Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Related Processes

SFI / IWE 1.
02
Oxy-gas welding and related processes Page 1
Chapter 1.02: Oxy-gas welding and related processes
Contents
1 Welding gases ..................................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Acetylene (C2H2) ............................................................................................................. 3
1.2 Propane (C3H8) ............................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Methane (CH4) ................................................................................................................ 5
1.4 Hydrogen (H2) ................................................................................................................. 5
1.5 Ethylene (C2H4) .............................................................................................................. 5
1.6 Propylene (C3H6) ........................................................................................................... 5
1.7 Oxygen (O2) .................................................................................................................... 6
1.8 Handling of pressurised-gas cylinders ............................................................................ 7
2 Oxy-acetylene flame ............................................................................................................ 8
2.1 Setting the flame ............................................................................................................. 8
3 Pressure regulator (DIN EN ISO 2503) ............................................................................... 9
4 Hoses and hose connections for gases .......................................................................... 10
5 Welding torch (injector or injector pipe) DIN EN ISO 5172 ............................................ 10
5.1 Design and operating principle ..................................................................................... 10
6 Safety Devices ................................................................................................................... 13
Outlet safety devices for cylinder battery systems ............................................................... 13
Protection of single cylinders ............................................................................................... 14
7 Oxy-acetylene welding ...................................................................................................... 15
7.1 Cost-effective area of application.................................................................................. 15
7.2 Techniques (LW/RW welding) ...................................................................................... 15
7.2.1 Leftward welding ................................................................................................ 15
7.2.2 Rightward welding.............................................................................................. 15
7.3 Welding rods for gas welding (DIN EN 12536) ............................................................. 16
7.4 Designation of gas welding rods ................................................................................... 16
7.5 Marking ......................................................................................................................... 16
7.6 Joint type with gas welding ........................................................................................... 17
8 Related processes ............................................................................................................. 18
8.1 Flame straightening ...................................................................................................... 18
8.1.1 Working rules for flame straightening................................................................. 19
Welding processes and

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SFI / IWE 1.02
8.2 Soldering and brazing ................................................................................................... 22

8.3 Oxy-fuel flame cutting ................................................................................................... 23
8.4 Flame heating ............................................................................................................... 23
8.5 Flame cleaning ............................................................................................................. 24
8.6 Cutting with the oxygen lance ....................................................................................... 25
9 Knowledge questions ....................................................................................................... 26
10 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................... 28

equipment
SFI / IWE 1.02
The oxy-fuel gas technology includes all working procedures, in which materials are exposed to the
reaction of an oxy-fuel gas flame or an air-fuel gas flame.
Welding gases are all fuel gases and pure oxygen used in oxy-fuel technology.
1 Welding gases
1.1 Acetylene (C2H2)
Acetylene can be used as fuel gas for all operations in oxy-fuel technology. For gas welding only
acetylene is used. The reasons for this are the high flame temperature and the high flame efficiency of
the gas. Further advantages are the concentrated heat input and the reducing (carburising) effect of the
flame.
Acetylene is a chemical compound of carbon and hydrogen. It occurs when calcium carbide is brought
together with water. The by-product is lime sludge. Acetylene is increasingly being made from mineral oil.
Properties and hazards during handling of acetylene
Acetylene is a colourless, non-toxic, but slightly narcotic gas. In its pure state, it is odourless.
Commercial acetylene contains traces of impurities which give the gas its garlic-like odour. Under
conditions of increased temperature and pressure, it tends to decay into its components carbon and
hydrogen. The maximum overpressure in supply lines is therefore limited to
Maximum 1.5 bar over pressure
Acetylene is explosive at a concentration of 2.4% to 80% in air. It is lighter than air and rises. It reacts
with copper and copper alloys with over 70% copper content as well as with silver and silver alloys.
Storage of Acetylene
Acetylene is broken down at higher pressure into its components carbon and hydrogen, and must
therefore be stored differently to any other fuel gases. To prevent the decay, acetylene must be stored in
several small chambers. This is achieved by a porous mass that is installed in the steel cylinder. To
increase the storage ability further, acetone is added to this porous mass in which acetylene dissolves.

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Acetylene Cylinder
Table 1: Delivery types (high-pressure gas cylinders, solvent acetone)

Protective cover
Cylinder valve
Type Volume Weight with Filling Acetylene
Outlet connection (litres) filling Pressure content
Red ring (kg) (bar) (kg)
Identification colour 10 10 23 18 1.6

20 20 42 18 3.3
40 40 74 18 6.3
48 40 76 19 8.0
Highly porous mass
50 50 77 19 10.0
The dissolving power of acetone depends on the pressure and
the temperature. 1 litre of acetone dissolves approx. 25 litres of
acetylene at 15°C and 1 bar pressure. At a pressure of approx.
20 bar, 1 litre of acetone can dissolve up to 500 litres of
acetylene. In addition to pressure, the dissolving power also
depends on the temperature.
Low temperatures: High dissolving power

High temperatures: Low dissolving power
Consequence:
Change in gas pressure for same content. The gas pressure of
e.g. a newly filled acetylene cylinder falls from approx. 19 bar at
20°C to approx.12 bar at temperatures below 0°C. An indication
Figure 1: Acetylene cylinder of the actual content via the cylinder pressure is only possible to
a limited extent.
Working rules
 The consumption rate during continuous operation is limited to 500 – 700 l/h.
Briefly (up to 20 min.) 1,000 l/h may be consumed. (The indicated values refer to a 40l cylinder).
 If you exceed the maximum permissible consumption rate, the solvent cannot release acetylene fast
enough. The solvent is drawn out of the cylinder and damages pressure regulators, safety devices
and the fuel gas hose.
 If a larger amount of acetylene is required, several single cylinders are to be connected via cylinder
connectors. Care should be taken to ensure almost the same contents pressure and the same type
of solvent. Alternative: Use cylinder bundles.
Sample calculation for extraction:

Formula: Average value of the welding torch x 100
E.g. torch size 4-6:

(4+6)
= 5 x 100 = 500 l/h
2 size 20-30
torch
E.g. torch size 20-30:
(20 + 30)
= 25 x 100 = 2,500 l/h
2
As in the final example the permissible consumption rate of a single cylinders is exceeded considerably,
4 cylinders are to be connected together in continuous operation.

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1.2 Propane (C3H8)

Propane is a colourless, non-toxic, but slightly narcotic gas. Propane is primarily generated from crude oil.
It is easy to handle because it can be stored in liquid state at room temperature under its own vapour
pressure of only 7 bar. Propane cylinders must not be exposed to high temperatures. At high temperatures
the gas expands and fills the entire cylinder volume. There is a risk of the cylinder bursting. Propane has a
higher heat value than acetylene, but it has a considerable lower flame efficiency when welding, which is
particular important during welding. It is therefore not suitable for welding. The flame temperature is lower
than that of the oxyacetylene flame and the oxygen quantity required for combustion is almost four times
higher than with acetylene. Propane has a low explosion limit and a high density. Leaking gas collects in
low-lying areas.
1.3 Methane (CH4)

Natural gas consists mainly of methane. The composition depends on the natural gas deposits, so the
combustion properties are also different. Natural gas is mainly used for heating purposes. It can be
stored in compressed form in cylinders, but is usually supplied to the buyer directly via pipelines.
Methane is a light gas and its lower explosive limit is higher than that of most other gases. The heat
value is low and little heat is generated by the primary flame.
1.4 Hydrogen (H2)

Hydrogen is a colourless, odourless and non-toxic gas. It is the lightest of all gases. It is a highly
inflammable gas and burns with an invisible flame. Hydrogen is manufactured industrially by the
electrolysis of water. It is transported as a gas under high pressure in cylinders or in liquid state.
1.5 Ethylene (C2H4)

Ethylene is a colourless gas with sweetish, slightly mouldy smell. It is slightly toxic. It can be used for
flame cutting and similar processes. The heat value is approximately the same as with acetylene, but
less heat is generated by the primary flame.
1.6 Propylene (C3H6)

Propylene is a colourless gas with a slightly sweetish smell. It is a non-toxic, but has a slight narcotic
effect. It can be used for flame cutting and similar processes. Propylene is supplied as a liquefied gas.
The properties are similar to those of propane.
Table 2: Physical Properties of fuel gases
Fuel gas Heat value Combustion Flame Flame power Density Explosion
velocity temperature limits in air
2 3
MJ/m3 m/s °C kW/cm kg/m %
Hydrogen 10.8 8.9 2,500 13.98 0.08 4.0…74.5
Acetylene 57.0 13.5 3,150 42.74 1.09 2.4…80.0
Propane 93.2 3.7 2,750 10.27 1.88 2.0…9.5
Natural gas 36.0 3.3 2,770 8.51 0.67 5.0…15.0

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1.7 Oxygen (O2)
Oxygen production/properties/storage
The manufacture of oxygen is carried out almost exclusively by air liquefaction with subsequent
decomposition of the air into its components. This occurs due to the different boiling points of the
individual components. The oxygen extracted in this way has a purity of 99,999% (5.0). The standard
purity of oxygen filled into cylinders is 99.5% (2.5).
Properties and hazards when handling oxygen
Oxygen is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas with a density of 1.43 kg/m 3 (thicker than air).
Combustion reactions occur faster than in air even with slightly increased oxygen levels. Above an
oxygen concentration of 30%, these can be explosive.
 Oxygen under pressure coming into contact with oil or grease may result in spontaneous ignition.
 The maximum consumption rate depends on the cylinder size and the maximum flow rate of the pressure
regulator. Excessive consumption rates lead to the icing up and freezing of the pressure regulator.
 Open oxygen cylinder valves slowly, otherwise internal ignition in the pressure regulator may be
caused as a result of the pressure surge.
 Never use oxygen to ventilate containers, rooms etc. In comparison to air the following effects of
oxygen are to be considered:
 Required ignition energies are considerably lower,
 The ignition temperature of the materials is lower,
 The combustion temperature and combustion velocities are higher.
Storage of oxygen
Oxygen is stored under high pressure in gaseous state in steel cylinders. State of the art gas cylinders
predominantly have a filling pressure of 200 bar. Newer cylinders have 300 bar.
Protective cover
Cylinder valve
Outlet connection
Identification
colour
Table 3: Steel cylinders for gaseous oxygen
Type Cylinder volumes Cylinder pressure Oxygen quantity

(litres) (bar) (litres)
50 50 200 10,000
40 40 150 6,000
10 10 200 2,000
The maximum consumption rate depends on the cylinder size and
the maximum flow rate of the pressure regulator.
Base ring
Figure 2: Oxygen cylinder

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Storage can also be in liquid form in thermally insulated tanks. In an evaporator liquid oxygen is
reconverted into gaseous oxygen. 1 litre of liquid oxygen produces about 850 litres of gaseous oxygen.
Figure 3: Cold gasifier system
1.8 Handling of pressurised-gas cylinders
 Pressurised-gas cylinders must not be thrown, struck or rolled when lying.

 Only transport, store and deliver with a safety cap attached.
 Protect from falling using chains or clamps.
 Do not install in corners or near to stairs or narrow passages.
 Do not open oxygen cylinders abruptly (stored heat).
 Protect against strong heating.
 Refilling from large to small cylinders requires specialised knowledge and is therefore not
permissible.
 When transporting gas cylinders, national and international regulations regarding the transport of
hazardous goods via road, rail and inland waterways must be observed.
 Pressurised-gas cylinders must be regularly inspected.

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2 Oxy-acetylene flame
The flame results from ignition of the gas mixture which flows out of the torch nozzle. The flame is
composed of the flame cone and the outer flame. In the flame cone, a partial combustion of acetylene
takes place with the oxygen supplied from the cylinder. In the outer flame, the complete combustion of the
gas takes place with oxygen from the air. The maximum temperature is approx. 3,200°C at a distance of
2 - 5 mm after the flame cone. The welding flame not only has the task of melting the surfaces to be joined
and the filler material but also of protecting the weld pool against negative influences from the air.
Figure 4: Oxy-acetylene flame
2.1 Setting the flame
 For the welding of ferrous metals an acetylene/oxygen ratio of 1:1 is set (normal flame).
 Excess acetylene has a carburising and hardening effect.
 Excess oxygen leads to the oxidisation (combustion) of the material.
 The flame can be adjusted to be hard or soft depending on the setting of different gas volumes using
the regulating valves.

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3 Pressure regulator (DIN EN ISO 2503)

The pressure regulator has the task of reducing the gas pressure to the working pressure and keeping it
constant when consuming gas.
Primary (Cylinder) Pressure Pressure Manometer for
Manometer working pressure
Regulator
valve
Blow-off valve Non-
return
Recoil spring valve
Cylinder
connection
Regulator
Housing pin
Dirt filter
Diaphragm Hose
Membrane connection
Regulator
valve
spring Spring cap
Relief bore
Adjusting screw
Figure 5: Pressure regulator
Design characteristics
 Oxygen pressure regulators must be resistant to internal ignition, all parts must be kept oil and grease
free.
 Acetylene pressure regulators must be designed and manufactured such that the maximum back
pressure of 1.5 bar cannot be exceeded.
 A dirt filter must be integrated.
Table 4: Recognition features of pressure regulators
Inscription Oxygen Acetylene Propane

Code letter O A P
Cylinder connection R ¾" Right-hand thread Clamp connection W 21.8 x 1/14" left-hand thread
Hose connection Right-hand thread Left-hand thread Left-hand thread
Working method
The pressure regulator is a membrane-controlled valve. When the adjusting screw is turned in, the
regulator valve is being adjusted via the regulator valve spring, diaphragm and regulator pin lift. The
adjusting screw is therefore used to set the working pressure. The flowing gas exerts a back pressure on
the membrane. During gas consumption equilibrium occurs at the membrane between the force of the
set spring and the gas back pressure and the force of the regulator valve spring.
Working rules
 Before connecting the pressure regulator check the cylinder connection for cleanliness (blow out)
and check the seal.
 The adjusting screw must be relieved if the pressure regulator is not in operation.
 Leak detection spray is to be used to check the seal. Soap solution is not permitted with oxygen due
to the possible grease content.

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4 Hoses and hose connections for gases
Table 5: Identification colour codes and nominal parameters of gas hoses
Features Oxygen Acetylene, hydrogen Propane, natural gas Shielding gases
Internal diameter
4.0; 5.0; 6.3; 8.0; 10.0; 12.5; 16.0; 20.0;
in mm
Identification colour blue red orange black
Examples
Right-hand thread Left-hand thread with Left-hand thread with Right-hand thread
surface notch surface notch
Connections
Working rules
 Burned and porous gas hoses must be replaced.

 Tying wire must not be used for fastening.
 Gas hoses must not be hung over the cylinders.
 For the joining of gas hoses double hose coupling nipples are to be used.
 With acetylene no copper or copper-bearing materials with more than 70% copper may be used.
 The minimum length of the gas hoses is three metres.
5 Welding torch (injector or injector pipe) DIN EN ISO 5172
In the welding torch acetylene and oxygen are mixed. The mixture ratio is kept constant. The flow rate of
the gas mixture is adapted to the ignition speed and the flame cone is formed.
5.1 Design and operating principle
The welding torch is made of the main parts handle (with hose connections and torch valves) and the
welding attachment (with injector, mixer, mixing tube and welding nozzle). The injector consists of the
pressure and the suction nozzle.
The oxygen flows through the pressure nozzle at an operating pressure of 2.5 bar. Oxygen causes a
suction effect in the area of the suction nozzle due to its high flow rate when escaping from the pressure
nozzle. Acetylene flows with a pressure of 0.2 to 0.7 bar into the suction nozzle and is drawn into the
mixing hose by the oxygen stream, mixed with oxygen in the mixing tube and ignited at the outlet of the
welding nozzle.

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Figure 6: Welding Torch
Circular channel
Oxygen
Fuel gas
Welding attachment Suction nozzle Handle

Union Nut Pressure
Nozzle
Figure 7: Injector area of an injector-type blowpipe (detail A)
Inscription  = Manufacturer's mark

A = Gas type (Acetylene)
i = Injector-type blowpipe (suction blowpipe)
1 = Size 1, workpiece thickness of 0.5 - 1 mm which is welded with this welding attachment
S 2.5 bar = Working pressure to be set for oxygen
Malfunctioning of the injector-type blowpipe
Popping
Characteristic: Banging noise, explosive spraying of the weld pool.

Cause: Discharge speed lower than ignition speed (flame set too small);
blowpipe nozzle expanded.
Remedy: Replace blowpipe nozzle, set flame larger.

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Backfiring
Characteristic: Sudden extinguishing of the flame, clear, shrill whistling, strong heating of the
welding attachment.
Cause: Too strong heating of the welding attachment, several blow outs as a result,
Loose welding nozzle (torch nozzle).
Remedy: Immediately close both valves on the handle and the let the torch cool.
Flashback
Characteristic: Loud explosive bang, bursting of the acetylene hose in several locations,
strong soot generation, peculiar smell.
Cause: Serious reduction in the flow rate in particular with large torches,
continuing backfiring, leaking connection between handle and welding attachment,
e.g. loose union nut.
Remedy: Close both cylinder valves immediately. Remove pressure regulator from the
acetylene cylinder and check the cylinder.
Testing the torch (suction test)
The function of the torch can be tested by means of a suction test.
Procedure:
1. Make the oxygen ready for operation, i.e. set the pressure.
2. Shut off acetylene supply (close cylinder).
3. Unscrew acetylene hose from the handle.
4. Open the acetylene and oxygen valves on the handle.
If the welding torch is functioning correctly, a clear suction effect can be felt at the acetylene connection
of the handle.
Working rules
 Firmly tighten the union nut on the handle.

 Set pressures correctly (oxygen in accordance with marking, acetylene approx. 0.4 bar.)
 Sequence when igniting the flame:
First open the oxygen valve at the handle, then open the acetylene valve, ignite the flame and set it.
 Sequence when extinguishing the flame:
First close the acetylene valve, then close the oxygen valve.

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6 Safety Devices
Incorrect operation or defective servicing of welding or cutting equipment can cause flashbacks from the
torch into the fuel gas cylinder. It can result in internal ignition in pressure regulators and pressure
equipment which causes bursting of the hose, destroying of the welding torch or the cylinder to explode.
The reasons for the flashbacks are for example dirty torch nozzles, loose connections between welding or
cutting torch head and handle or defective gaskets in the area of the torch.
These faults cannot always be ruled out, so appropriate safety devices are required. The accident
prevention regulations stipulate that each outlet for consuming equipment (e.g. welding torch) in which
acetylene is burned with oxygen or compressed air is to be equipped with a safety device. This means that
there are different requirements for acetylene cylinder battery and individual cylinder systems.
Outlet safety devices for cylinder battery systems
At each outlet of an acetylene cylinder or an acetylene cylinder battery system safety devices must be
installed.
They must prevent:

 Flashbacks from the torch into the supply system
 Return of oxygen into the supply system for fuel gas
 Continuing flow of fuel gas following a flashback
The safety devices are equipped with a flame arrester (Sinter Metal), a gas back-flow nozzle and
a cut-off valve.
Temperature controlled Pressure con-

trolled
Dirt filter
Warning lever
Flash-back arrester
(Pressure controlled)
Back Flow Nozzle
Flame arrester
(Sinter metal)
Flash-back arrester
(temperature controlled)
Pressure-relief valve
Figure 8: Outlet safety devices

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Protection of single cylinders
If only one individual consuming device is connected to an acetylene cylinder, a single cylinder safety
device can be used in place of the outlet safety device. It protects against back-flow and flash, but has
no flashback arrester.
Back Flow Nozzle
Figure 9: Single cylinder safety device Flame arrester

(Sinter metal)
Installation types
Single cylinder safety devices can be integrated
 immediately after the pressure regulator

 in the hose
 directly on the handle
Single cylinder safety device

Figure 10: Single cylinder fuse on the handle
Supply of several consumers from a single cylinder
Taking into account the permissible consumption rate of an acetylene cylinder (max. 700l/h under
continuous operation) it is possible to connect for example two welding torches to one acetylene
cylinder. Protection against flashbacks is provided with two outlet safety devices.
Single cylinder safety devices are not sufficient here.
Figure 11: Supply of several consumers from one acetylene cylinder
Periodic testing of safety devices

According to current standards, safety devices against flash-back must be tested at least once a year for
gas flow-back, tightness and flow rate.

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7 Oxy-acetylene welding
Description of the welding process
The heat source for welding is a flame which is created with the fuel gas acetylene and pure oxygen. The
gases flow through the welding torch with a mixing ratio of 1:1. Acetylene is ignited and burned after
emerging from the welding torch. The flame temperature is approx. 3,200 °C. To burn acetylene
completely, oxygen from the air is required. The filler material required for welding is additionally added.
7.1 Cost-effective area of application
 Welding of sheet metals and pipes made from non-alloyed steels up to approx. 5 mm
 Repair welding
 Pipeline construction, installation sector
1 = Oxygen Cylinder
2 = Acetylene Cylinder
3 = Outlet safety devices
4 = Oxygen hose
5 = Acetylene hose
6 = Handle
7 = Welding rod
8 = Welding nozzle
9 = Workpiece
10 = Welding flame
Figure 12: Component parts of a single-cylinder system
7.2 Techniques (LW/RW welding)

There are two techniques for producing welded joints:
7.2.1 Leftward welding

Guide welding torch in a straight line, move the welding rod in a dabbing action (the welding torch follows
the welding rod).
Advantages: Smooth or only slightly scaled weld surface; favourable use up to 3 mm workpiece
thickness.
Disadvantages: Easily moulded weld pool, complete fusion difficult to control.
7.2.2 Rightward welding

Guide welding torch in a straight line, move the rod in a circular motion (the welding rod follows the
welding torch).
Advantages: Targeted heat input, ensured complete fusion, lower cooling speed, better
protective effect of flame.
Disadvantages: Difficult to use below 3 mm workpiece thickness. High requirement for the manual
skill of the welder.

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7.3 Welding rods for gas welding (DIN EN 12536)

For the joint welding of general structural steels and heat-resistant steels the welding rods are divided
into six rod classes.
Information on which steel grades are to be coordinated with the respective rod classes is given in the
following table.
Table 6: Allocation of gas welding rods to different base materials
Steel tubes for pipelines

General structural steels
according to DIN EN 10025
according to DIN EN 10208
Pipes according to DIN
Sheet metal and strips
heat-resistant steels
Steel type
DIN EN 10028
according to
EN 10216
made of
10CrMo9-10
13CrMo4-5
Steel type
1)
16Mo3
16Mo3
S 185
S 235
S 275
S 355
P 235
P 265
P 235
P 265
P 295
L 235
L 245
L 290
L 360
I X X
II X X X
Suitable welding III X X X X X
rod class IV X X X X X X X X X X
2)
V X
2)
VI X
1)
Weldability of steel S185 is limited
2)
Multi-pass welding.
Note: Gas welding of heat-resistant steels, e.g. 13CrMo4-5 etc., no longer corresponds to the state of the art. The
allocation of the relevant rods is therefore rather theoretical in nature.
7.4 Designation of gas welding rods
The designation comprises of the name, the DIN EN number, the designation for gas welding and the
welding rod class.
Example: Welding rod DIN EN 12536 - O III
7.5 Marking
The welding rods must be provided with a permanent, clearly recognisable class designation (labelled
with Roman numerals). An additional colour marking at the rod ends is possible

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7.6 Joint type with gas welding
The joint type to be selected depends on
 Material
 Material thickness
 Welding process
 Welding position
 Accessibility
DIN EN ISO 9692 contains the types of joint preparation for welding processes.
Table 7: Joint forms for butt welds, welded on one side Measure in mm
Weld joint Joint type

Dimensions:
Designation
Work- Angle Gap Root Flank

piece Symbol Represen- face height
Cross-section Remarks
thick- tation height
ness  b c h
Usually
t2 Butt - - - - without filler
weld material
-
t4 Square - b=t - -
butt
weld
t>4 Single-V 30°    b4 c2 -

butt weld 60°
Table 8: Types of groove weld for fillet welds, welded on one side Measure in mm
Weld seam Joint type

Dimensions:
Workpiece
Thickness
Designation Symbol Representation Cross-section Angle Gap
 b
t1 > 2 Fillet weld, b2

t2 > 2 T-joint 70 °    100 ° (target is b = 0)
t1 > 2 Fillet weld, b2


t2 > 2 Lap joint (target is b = 0)
t1 > 2 Fillet weld,

t2 > 2 Corner joint 60 °    120 ° b2

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8 Related processes
8.1 Flame straightening

Formation of shrinkages and stresses in the workpiece
If a metal is heated uniformly, it expands and becomes larger. The subsequent cooling shrinks it again.
When the initial temperature is reached, it has its initial dimensions again. It does not shrink beyond the
initial level. The workpiece behaves differently if expansion is prevented or the component is only partly
heated. During heating the softest point – the point of heating – upsets (deforms). When cooling the
workpiece, shrinking occurs around the deformed area. Bending (angular distortion) or tension results if
the material is clamped.
L = Longitudinal shrinkage
Q = Transverse shrinkage
D = Thickness shrinkage
W = Angular shrinkage
Figure 13: Shrinkage types
Straightening process
With flame straightening, the component is quickly, specifically and locally heated into the plastic range.
The temperature at which plastic deformation occurs is approximately 550°C for steel and, for aluminium
and its alloys around 350°C–400°C. Upsetting occurs due to obstructed thermal expansion (an important
requirement for flame straightening). In order to achieve upsetting, auxiliary materials are required, which
prevent expansion. During cooling, the workpiece shortens around the deformed area which leads to the
desired length or shape change. Contrary to mechanical straightening in which the “short side” is
stretched, with flame straightening there is a shortening of the “long side”. The final result of
straightening only becomes visible on reaching the ambient temperature.
Four factors cause flame straightening:

Heating  Prevented expansion  Upsetting (deformation)  Reduction in
length during cooling
Figure 14: Heating and prevented expansion

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8.1.1 Working rules for flame straightening
1. Measuring
Shape and size of dimensional deviation are determined by measuring the workpiece.
With flame straightening workpieces can be only shortened. Welds contract after welding and are shorter
than their surroundings. For this reason, never heat on the weld seam.
Determine flame straightening and its position and where necessary mark it.
2. Prevention of thermal expansion
During the heating process the workpiece expands. In order to achieve good straightening results,
expansion must be prevented. This can take place through the component's own weight and shape or by
additional measures.
3. Selection of fuel gas and torch
Acetylene is recommended as the fuel gas. Other fuel gases, such as propane or natural gas have a too
low flame efficiency and flame temperature to achieve quick and concentrated heating. Areas next to the
straightening point are also heated. Bulges can occur as a result. The torch size depends on the size of
the structure, the material and the material thickness.
4. Create locally limited heat accumulation
Successful straightening depends on local and targeted heat accumulation. The areas are to be kept
small. Several small patterns figures work better than one large pattern figure. Heat wedges must be
strictly limited.
At the flame straightening point the material must be plasticised. In the plastic range, the yield point is
very low, and the material in the heated area is upsetted. During cooling the material shrinks and
achieves the desired deformation.
5. Shrinkage
The material shrinks as long as it has not yet reached its ambient temperature. Clamping means which
are used to prevent expansion are gradually released. The straightening process can be accelerated,
but not improved, by cooling with compressed air or water. This straightening must be checked by
measuring. Only after this, any necessary new straightening points are determined.

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Prevention of thermal expansion
The upsetting (deformation) of the straightening point is a precondition for straightening. If the
component is not rigid enough, additional measures must be put in place to prevent thermal expansion
during the heating procedure. An additional prevention of thermal expansion from the outside is
particularly important in less rigid components.
Figure 15: Prevention by own weight Figure 16: Prevention by the Figure 17: Prevention by
inherent rigidity additional restraint
Heat patterns with flame straightening
In order to achieve optimal straightening results, different heating patterns are used depending on the
component and the deformation. Heat can be applied as a heat point, heat line, heat wedge, heat oval or
as a combination of several heat patterns.
Heating point
The heat point is preferably used for flame straightening thin plates, for the removal of buckling. It must
be small. The workpiece is heated through in order to achieve two-dimensional shortening of the
component. Many small points are more effective than one large one. The workpiece is heated from the
outer area to the centre.
The straightening of components can be performed with the help of perforated plates. The prevention
of expansion takes place by clamping the component between a perforated plate and a counterplate.
The bores in the perforated plate determine the distance between the individual heating points.
Figure 18: Heating points

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Heat oval
Pipes can be straightened simply and effectively with the flame. The main use is the elimination
of deformations, which result from one-sided connecting of pipe branches. This deformation is repaired
by applying oval-shaped heat spots on the other side of the pipe connection. The tube wall is
heated through.
The basic rule is: the long side of the oval is always in the pipe longitudinal direction.
Figure 19: Heat oval
Heat lines for the elimination of angular distortion
Angular distortion is the most frequent and the most distinctively visible deformation type. It can be
removed in many cases by one or more parallel heat lines drawn on the opposite side. It is particularly
effective if only 1/3 of the workpiece thickness is heated to the flame straightening temperature. Sheet
thicknesses above 4 mm are straightened with 3 parallel lines. Five-line heat flows are used for sheet
thicknesses above 8 mm.
Heat lines
Figure 20: Heat lines

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Wedge-shape heating
The heat wedge is the heat pattern with the greatest straightening effect. It is mainly used on profiles and
vertical ribs to achieve major deformations. The component is always exposed uniformly from the wedge
tip outgoing up to the baseline. It is necessary to ensure that the form and the size of the wedge is set to
size of the component (1). The heat wedge contour must be strictly defined, sharply pointed and long.
The height of the wedge is to be chosen in such a way that the wedge tip just crosses the bending line of
the profile (3). With this procedure the rigidity of non-heated material areas is used to prevent expansion.
Baseline of the
heat wedge
Bending line
Figure 21: Heat wedge
It is recommended to mark the shape of the heat wedge on both sides of the component in order to
ensure an as exact as possible opposite heating. Heating is performed from the wedge tip to the
baseline of the wedge (best upsetting).
8.2 Soldering and brazing
Soldering and brazing are thermal processes for joining and surfacing materials with the help of a molten
filler material - the solder and if necessary flux.
The working temperature of the solder is below the melting temperature of the materials to be joined.
The solder diffuses into the grain boundaries. Adhesion and a type of alloy formation between the base
material and the solder occurs. The strength of the solder joint mainly depends on the type of the joint,
the properties of the solder and the base material.
In soldering technology, we distinguish between soldering, brazing and high-temperature soldering in
accordance with the working temperature of the solder.
For further information see chapter 1.16.

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8.3 Oxy-fuel flame cutting
Oxy-fuel flame cutting is a thermal cutting process, in which the main part of the energy required for the
process is obtained from the heat released by the combustion of the material. The material to be cut
is locally heated by the oxy-fuel gas flame to ignition temperature at the workpiece surface and is then
burned by the oxygen stream. The heat resulting from the combustion of the material allows a
continuous combustion into the depth and into feed direction. Oxy-fuel flame cutting has the largest
application in terms of workpiece thickness. Standard torches are generally suitable for the range of 3 -
300 mm, special torches up to 1,000 mm and more. For further information see chapter 1.13.
8.4 Flame heating
The term “flame heating” means all applications in which the flame induces heat in a workpiece without
melting it.
In flame heating, the workpiece is heated to change its characteristics, for example, to reduce
deformation resistance. It is also used for preheating when welding, cutting etc.
Flame heating is also used during hot-forming, e.g. for bending and flaring of pipes, etc. Here the area to
be deformed is locally heated to the correct temperature. The hot-forming temperature is approx. 900°C.
Simple welding torches and special torches are used. When heating very large parts the torches are
often water-cooled and the ignition and extinguishing processes are effected automatically.
Flame heating can be carried out both by manually and mechanised. The measurement of the
temperature is performed using temperature indicating crayons, spring- or contact thermometers.
When selecting the fuel gases for the different processes certain factors must be considered:
 Is a fast and concentrated heating process of importance?

 Is heating through of the workpiece of importance?
 Does the water vapour content of the flame play a role?
Table 9: Flame temperatures and water vapour content
Type of flame Flame temperature Water content of flame

°C %
Acetylene/oxygen 3,150 approx. 3.5
Acetylene/compressed air 2,300
Propane/oxygen 2,800 approx. 30
Propane/compressed air 1,925
Methane/oxygen 2,770 approx. 40

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8.5 Flame cleaning
With flame cleaning undesired layers are removed using fuel gas/oxygen torches, e.g. rust scale,
paint etc.
Following setting, the flame cleaning hand torch is set down on the surface to be worked. The torch head
slides on the steel or concrete.
with the mechanised torch the nozzles are at a distance of about 1.2 to 2 cm from the surface.
The flame cleaning torch must have an inclination angle of approx. 45 degrees to the surface and the
tips of the flame cones must touch the surface.
Figure 22: Flame cleaning
Working method
The flame cleaning torch may not be applied at an angle. The flame must have an even effect across
the entire width of the torch. With steel, inclination of the torch is necessary in the feed direction, but not
with concrete.
The torch feed rate for steel is 3.0 to 5.0 m/min, for concrete 1.0 to 3.0 m/min.
Training
Technical personnel for flame cleaning can be trained according to guideline DVS 1147 – flame cleaning –.

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8.6 Cutting with the oxygen lance
Flame boring with the oxygen lance is a thermal cutting process. It is used for the flame boring of mineral
or metallic materials. For flame boring, oxygen core lances or oxygen-powder lances are used, with core
lances primarily being used.
Equipment and accessories
Figure 23: Oxygen lance
Working method
After ignition (ignition temperature approx. 1,200°C) the oxygen core lance is pressed against the
material (concrete, stone metal) with the help of a welding or a cutting torch. Through the constant
combustion of the iron by the oxygen flow sufficient heat is available to melt the material locally. The
emerging iron oxide forms (e.g. molten stone) a fluid slag with the material that is carried away by the
oxygen flow. In this way a bore is created which can be integrated to any depth.

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9 Knowledge questions
(1) Acetylene decomposes down at higher pressure. Which value must the working pressure
therefore not exceed?
 1.5 bar (overpressure)

(2) Why is acetylene used as a fuel gas for welding?
 Because of its good ignitability

 Because of the low ignition temperature
 Because of the high flame intensity
 Because of the low density
(3) Which consequences should be expected if large amounts of oxygen are taken from the cylinder?
 The cylinder valve and pressure regulators can freeze

 The acetone is carried away
 The cylinder is heated strongly
 There are no negative consequences
(4) What should you do in the case of backfiring in the welding torch?
 Close the acetylene and oxygen cylinders

 Allow the torch to whistle
 Build in outlet safety devices
 Immediately close both valves on the handle and the let the torch cool
(5) What is the purpose of the outlet safety device?
 Ensure an even gas flow

 Allow a normal flame setting
 Prevent flame back-fire and gas backflow
 Extinguish a hose fire
(6) How can acetylene decomposition be initiated?
 Too low gas consumption rate

 By too strong external heating of the cylinder
 By abrupt opening of the cylinder valve
 By too large gas consumption rate

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(7) Which of the following straightening patterns is particularly good for flame straightening
of profiles?
 Heat point
 Heat lines
 Heat wedge
 Heat oval

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10 Bibliography
/1/ DIN EN ISO 2503: Pressure regulating valves for gas cylinders for welding, cutting and
related processes.
/2/ DIN EN ISO 5172: Gas welding equipment; torches for welding, heating and cutting.
/3/ DIN EN 12536: Rods for gas welding of non-alloyed and heat-resistant steels.
/4/ DVS leaflet 0201: Technical gases for welding, cutting and related processes: Oxygen.
/5/ DVS leaflet 0202: Technical gases for welding, cutting and related processes: Acetylene.
/6/ Flame straightening: Werksbilder Linde AG (basics of flame straightening.)

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Oxy-Acetylene Welding and Related Processes

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SFI / IWE 1.

Chapter 1.02: Oxy-gas welding and related processes

1 Welding gases ..................................................................................................................... 3

Welding processes and

8.2 Soldering and brazing ................................................................................................... 22

Welding processes and

1.1 Acetylene (C2H2)

Properties and hazards during handling of acetylene

Maximum 1.5 bar over pressure

Welding processes and

Table 1: Delivery types (high-pressure gas cylinders, solvent acetone)

Identification colour 10 10 23 18 1.6

Low temperatures: High dissolving power

Sample calculation for extraction:

E.g. torch size 4-6:

Welding processes and

1.2 Propane (C3H8)

1.3 Methane (CH4)

1.4 Hydrogen (H2)

1.5 Ethylene (C2H4)

1.6 Propylene (C3H6)

Table 2: Physical Properties of fuel gases

Welding processes and

1.7 Oxygen (O2)

Properties and hazards when handling oxygen

Type Cylinder volumes Cylinder pressure Oxygen quantity

Welding processes and

Figure 3: Cold gasifier system

1.8 Handling of pressurised-gas cylinders

 Pressurised-gas cylinders must not be thrown, struck or rolled when lying.

Welding processes and

Figure 4: Oxy-acetylene flame

2.1 Setting the flame

Welding processes and

3 Pressure regulator (DIN EN ISO 2503)

Figure 5: Pressure regulator

Table 4: Recognition features of pressure regulators

Inscription Oxygen Acetylene Propane

Welding processes and

4 Hoses and hose connections for gases

Table 5: Identification colour codes and nominal parameters of gas hoses

Features Oxygen Acetylene, hydrogen Propane, natural gas Shielding gases

 Burned and porous gas hoses must be replaced.

5 Welding torch (injector or injector pipe) DIN EN ISO 5172

5.1 Design and operating principle

Welding processes and

Figure 6: Welding Torch

Welding attachment Suction nozzle Handle

Inscription  = Manufacturer's mark

Malfunctioning of the injector-type blowpipe

Characteristic: Banging noise, explosive spraying of the weld pool.

Welding processes and

Testing the torch (suction test)

The function of the torch can be tested by means of a suction test.

 Firmly tighten the union nut on the handle.

Welding processes and

Outlet safety devices for cylinder battery systems

They must prevent:

Temperature controlled Pressure con-

Back Flow Nozzle

Figure 8: Outlet safety devices

Welding processes and

Protection of single cylinders