
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005
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Unless otherwise stated, throughout the chapter assume patm
acts at liquid surface. Also, we will use gage pressure so
that p = 0 at the liquid surface.

Horizontal Surfaces

horizontal surface with area A

p = constant

F = ∫ pdA = pA

Line of action is through centroid of A,

i.e., (xcp, ycp) = (x , y )
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005
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Inclined Surfaces
g z

dp
= −γ
dz
∆p = −γ∆z
F

(x,y) = centroid of A x
(xcp,ycp) = center of pressure

dF = pdA = γy sin α dA
p γ and sin α are constants
F = ∫ pdA = γ sin α ∫ ydA
A A 1
y= ∫ ydA
yA A
F = γ sin α y A 1st moment of area
p = pressure at centroid of A

F = pA
Magnitude of resultant hydrostatic force on plane surface is
product of pressure at centroid of area and area of surface.
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005
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Center of Pressure

Center of pressure is in general below centroid since

pressure increases with depth. Center of pressure is
determined by equating the moments of the resultant and
distributed forces about any arbitrary axis.

Determine ycp by taking moments about horizontal axis 0-0

ycpF = ∫ ydF
A
∫ y pdA
A
∫ y( γy sin α)dA
A
= γ sin α ∫ y 2 dA
A

Io = 2nd moment of area about 0-0

= moment of inertia

2
transfer equation: Io = y A + I

I= moment of inertia with respect to horizontal

centroidal axis
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005
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2
y cp F = γ sin α ( y A + I)

2
y cp (pA ) = γ sin α ( y A + I)

2
y cp γ sin α yA = γ sin α ( y A + I)

2
y cp yA = y A + I
I
ycp = y +
yA
ycp is below centroid by I / yA

ycp → y for large y

For po ≠ 0, y must be measured from an equivalent free

surface located po/γ above y .
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005
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Determine xcp by taking moment about y axis

xcpF = ∫ xdF
A
∫ xpdA
A

x cp ( γ y sin αA) = ∫ x ( γy sin α )dA

A

x cp yA = ∫ xydA
A

Ixy = product of inertia

= I xy + x yA transfer equation

x cp yA = I xy + x yA

I xy
x cp = +x
yA

For plane surfaces with symmetry about an axis normal to

0-0, I xy = 0 and xcp = x .
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005
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57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005
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3.5 Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces

Free surface

p = γh

F = − ∫ p ndA h = distance below

A
free surface

Horizontal Components (x and y components)

Fx = F ⋅ î = − ∫ p n ⋅ î dA
A

dAx = projection of ndA onto

= − ∫ pdA x plane ⊥ to x-direction
Ax

Fy = F ⋅ ĵ = − ∫ pdA y dA y = n ⋅ ĵdA
Ay

= projection ndA
onto plane ⊥ to
y-direction

Therefore, the horizontal components can be determined by

some methods developed for submerged plane surfaces.

The horizontal component of force acting on a curved

surface is equal to the force acting on a vertical projection
of that surface including both magnitude and line of action.
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005
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Vertical Components

Fz = F ⋅ k̂ = − ∫ p n ⋅ k̂dA
A
= − ∫ pdA z p = γh
Az
h=distance
below free
surface

= γ ∫ hdA z = γV
Az
= weight of
fluid above
surface A

The vertical component of force acting on a curved surface

is equal to the net weight of the column of fluid above the
curved surface with line of action through the centroid of
that fluid volume.
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005
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Example: Drum Gate

Pressure Diagram
p = γh = γR(1-cosθ)
n = − sin θ î + cos θ k̂
dA = A Rdθ
π
F = − ∫ γR (1 − cos θ)(− sin θ î + cos θ k̂ )ARdθ
0
p n dA

π
F ⋅ î = Fx = + γ A R ∫ (1 − cos θ) sin θdθ
2

0
π
⎡ 1
= γ A R 2 ⎢− cos θ + cos 2θ = 2 γAR 2
⎣ 4 0
= (γR)(2R A ) ⇒ same force as that on projection of
p A area onto vertical plane
π
Fz = − γ A R ∫ (1 − cos θ) cos θdθ
2

0
π
⎡ θ sin 2θ
= − γ A R ⎢sin θ − −
2

⎢⎣ 2 4 0
2 π ⎛ πR 2 ⎞
= γAR = γ A⎜⎜ ⎟ = γV
⎟
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
⇒ net weight of water above surface
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005
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3.6 Buoyancy

Archimedes Principle

FB = Fv2 – Fv1

= fluid weight above Surface 2 (ABC)

– fluid weight above Surface 1 (ADC)

= fluid weight equivalent to body volume V

FB = ρgV V = submerged volume

Line of action is through centroid of V = center of

buoyancy

Net Horizontal forces are zero since

FBAD = FBCD
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Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005
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Hydrometry

A hydrometer uses the buoyancy principle to determine

specific weights of liquids.

Stem

Bulb

W = mg = γfV = SγwV

W = γwV o = Sγw(Vo − ∆V) = Sγw(Vo − a∆h)

γf V
a = cross section area stem
Vo/S = Vo − a∆h a∆h = Vo – Vo/S
V ⎛ 1⎞
∆h = o ⋅ ⎜1 − ⎟ =∆h(S)
a ⎝ S⎠

Vo S − 1
∆h = ⋅ calibrate scale using fluids of known S
a S

Vo
S=
V0 − a∆h
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005
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Example (apparent weight)

King Hero ordered a new crown to be made from pure

gold. When he received the crown he suspected that other
metals had been used in its construction. Archimedes
discovered that the crown required a force of 4.7# to
suspend it when immersed in water, and that it displaced
18.9 in3 of water. He concluded that the crown was not
pure gold. Do you agree?

∑Fvert = 0 = Wa + Fb – W = 0 ⇒ Wa = W – Fb = (γc - γw)V

W=γcV, Fb = γwV
W W + γwV
or γc = a + γ w = a
V V

4.7 + 62.4 × 18.9 / 1728

γc = = 492.1 = ρ c g
18.9 / 1728

⇒ ρc = 15.3 slugs/ft3

∼ ρsteel and since gold is heavier than steel the crown

can not be pure gold
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005
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3.7 Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies

Here we’ll consider transverse stability. In actual

applications both transverse and longitudinal stability are
important.

Immersed Bodies

Static equilibrium requires: ∑ Fv = 0 and ∑ M = 0

∑M = 0 requires that the centers of gravity and buoyancy

coincide, i.e., C = G and body is neutrally stable

If C is above G, then the body is stable (righting moment

when heeled)

If G is above C, then the body is unstable (heeling moment

when heeled)
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005
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Floating Bodies

For a floating body the situation is slightly more

complicated since the center of buoyancy will generally
shift when the body is rotated depending upon the shape of
the body and the position in which it is floating.

Positive GM Negative GM

The center of buoyancy (centroid of the displaced volume)

shifts laterally to the right for the case shown because part
of the original buoyant volume AOB is transferred to a new
buoyant volume EOD.

The point of intersection of the lines of action of the

buoyant force before and after heel is called the metacenter
M and the distance GM is called the metacentric height. If
GM is positive, that is, if M is above G, then the ship is
stable; however, if GM is negative, the ship is unstable.
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005
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Floating Bodies

α = small heel angle

x = CC′ = lateral displacement
of C
C = center of buoyancy
i.e., centroid of displaced
volume V

Solve for GM: find x using

(1) basic definition for centroid of V; and
(2) trigonometry
Fig. 3.17

(1) Basic definition of centroid of volume V

xV = ∫ xdV = ∑ x i ∆Vi moment about centerplane

xV = moment V before heel – moment of VAOB

+ moment of VEOD
= 0 due to symmetry of
original V about y axis
i.e., ship centerplane

x V = − ∫ (−x)dV + ∫ xdV tan α = y/x

AOB EOD
dV = ydA = x tan α dA
x V = ∫ x 2 tan αdA + ∫ x 2 tan αdA
AOB EOD
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005
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xV = tan α ∫ x 2 dA
ship waterplane area

moment of inertia of ship waterplane

about z axis O-O; i.e., IOO

IOO = moment of inertia of waterplane

area about centerplane axis

(2) Trigonometry
xV = tan αI OO
tan αI OO
CC ′ = x = = CM tan α
V

CM = IOO / V

GM = CM – CG

I OO
GM = − CG
V

GM > 0 Stable

GM < 0 Unstable
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005
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3.8 Fluids in Rigid-Body Motion

For fluids in motion, the pressure variation is no longer

hydrostatic and is determined from application of Newton’s
2nd Law to a fluid element.

τij = viscous stresses net surface force in X direction

p = pressure
Ma = inertia force ⎛ ∂p ∂τ xx ∂τ yx ∂τ zx ⎞
X net = ⎜⎜ − + + + ⎟⎟V
W = weight (body force) ⎝ ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
Newton’s 2nd Law pressure viscous

Ma = ∑F = FB + FS

per unit (÷ V) ρa = fb + fs
volume
DV ∂ V
a= = + V ⋅ ∇V
Dt ∂t
fs = body force = − ρgk̂

fs = surface force = fp + fv
fp = surface force due to p = −∇p
fv = surface force due to viscous stresses τij
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005
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DV Neglected in this chapter and
ρ =fb +fp +fv included later in Section 6.4
Dt when deriving complete
Navier-Stokes equations
DV
ρ = −ρgk̂ − ∇p
Dt

inertia force = body force due + surface force due to

to gravity pressure gradients

Du ∂p
x: ρ =− Note: for V = 0
Dt ∂x ∇p = −ρgk̂
∂p ∂p
= =0
⎡ ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ⎤ ∂p ∂x ∂y
ρ⎢ + u + v + w ⎥ = − ∂p
⎣ ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦ ∂x = −ρg = − γ
∂z

Dv ∂p
y: ρ =−
Dt ∂y

⎡ ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v ⎤ ∂p
ρ⎢ + u + v + w ⎥ = −
⎣ ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦ ∂y
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005
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Dw ∂p ∂
z: ρ = −ρg − = − (p + γz )
Dt ∂z ∂z

⎡ ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w ⎤ ∂p
ρ⎢ +u +v +w ⎥ = − (p + γz )
⎣ ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎦ ∂z

or ρa = −∇(p + γz) Euler’s equation for inviscid flow

∇⋅V=0 Continuity equation for

incompressible flow

4 equations in four unknowns V and p

57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005
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Examples of Pressure Variation From Acceleration

Uniform Linear Acceleration:

ρa = −ρgk̂ − ∇p
(
∇p = −ρ a + gk̂ = ρ(g − a ) ) g = −gk̂

∇p = −ρ[a x î + (g + a z )k̂ ] a = a x î + a z k̂
∂p ∂p
= −ρa x = −ρ(g + a z )
∂x ∂z
ŝ = unit vector in direction of ∇p
=∇p /⏐∇p⏐
[
− a x î + (g + a z )k̂ ]
[a ]
=
+ (g + a z )
2 2 1/ 2
x

n̂ = unit vector in direction of p = constant

= ŝ × ĵ ijkijk
⊥ to ∇p
− a x k̂ + (g + a z )î by definition lines
=
[a ]
1/ 2
of constant p are
2
x + (g + a z ) 2 normal to ∇p

θ = tan-1 ax / (g + az) = angle between n̂ and x

dp
ds
[
= ∇p ⋅ ŝ = ρ a 2x + (g + a z )2 ]
1/ 2
> ρg
G
p = ρGs + constant ⇒ pgage = ρGs
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005
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Rigid Body Rotation:

Consider a cylindrical tank of liquid rotating at a constant

rate Ω = Ωk̂ Ω = ω in text

a = Ω × (Ω × ro )
centripetal acceleration

= − rΩ 2 ê r
V2
=− ê r
r

∂ 1∂ ∂
∇ p = ρ( g − a ) ∇= ê r + ê θ + ê z
∂r r ∂θ ∂z
= − ρgk̂ + ρrΩ 2 ê r grad in cylindrical coordinates

∂p ∂p ∂p
i.e., = ρrΩ 2 = −ρg =0
∂r ∂z ∂θ
C (r) along path of a = 0 pressure distribution is hydrostatic
ρ
and p = r 2 Ω 2 + f ( z) + c
2 p z = -ρg
p = -ρgz + C(r) + c

ρ p V2
p = r 2 Ω 2 − ρgz + constant +z− = constant
2 γ 2g
V = rΩ
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005
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The constant is determined by specifying the pressure at
one point; say, p = po at (r, z) = (0, 0)

1 2 2
p = po − ρgz + rΩ
2

Note: pressure is linear in z and parabolic in r

Curves of constant pressure are given by

p1 − p o r 2 Ω 2
z= + = a + br 2
ρg 2g

which are paraboloids of revolution, concave upward, with

their minimum point on the axis of rotation

Free surface is found by requiring volume of liquid to be

constant (before and after rotation)

The unit vector in the direction of ∇p is

− ρgk̂ + ρrΩ 2 ê r
ŝ =
( )
1/ 2
⎡(ρg )2 + ρrΩ 2 2 ⎤
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦

dz g
tan θ = =− 2 slope of ŝ
dr rΩ

⎛ Ω2z ⎞
i.e., r = C1exp ⎜⎜ − ⎟
⎟ equation of ∇p surfaces
⎝ g ⎠
57:020 Fluid Mechanics Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Fall 2005
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