Vehicle System Dynamics Article Review

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Vehicle-Generated Road Damage: A Review

a
David CEBON
a
Engineering Department , Cambridge University , Cambridge, CB2 1PZ, UK
Published online: 27 Jul 2007.
To cite this article: David CEBON (1989) Vehicle-Generated Road Damage: A Review, Vehicle System Dynamics: International
Journal of Vehicle Mechanics and Mobility, 18:1-3, 107-150
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Vehicle System Dynamics, 18 (1989), pp. 107-150 0042-31 14/89/1801-0107 $3.00
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Vehicle-Generated Road Damage: A Review
David CEBON*
SUMMARY
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The literature concerned with road damage caused by heavy commercial vehicles is reviewed. The main
types of vehicle-generated road damage are described and the methods that can be used to analyse
them are presented. Attention is given to the principal features of the response of road surfaces to
vehicle loads and mathematical models that have been developed to predict road response. Also
discussed are those vehicle features which, to a first approximation, can be studied without
consideration of the dynamics of the vehicle, including axle and tyre configurations, tyre contact
conditions and static load sharing in axle group suspensions. The main emphasis of the paper is on the
dynamic tyre forces generated by heavy vehicles: their principal characteristics, their simulation and
measurement, the effects of suspension design on the forces and the methods that can be used to
estimate their influence on road damage. Some critical research needs are identified.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview
This paper presents a review of the literature concerned with the tyre-road contact
forces generated by heavy vehicles and their influence on road surface response and
damage.
The vertical force applied to the road surface by each tyre of a lorry can be
separated into two components: the static load, due to weight, and a fluctuating
component known as the dynamic tyre force or dynamic wheel load. The static
load depends on the geometry and mass distribution of the vehicle and the static
load sharing characteristics of the suspension system. Uneven load sharing can
result in unnecessarily high average tyre forces with consequently high stresses
and strains in the road surface and additional road damage. Dynamic tyre forces are
caused by vibration of the vehicle when it is excited by roughness of the road
surface. They normally occur at frequencies below 20 Hz. Dynamic tyre forces
generate additional dynamic stresses and strains in pavements which are thought
to accelerate road surface deterioration, although the mechanisms by which this
occurs are not well understood.
There is considerable civil engineering literature concerned with experimental
and theoretical studies of road damage caused by heavy vehicles, however it is
mostly based on the notion that vehicles apply constant (static) tyre forces to the
road surface. These studies have achieved mixed success due to the extremely
complex nature of the road damage problem. Comparatively few researchers have
* Cambridge University, Engineering Department, Cambridge, CB2 IPZ, U K

108 D A V I D CEBON
investigated the influence of vehicle suspension design features on static and

dynamic tyre forces and the consequent effects on pavement damage. This is the
main theme of the paper. By way of introduction, some of the background
literature is presented, including work on pavement structural analysis, road
damage prediction and the influence of those vehicle parameters which, to a first
approximation, can be examined independently of the dynamics of the vehicle.
These include axle spacing, tyre configuration and contact conditions, and static
load sharing in axle-group suspensions.
The primary incentive for understanding these problems is the prospect of
reducing the road damage caused by heavy vehicles and the associated costs. This
may be achieved by introducing regulations which encourage the use of less
damaging suspension systems or by designing improved suspensions to minimise
road damage. (These may be based on conventional passive suspension components,
or possibly activelsemi-active suspension technology.) A third possibility is to
improve the design and construction of roads to account for dynamic tyre forces.
For any of these approaches to be successful, it is necessary to improve current
understanding of the interaction between vehicles and road surfaces, and the
mechanisms by which road damage occur.
1. I Semantics
The terms used to describe tyre forces and pavement response are defined as fol-
lows:
The instantaneous tyre force P(t) at time t comprises the average static value
plus the oscillating dynamic component: the dynamic ryre force. Frequency refers
to the spectral content of P(t) as measured by an observer moving with the vehicle
and speed refers to the speed of the moving vehicle, measured relative to a
stationary observer (the pavement). These are the usual definitions used in vehicle
ride dynamics. Random tyre forces have a relatively broad-band spectral content.
They are not 'stochastic' in the strict sense, because they are essentially predictable
(deterministic) and repeatable on subsequent test runs of a particular vehicle over
a given stretch of road.
The primary response is the stress, strain, or displacement (or time derivatives
thereof) at a particular point in the pavement when it is loaded by a vehicle. Road
damage refers to degradation of the structural integrity or surface profile of a
road when it is trafficked by vehicles. Since roads are designed for a finite service
life and are expected to deteriorate with time, it may alternatively be called wear.
Throughout the paper it is assumed that the vehicles are travelling in a straight
line at constant speed, so that the tyre forces are primarily vertical with no
appreciable lateral or longitudinal components. The paper does not include
discussion of the forms of road damage which are essentially caused by
environmental factors alone.
VEHlCLE-GENERATED ROAD DAMAGE
2. ROAD SURFACE RESPONSE AND DAMAGE
2.1 Background to road surface wear

Road surfaces (or pavements) may be classified as flexible, composite or rigid. A
flexible pavement consists of one or more layers of flexible (bituminous)
material supported by a granular subgrade. Composite pavements consist of a
flexible surface layer supported by a stiff portland cement concrete (PCC) base
and rigid road surfaces consist of a layer of PCC on a granular foundation. Rigid
pavements can further be classified according to their arrangement of steel
reinforcement and joints.
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 '0.5 0.6 0.7
Measured rut depth (cm)
Fig. I . Comparison of calculated and measured rut depths using the VESYS pavement analysis
sytem. From Thompson et al. [1251.
110 DAVl D CEBON
Each of these road types has a number of characteristic failure mechanisms.

According to Rauhut, Roberts and Kennedy [64, 971 and Jackson [60], the most
important of these are:'
(i) Fatigue cracking for all types of pavements
(ii) Permanent deformation (longitudinal rutting) for flexible and compos-
ite pavements
(iii) Reduced skid resistance for flexible and composite pavements
(iv) Low temperature cracking for flexible pavements
(v) Reflection cracking for composite pavements
(vi) Faulting, spalling, low temperature and shrinkage cracking, blow-ups,
punch outs and steel rupture for rigid pavements, depending on their
structural category.
Each failure mechanism is affected by many factors including the roadway design
and construction methods, the material properties of each constituent layer, the
traffic loading and the environmental conditions throughout the service life [64].
2.2 Prediction of road damage

Current mechanistic pavement design practice in many countries is to optimise
resistance to fatigue and rutting [94]. Analytical models are used to determine the
'primary responses' (stresses, strains and displacements) of a layered road
structure due to a static, standard wheel load (often 40kN). The 'fourth power
law12 is frequently used to convert the estimated traffic during the service life
into an equivalent number of standard wheel loads. Experimental fatigue and
permanent deformation characteristics of the road materials3 are then combined
with the calculated primary responses to evaluate suitable pavement layer
thicknesses and material property specifications [94].
For the analysis of fatigue damage, the most commonly used primary
responses are the horizontal tensile stress or strain at the bottom of the asphalt or
PCC surface layer, since analytical models generally predict that maximum
tensile strains occur at this location on the axis of the load. Pavement designers
Pavement damage terminology is defined by Kennedy et. al. [64].
h he 'fourth power law' stems from the AASHO road test (1958-60) [I, 21 from which i t was deduced
that the decrease in pavement 'serviceability' caused by a heavy vehicle axle could be related to the
fourth power of its static load. A static load P is assumed to be equivalent to (P/Po)4 applications
of the standard axle load Po. The validity of the 'fourth power law' is questionable [S], particularly for
current axle loads and configurations, tyre pressures and road constructions, all of which are
substantially different from the AASHO road test conditions. More recent research has indicated that
the damage exponent may take a wide range of values; for flexible pavements: 2-6 151, 1.3-4.1 [I281
and for composite or rigid pavements: 8- 12 [25. 891 and 1 1-33 [9 I].
The damage characteristics of pavement materials are very sensitive to stress or strain amplitudes,
typically displaying power relationships with exponents in the range 1-8, depending on the material
and the mode of distress (see, for example, [15, 41, 72, 771).
VEHICLE-GENERATED ROAD D A M A G E 111
consequently infer the upwards propagation of fatigue cracks from the layer
interface. 'Thrower [128] noted, however, that this failure mechanism is not well
supported by observations of core samples taken from roads in Britain, where
cracks almost invariably originate at the top surface and extend downward.
Rutting damage in flexible pavements is the result of permanent deforniation
in each of the pavement layers. In the AASHO road test [ I ] approximately 68% of
the permanent deformation occurred in the granular foundation layers, while 32%
occurred in the asphalt surface (subgrade compressive strain was found to
correlate well with rutting damage [130]). In tests performed by the Transport
and Road Research Laboratory (TRRL) in the UK [69] these proportions were
approximately 46% and 54% respectively. Pavement designers often attempt to

minimise deformation of the granular layers by limiting the compressive stress or
strain at the top of the subgrade. In other design procedures, the elastic vertical
deflection of the surface, or the sum of the theoretical permanent deformations of
each layer are used as design criteria.
Although considerable research effort has been concentrated on predicting
pavement failure, agreement between theory and experiment is often
unsatisfactory [128]. There are numerous complicating factors including 'healing'
of bituminous materials in rest periods between load pulses [41, 128, 1321, the
distribution of wheel paths across the road [83, 94, 128, 129, 1321, extreme
sensitivity of material properties to climatic conditions, particularly temperature
[25,94, 128, 132, 1471, inaccuracy of the 'fourth power law' [5, 1281, variations in
tyre types [58, 89, 1471, inadequacies of pavement response and damage models
[128] and the variable nature of the applied loads. It is not uncommon for such
analyses to underestimate pavement fatigue lives by a factor pf 100 [94, 128, 1321.
Figure 1, which was reproduced from [125], compares typical predictions of
rut development in a flexible pavement by the VESYS pavement design/analysis
program with field measurements. There is little, if any, correlation. Some
researchers have tuned or 'internally calibrated' their pavement models by making
large adjustments to the input parameters on the basis of field tests of pavement
deterioration (typically the AASHO road test). In these cases, the agreement
between model predictions and experiment is found to improve considerably. See,
for example, [12, 63, 1251. One notable exception was achieved by Thrower et al.
[129] who obtained surprisingly good agreement between predictions of rutting in
controlled laboratory and full-scale tests using a detailed nonlinear description
of material permanent deformation characteristics.
Criteria for evaluating the road damaging effects of dynamic wheel loads must
inevitably be based on the current understanding of road surface failure. As
illustrated above, this is an area of considerable uncertainty.
2.3 Principal features of road surface response

This section reviews some of the principal characteristics of the response of road
surfaces to vehicle loads.
112 DAVID CEBON
2.3.1 Linearity
Although granular pavement materials are essentially nonlinear [9, 15, 16, 1291,
deflections in flexible and rigid pavements are usually sufficiently small under
vehicle loading for the assumption of static linearity to be valid [I, 12, 25, 35.46,
1221. Recently, Hardy and Cebon [50] showed that the instrumented pavement
section used in their experiments was linear over a wide frequency range for
impulsive loading. They noted, however, that some types of buried displacement
transducers may introduce measurement nonlinearities due to friction or
mounting conditions.
2.3.2 Dynamic coupling

The response of road surfaces and the dynamics of vehicles are essentially uncou-
pled. This is because: (i) the displacement of the road surface is considerably
smaller than the deflections of truck tyres and suspensions and (ii) the speed of
propagation of elastic waves in the road surface (100-600 m/s) 162,841 is generally
significantly greater than the speed of the vehicle. As a result of the weak
coupling between the two systems it is reasonable to assume that the road surface
is rigid when simulating the response of a vehicle to road roughness and to treat
the vehicle as a set of moving dynamic loads when simulating the response of the
road surface.
2.3.3 Effect of speed and frequency

Road materials and structural responses are sensitive to vehicle speed [ I , 7, 10, 25,
39,46,50, 5 1,59,86,94, 106, 1071 and to the frequency content of the applied loads
[50, 62, 83, 87, 106, 107, 115, 122, 1311. Figure 2, which is reproduced from Harr
[5 11, shows the effect of speed on pavement deflection as measured in the AASHO
road test [I]. As the speed increases, the peak strain under a constant moving load
diminishes in amplitude and occurs behind the point of application of the load (see
also [39, 50, 1401). This 'speed effect' is important when considering the road
damage caused by dynamic tyre forces, because fatigue damage incurred by road
materials is very sensitive to strain amplitude.
According to limited data presented by Gorge [46] (also Hahn [49]) and by
Christison and Woodrooffe [27], a linear correlation has been observed between
dynamic wheel loads and dynamic pavement response. One such result reproduced
from [27] is shown in Fig. 3. Although there is clearly some correlation, there is
considerable scatter on the measurements which is likely to be caused by the
effects of the frequency and speed of the applied loads. The conclusion of a linear
relationship is contrary to evidence regarding the dynamic response of pavements.
2.3.4 Isotropy
Pavements are essentially variable in nature with properties that vary
significantly due to layer thickness and material property fluctuations [61, 65,
901. An example of this variability is given in [90] which provides extensive data
VEHICLE-GENERATED ROAD DAMAGE 113
.OI
. 6- 9- 16 Design
I I
I
1
30 KIP SINOLE AXLE LDIO -
I2 HIP SINOLE AXLE LOAO

I I I 0 ! I I
0
0 10 to 30 40 50 0 I0 20 30 40 50
VEHICLE SPEED, YPM VEHICLE SPEED. U P Y
Fig. 2. The effect of vehicle speed on peak road surface deflection as measured in the AASHO road
test. From Harr [5 11.
A Axle 4
0 Axle 5
Axle 6
n 1.
-
B.6
8.8 1 .0 1.2 1 .I 1.d 1.8 2.e 2.2
Dynamic I m p a c t F a c t o r
Fig. 3. Relationship between measured dynamic wheel load (impact factor) and measured flexible
pavement deflection for a range of vehicle speeds. From Christison and Woodrooffe [27].
on the variation in properties of a special purpose test track: layer thicknesses -

+
typically 20%, moduli - typically +- 30% and deflection under a standard load -
114 DAVID CEBON
typically f 25%. In a recent study performed by the TRRL in the UK [38], a radar
technique was used to measure the thickness of a number of in-service motorways
at Im intervals. The measured coefficients of variation of the asphalt layer
thicknesses were found to range from 3.7% to 6.7% (i.e. f 11% to f 20% for 3
standard deviations) for asphalt layers with mean thicknesses of 240mm to
430mm. McLellan and Still [78], noted that thickness variations in five measured
test sections were generally within the specification of the construction contract
and that the variation in thickness of concrete road surfaces is generally greater
than that for asphalt.
Despite this expected variation in thickness, measurements by Hardy and

Cebon [50] indicated that the dynamic response of their test pavement was
relatively isotropic over short distances up to 2m.
2.3.5 Effect of the environment

Road construction materials, and road surface responses, are extremely sensitive
to environmental factors particularly moisture [I, 15, 60, 70, 9 1, 941, temperature
[l, 15,25,35,46,50,60,70,90,91,94, 127, 133, 1471,and frost [I, 57,60,91,94].
2.4 Modelling pavement response
2.4.1 Static road response models

Civil engineers have traditionally considered the structures of road surfaces to
behave as continua, and have used the methods of continuum mechanics. The first
such analysis was performed by Westergaard who modelled a rigid pavement as an
elastic plate supported by a Winkler foundation [139]. In the 1940's the theory of
elastic layered systems was published by Burmister [17]. This theory enabled the
analysis of systems with 2 or 3 layers of infinite extent and accounted for the
effects of the interface conditions between layers.
In recent years there has been a proliferation of computerised pavement
analysis sytems which use elastic layer theory for flexible pavement design and
life prediction (see, for example, [12, 13, 16,65,79,83, 88,94, 111, 126, 133, 1341).
Tyre loading is usually modelled as a circular area with uniform contact pressure.
The finite element method has also been used extensively [3, 79, 97, 99-101, 129,
1311 and is particularly useful for analysis of jointed rigid pavements which can
be prone to thermal warping (curling) as well as being subject to vehicle loads [3,
8, 831. Almost all of the models assume linear material properties, although some
include viscoelastic effects, (see, for example [lo, 59,65, 114, 127, 129, 1401).
Many of the elastic calculations incorporate the effects of speed (section 3.3.3)
by increasing the equivalent layer moduli with increasing vehicle speed (see for
example, [65,94, 125]), or with increasing frequency [83].
A comprehensive review of the available computer packages for calculating
static pavement response and predicting distress (damage) was presented by
Rauhut, Roberts and Kennedy [97]. See also [8, 19, 89, 941 for further information
on this subject.
Very few of these models have been validated by comparison with field
measurements. Valkering [134] was able to show reasonable qualitative
agreement between measured and computed strains in a layered elastic system
subjected to vertical and longitudinal static surface loads. Ullidtz and Busch
[13 I] achieved partial agreement with measurements of vertical stress and strain
in a flexible road and attributed the errors to spatial variarions in the subgrade
modulus. Barenburg [8] discussed a validation study in which the strains
determined by a finite element model of a jointed concrete pavement agreed
moderately well with strains due to static wheel loads and thermal expansion ef-
fects. Battiato et a]. [lo] described a two layer mathematical model of steel bridge
deck consisting of a rigid base with a single viscoelastic asphalt surface layer.
They achieved good agreement between measured and predicted strains for a wheel
load moving at 5 kmhr. Large viscoelastic effects were observed in their results.
There are probably other examples of pavement model 'primary response'
validation in the civil engineering literature, however, considering the widespread
use of such models for pavement design and analysis there appear to be
surprisingly few papers which consider this subject.
L - - . . ~ . . - ~ [ . . . ~ I ~ ~ . ~ I . . . - ~
200 : A BASE STRAIN -

::
-
-
-
TIME (s)
Fig. 4. Comparison of the measured and calculated dynamic response of an instrumented test track
to a four-axle vehicle travelling at 15 kmh. From Hardy and Cebon [SO].
----------------- = experiment = simulation
116 DAVID C E B O N
2.4.2 Dynamic road response models

A number of models have been developed for the analysis of the dynamic response
of roads. They fall into two main categories:
(i) A beam or plate supported by massless springs (Winkler foundation) [19, 22,
23,42,56,67] or supported by a half-space [4,42]. The foundation may be modified
to include the effects of inertia 154, 1091.
(ii) A structure comprising one or more layers of elastic or viscoelastic material

[lo, 39,42,59, 106, 107, 1401.
'The models vary in complexity according to the nature of the layers (elastic,
damped elastic, viscoelastic) and the surface loading (moving, constant,
harmonic). Few layered models include the effects of time varying moving loads
and damping or viscoelasticity, because no closed-form solutions exist [107].
Sebaaly and Mamlouk [106, 1071 overcame this problem by assuming linear
displacement variation through the thickness of each layer and using a large
number of sufficiently thin layers to ensure numerical convergence [107]. They
calculated the harmonic response of a road surface to a circular applied load of
radius a and then determined the response to a pulse of duration 2alV, where V is
the speed, using Fourier transform techniques. Peak theoretical vertical pavement
deflections were validated by comparison with 'speed effect' data from the
AASHO road test [I] (similar to that presented in Fig. 2). Correlations were
found to be good and the reduction of pavement deflection with speed was shown
clearly by their r e s ~ l t s .This
~ method only approximates the physics of
vehiclelroad interaction, however, because each axle influences the road near a
particular point for considerably longer than the time taken to travel one tyre
contact length. Sebaaly and Mamlouk [106, 1071 have actually simulated the
response of the road to a falling (rebounding) weight rather than a moving wheel.
The problem of determining the dynamic response of road surfaces to moving
dynamic loads was addressed by the author [19,22,23]. A method was developed
which involves numerical convolution of the applied loads with a field of road
surface impulse response functions. It can be used to simulate pavement response
to any number of moving axles. The impulse responses can be calculated for an
idealised road response model [19, 22, 231, or determined by measurements on a
road with buried transducers using a large instrumented hammer. The latter
In 1962, Harr [ 5 1 ] presented an idealised model of the dynamic response o f a pavement consisting
o f a heavily damped single degree-of-freedom oscillator (mass, spring, damper) subjected to a
rectangular pulse of duration 6/V secs (ie 6m long load). B y suitable selection o f model parameters,
he was also able to achieve close correlation with the AASHO road test results.
approach was used by Hardy and Cebon [50] who verified the accuracy of the
calculation procedure experimentally with a programme of measurements using
an instrumented baxle articulated vehicle on the Transport and Road Research
Laboratory (TRRL) test track in the UK. The dynamic wheel loads generated by
all axles of the vehicle were recorded simultaneously with the dynamic strains
measured by sub-surface strain gauges in the asphalt pavement. The dynamic loads
were used to predict the response of the test track. Sample results are shown in
Fig. 4 from [50]. Agreement is close between simulated and measured dynamic
strains.
3. STATIC LOADING CONSIDERATIONS
There are three aspects of pavement loading that can be considered to have a 'static'
influence on road damage which, to a first approximation, can be examined
independently of vehicle dynamics: the arrangement of axles (number and
location), the average (static) load on each axle, and the tyre contact conditions.
These three issues will be examined here before we consider dynamic tyre forces.
3.1 Axle configuration

There is considerable civil engineering literature concerned with the relative road
damaging effects of various axle group arrangements (singleltandemltriaxle) and
it is not possible to present a comprehensive review here. Most studies either
simulated [3, 73, 88, 117, 1301 or measured [25, 26, 57, 91, 1231 the primary
response of the pavement (stress, strain, deflection) to a variety of axle
configurations. Empirical road damage relationships (rutting and fatigue) were
used to estimate relative pavement damage. One typical result by Southgate and
Deen [117] is shown in Fig. 5.
It is generally concluded that for equal damage to flexible pavements, tandem
and triaxle groups can carry more weight than the same number of widely spaced
single axles, and that an optimum axle spacing exists (around 1.2m), depending on
the road structure, assumed mode of failure and damage criterion [85]. This fact is
reflected by current axle loadlgeometry regulations in a number of countries (see,
for example [91, 1051).
Recent literature in this field was reviewed by Morris [85] and this will not
be repeated here.
3.2 Static load sharing
3.2.1 Uneven tyreforces

Most tandem and triaxle lony suspension systems are designed to equalise the
static loads carried by the axles in a group. In practice, the effectiveness of load
equalization on moving vehicles varies significantly among suspensions.
Figure 6, which is reproduced from Mitchell [81], shows the result of a slow-
118 DAVID CEBON
td
10'
.-
a
b.
r, la0
I@O 10 20 30 40 X, 60 70 gl 90 100 110 120 I30 140

Total Load on Confipumtmn, Kips
Fig. 5. Effect of total axle group static load on relative pavement damage. From Southgate and
Deen [ I 171.
speed axle weight survey of 259 vehicles performed in the UK in 1985. The range
of axle weights for each suspension group are shown. Mitchell noted that for
triaxle groups with leaf spring suspensions, the lightest axle was typically
observed to be 60-70% of the heaviest and sometimes only 30-40%. Air
suspensions were observed to equalise much better, the lightest axle typically
being 90% of the heaviest. Tandem suspensions were also observed to equalise
better than triaxles.
Sweatman [120] introduced the 'Load Sharing Coefficient' (LSC) which he
defined as:
Mean measured wheel load

LSC = (1)
(Total group static load/Number of wheels in group).
The LSC is theoretically unity for perfect load sharing, but Sweatman's road tests,
for a variety of speeds, yielded values in the range 0.79 1 - 0.983 for tandem suspen-
sions, i.e. 21% - 1.7% equalization error respectively.5
For a tandem suspension with LSC=0.791, the lighter axle will generate an average load which is
65% of the heavier one, (assuming no difference between left and right wheel tracks). This can be
compared with Mitchell's results [all.
5 10 15 20
Bogie load Itonnes)
la) 145 39x16 senhi-trailer bogies
Leaf spring
0 Air spring
A Walking beam
A Not known
0 5 10 15 20
Bogie load I tonnes)
l b ) 114 2-axle rear bogies o n rigid vehicles
Fig. 6. Static axle loads measured in a roadside survey on the M6 at Stafford, U K , in 1985,
showing the range of static loads in each axle group. From Mitchell [8 11.
.Sweatman observed some interesting anomalies, in particular that the worst

tandem suspension was of the 'walking beam' type (which is designed for good
static load sharing) and the best was a 'four-leaf tandem which Mitchell [81]
reported to be poor.6 The air spring tandem fell between these two. Sweatman
attributed the poor performance of the particular walking beam suspension to bad
installation practice and incorrect torque rod location. He also noted that road
roughness had little effect on the relative performance of the different
suspensions, but that approximately 2% variation occurred due to speed and up to
4% variation could be attributed to road camber and cross fall, which resulted in
lateral load shifting.
See Sweatman 11201 for a description of these suspensions.

120 DAVID CEBON
Woodrooffe et al. [143] performed quasi-static pitch tests on a trailer and con-
cluded that their tandem walking beam suspension performed best, followed by
the air spring tandem and then the four-leaf suspension.
Simmons and Mitchell [81, 1121 performed an extensive study of load sharing
on tandem and triaxle, air and leaf spring suspensions. The work included pitch
tests and road tests on a number of humped bridges, with vehicles that were
instrumented to record dynamic wheel loads as well as the forces in the
suspension components (torque rods, springs, etc.). They drew the following main
conclusions:
(i) Poor load sharing is largely a quasi-static phenomenon which is independent of

speed, depends mainly on the pitch angle of the vehicle, but is also strongly
dependent on the geometry of the suspension components.
(ii) On humped bridges the load on the leading axle of a 6-spring triaxle trailer
suspension can be 1.47- 1.82 times the nominal load (i.e. LSC = 1.47- 1.82). For
these conditions, most of the load normally carried by the third (trailing) axle of
the group is transferred to the first (leading) axle, while the centre axle load
remains relatively constant. Under the same conditions, the triaxle air suspension
yielded LSC = 1.16-1.31.
(iii) Poor load sharing in four-leaf spring and six-leaf spring suspensions is
mainly due to friction at the "slipper" ends of the springs. It can be improved con-
siderably by introducing a low friction material in the sliding contact or by
utilizing shackles instead of slipper connections.
3.2.2 Predicted road damaging effects of uneven load sharing

Gordon [45] analysed unevenly loaded tandem suspensions using an elastic layer
pavement model and determined that for permanent deformation failure, a
suspension with LSC = 0.8 (as per Sweatman's measurements) is twice as
damaging as a suspension with perfect load sharing. Southgate and Deen [116, 1181
performed a similar analysis for fatigue damage. Using their results: LSC = 0.8
corresponds to a factor of 2.9 increase in predicted damage. O'Connell et a]. [88]
predicted 23% increase in cracking damage and 43% increase in rutting for the same
LSC.
Southgate and Deen also analysed the measured static wheel loads of 670
tandem suspensions and 1951 triaxle suspensions and used this data to simulate
the influence on road damage of uneven load sharing. They predicted that fatigue
damage due to the tandem suspensions was 1.4 times worse than if they had perfect
load-sharing suspensions, and damage for the triaxle suspensions was 2.3 times
worse.
3.3 Tyre effects

During the thirty years or so since the AASHO road test, cross-ply tyres have
largely been replaced by radial-ply tyres on heavy trucks [24, 1461, and average
inflation pressures have increased from 550 kPa (80 psi) to 690-760 kPa (100-110
psi) [24, 85, 101, 1181. Wide-base single tyres ('super singles') are replacing dual
tyres in Europe, although they are not widely used in the USA, except on heavily
loaded steering axles [85, 1 181.
There is concern in the pavement engineering community that these changes
in operating patterns may increase pavement damage, particularly rutting [24, 47,
58,85,99, 1011.
3.3.1 Contact pressure distribution

Most pavement analysts have assumed that the normal component of the contact
pressure between tyre and road surface is uniform, acts over a circular area and is
nominally equal to the inflation pressure (see, for example [12, 16, 47, 63, 65, 94, 97,
1181). Considerable experimental evidence exists to suggest that this is not the case.
Pressures are observed to increase around the edges of the contact area, particularly in
the 'shoulder' areas at either side, due to the bending stiffness of the side walls and
tread band [24,58,71,74,99, 108, 1461. Under normal inflation and loading conditions,
the maximum shoulder pressure is typically observed to exceed the inflation pressure
by a factor of two [24, 74, 99, 124, 1461, although the contact pressure distribution is
found to be more uniform for higher inflation pressures and/or lower vertical loads
[24, 74, 124, 1461. The contact area is also found to decrease with increased inflation
pressure and to increase with total load. Marshek et al. [74] reported typical results
for truck tyres: 8-20% decrease in area for 50% increase in pressure; 30-35% increase in
area for 50% increase in load.
3.3.2 Effect of tyre contact conditions on flexible pavement response and damage
A number of authors have calculated [35,47,99-101, 1181, or measured [25, 35,58,
1471, the influence of tyre contact conditions on stresses and strains in the road
surface.
The general consensus is clear: the details of the contact conditions, such as the
exact area, pressure and pressure distribution, affect stresses and strains near to
the surface of the pavement, whereas the response in the lower layers depends
mainly on the overall load [24, 35, 47, 991. For example, Haas and Papagiannakis
[47] showed that increasing tyre inflation (contact) pressure from 415 to 830 kPa
at constant load increased the theoretical vertical compressive strain near to the
surface of a 200 mm thick asphalt layer by up to a factor of eight, but hardly
affected the strain at the bottom of the layer. Conversely, doubling the axle load
at constant pressure increased subgrade compressive strain by 95% but made
negligible difference to compressive strain in the asphalt layer. These trends were.
corroborated by Marshek et al. [76]. Similarly, Roberts et al. [99, 101.1 and
Marshek et al. [76] applied relatively realistic (axisymmetric) contact pressure
distributions to elastic layer pavement models. Both studies established that
assumptions about contact conditions can alter predicted horizontal strains in
122 DAVID CEBON
thin surface layers (< 50 mm) substantially, particularly for under-inflated tyres
which have large shoulder contact pressures. The effects of non-uniform loading
are much less significant for subgrade vertical compressive strains and for thicker
pavements.
Research into pavement damage confirms the localised influence of contact
conditions [24, 851. Theoretical studies by Southgate and Deen [118] indicated the
fatigue damage due to tensile strain of thin asphalt pavements is likely to increase
rapidly with average contact pressure. This was confirmed by Marshek et al. [76]
and O'Connell et al. [88]. Both of these studies, however, reported that inflation
pressure has little effect on subgrade rutting. Roberts et al. [99, 1011 and Haas and
Papagiannakis [47] estimated rut formation by summing theoretical permanent
deformations of the pavement layers and both ascertained that rutting daniage is
sensitive to contact pressure. In view of the localised influence of contact pressure
on compressive strain observed in [47] (see above), this was presumably due to
near-surface effects. Laboratory measurements by Eisenmann et al. [35] on a 225
mm thick asphalt road surface model showed that rut depth development was
approximately linearly related to the average contact pressure, (independent of
load), and proportional to the square root of the number of load applications.7
Tyre contact conditions (pressure and area) vary dynamically with dynamic
wheel forces. To the author's knowledge, no analysis of road damage which
accounts for this effect has ever been performed. On the basis of the static analyses
and measurements presented above, it seems reasonable to speculate that these
dynamic effects will make some difference to stresses and strains in the upper
pavement layers, and probably have negligible influence in the lower layers,
where the overall dynamic force level will be the most important factor.
3.3.3 Effect of tyre configuration on flexible pavement response and damage

Several authors have considered the influence of the number and type of tyres on
an axle.
Experimental measurements by Christison et al. 1251 for a variety of axle and
tyre configurations indicated that asphalt layer interfacial strains and vertical
surface deflections were equivalent for 27 kN carried on a single tyre or 40 kN
carried on a dual pair. Analysis of the measured strains in terms of pavement
damage indicated that a single tyre is theoretically 7-10 times worse than a pair
for equal load. This was confirmed theoretically by Treybig [130]. Zube and
Forsyth [I471 presented very similar results in an experimental comparison of
wide-base single tyres and dual wheels. Eisenmann et al. [35] reported that for
equal loads the measured strain under twin tyres was 50% of that for single tyres.
On the basis of asphalt strain measurements, Huhtala [58] reported that wide-
base single tyres are likely to cause 3.5 to 7 times more damage than dual tyres,
This study also indicated that rut development in the asphalt was largely due to displacement of the
material at constant volume rather than compaction.
and that the worst conditions are for thinner asphalt layers. He also noted that the
contact pressures under each tyre in a pair can be quite different due to a number of
factors, including differential inflation pressures or temperatures, tread wear,
axle bending or transverse road profile. He reported that a wide-base single tyre is
1.5 times more damaging than an unevenly inflated dual pair with 500 kPa in one
tyre and 1000 kPa in the other.
The OECD [89] recommended that relative to dual tyres, wide-base single
tyres should be considered to be 2.1 times more damaging and conventional single
tyres to be 2.9 times more damaging.
4. DYNAMIC TYRE FORCES OF HEAVY VEHICLES
4.1 Principal features

This section summarises some of the characteristics of the dynamic tyre forces
generated by heavy vehicles.
4.1.1 Probability distribution

The roughness of typical asphalt road surfaces can be considered to be homoge-
neous, Gaussian (normal probability distribution) and random, providing
occasional large local irregularities, such as potholes, and are isolated and treated
separately [32]. The dynamic tyre forces generated by vehicles under these
conditions are generally observed to be broad-band, random and close to Gaussian
[30, 48, 103, 1201. This is not expected to be the case for rigid pavements with
periodic joints between slabs, but no experimental information is known to the
author.
4.1.2 Magnitudes
The magnitude of the dynamic tyre forces depends on the road surface roughness
and speed of the vehicle as well as the suspension and tyre properties,
configuration, geometry and mass distribution of the vehicle. A parameter used
frequently to characterise their magnitude is the 'Dynamic Load Coefficient'
(DLC), which is defined as:
RMS dynamic tyre force

DLC =
Static tyre force
Under normal operating conditions, DLC's of 0.1 - 0.3 are typical [37, 48, 55, 7 1 ,
82, 1 19, 120, 1431 however, Sweatman [I201 and Woodrooffe et al. [143] measured
values up to 0.4 for particularly poor tandem suspensions. At this level of dy-
namic loading, the axles spend a significant proportion of time out of contact
with the road surface. According to Hahn [48], measured peak dynamic loads
124 DAVID CEBON
usually exceed the RMS levels by a factor of about 3. This is consistent with a
Gaussian probability distribution.
FREQUENCY - HZ FREQUENCY - HZ
FREQUENCY - HZ FREOUENCY - HZ
FREQUENCY - HZ FREQUENCY - HZ
Fig. 7 . Tyre force spectral densities generaled by three tandem suspensions on an aged Ponland
cement concrete roadway. From Ervin el at. [37].
4.1.3 Frequencies
The dynamic wheel forces generated by heavy vehicles fall into two distinct fre-
quency ranges:
1.5-4 Hz: Sprung mass bounce, pitch and roll vibration modes
8-15 Hz: Unsprung mass bounce and roll, 'load-sharing' suspension pitch
modes.
At 100 kmh, these modes of vibration are excited by roughness irregularities

with wavelengths of 6.9m-18.5m and 1.9m-3.5m respectively. Various
experimental and theoretical studies [22, 28, 37, 52, 53, 55, 82, 141, 1431 have
shown that the lower frequency sprung mass modes usually dominate the dynamic
tyre forces on highways, except for vehicles which have axle group suspensions
with poorly damped bogie pitching modes. This is illustrated in Fig. 7, from Ervin
et al. [37] which shows measured spectral densities of the dynamic wheel loads
generated by three North American articulated vehicles. Mitchell and Gyenes [82]
noted, however, that in their study the higher frequency wheel-hop modes
governed the peak transient load over an isolated irregularity, such as a pothole.
This is corroborated by data presented by Gorge [46].
Strain gauge number
12=0,33=4Orn I
Fig. 8. The variation of road surface strain, measured on successive passes of the same vehicle
over an array of buried strain gauges. From Gorge [46].
4.1.4 Spatial repeatability

Despite being a 'stochastic' process, there is considerable evidence to show that for
any given testing speed, the wheel load time histories generated by a particular
heavy vehicle are repeated closely on successive runs over a given stretch of road
[6,46,48,49,93, 1451. This may be expected since the vehicle encounters the same
road profile, and hence excitation, on each run. Figure 8, from Gorge [46],
illustrates the effect. It shows the strain in a test road surface, as measured by an
126 D AV ID C EB O N
m a y of buried strain gauges, for a series of vehicle passes at the same speed. The
variation of strain on successive tests is considerably less than the spatial
variation on an individual test. A similar effect was observed by Ervin et al. [37]
who noted that three vehicles with different suspensions were all excited by the
same roughness feature and consequently applied peak wheel forces to the same
localised area in the vicinity of that feature.
Hahn [49] noted that "Since all heavy commercial vehicles have approximately
the same natural frequencies and are driven at approximately the same speed on
motorways and long distance roads, it may be concluded that for a given pavement
the dynamic wheel load peaks always occur within relatively narrowly defined
road sections." The correctness (or otherwise) of this statement is currently
unknown. Its accuracy might be expected to vary around the world, depending on
local size and weight regulations and the homogeneity of the vehicle fleet.
4.1.5 Contribution of all suspensions

An important feature of the ride dynamics of articulated vehicles is that all of the
suspensions and tyres are involved in the sprung mass modes of vibration [21, 53,
551. This is illustrated in Fig. 9 which shows simulated spectral densities of the
dynamic tyre forces generated by a 3-axle articulated vehicle, travelling on a
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 9. Tyre force spectral densities generated by a linearised 3-axle articulated vehicle, showing
the effect of changing the tractor drive axle suspension stiffness k2.
(a) Tractor driving axle tyre force
(b) Trailer axle tyre force.
'good' road at 30 m/s (see [22] for simulation details). Modification of the tractor
drive axle suspension stiffness (k2) can be seen to influence significantly the tyre
forces generated by both the tractor and trailer axles. By implication, '114-car'
models of articulated vehicles are inadequate for accurate prediction of dynamic
wheel loads. As a consequence, it is necessary to account for the influence of each
suspension system on the tyre forces generated by other axle groups and hence to
examine the road damaging characteristics of the vehicle as a whole, rather than
that of individual suspensions.
4.1.6 Effects of structural vibration

From the limited evidence that is available, it is apparent that structural vibration
of the frames of heavy vehicles does not contribute significantly to dynamic
wheel loads [20, 281. Although articulated vehicles can be subject to considerable
frame-bending vibration, the suspension systems are located near to the nodes of
the first bending mode [43, 80, 98, 1131. Thus, motion imposed on the axles by
frame bending is small relative to motion caused by major sprung and unsprung
mass resonances.
128 DAVID CEBON
4.1.7 Influence of roll motion

Under normal highway operating conditions of roughness and speed, roll-plane
excitation of heavy vehicles is small relative to pitch-plane excitation for
frequencies below about 5 Hz [31, 431. Thus, sprung mass roll resonances, which
occur typically at about 1 Hz [20, 431 are not excited significantly and hence do
not contribute to the dynamic tyre forces. At higher frequencies, around 8-10 Hz,
unsprung mass roll and frame torsional resonances can be excited, however, for
most vehicles these appear to make little contribution to the dynamic wheel loads
[20,441.
4.1.8 Influence of lyre nonuniformities

Non-uniformities in truck wheels, such as radial runout, circumferential stiffness
variations and mass out-of-balance can sometimes lead to measurable dynamic tyre
force variation at the wheel rotation frequency (6-8 Hz) and higher harmonics [37,
44, 92, 104, 1411. Generally, wheel forces caused by non-uniformities are
significant only for relatively smooth roads when they can be of comparable
magnitudes to the forces due to road roughness excitation.
4.2 Simulation of dynamic tyre forces

It is beyond the scope of this paper to present a comprehensive review of consid-
erable quantity of literature concerned with modelling the ride dynamics of heavy
vehicles and hence simulating dynamic wheel loads. This field was reviewed in
detail by El Madany et al. [36]. Further information can be found in [19, 43, 92,
1101. It is worth noting, however, that a number of detailed two- and three-
dimensional computer simulations of heavy vehicles have been developed and
validated by comparison with full-scale tests [18, 20, 28, 52, 104, 1351. They have
successfully reproduced all of the principal characteristics described in the
previous section. The state of the art is well developed and close agreement can be
achieved between simulation and experiment, providing care is taken in specifying
the road profile input, and modelling the suspension system non-linearities.
Figure 10 shows schematically one such vehicle model from [28]. Sample results
from [28] are shown in Fig. 11, where measured tyre force spectral densities are
compared with the nonlinear pitch-plane simulation. Agreement between
experiment and simulation is good throughout the frequency range. In this study,
comparable agreement was achieved for the other simulated vehicle responses:
bounce and pitch accelerations of the sprung and unsprung masses (see [28]).
4.3 Measurement of dynamic tyre forces

A variety of techniques have been used for measuring the wheel forces generated
by heavy vehicles.
Wheel loads at particular points on the road have been measured with a
dynamic weigh bridge imbedded in the road surface [14, 68, 1411, and with a
piezoelectric pressure gauge buried in the soil 700mm below a road surface [95].
Hahn [49] determined the wheel forces generated by a 2-axle bus by measuring
VEHICLE - GENERATED R O A D D A M A G E 129
Fig. 10. Nonlinear model of a four-axle articulated vehicle. From Cole and Cebon [28].
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. I I. Spectral densities of measured and simulated dynamic tyre forces of a four-axle articulated
vehicle on a smooth road at 80 kmh. From Cole and Cebon [28].
= experiment ----------------- - simulation
(a) Tractor driving axle, nearside tyre force
(b) Leading trailer axle, nearside tyre force.
130 DAVID CEBON
Frequency (Hz)
the accelerations of the sprung and unsprung masses and multiplying theses by the
appropriate inertias. This method is suitable only for simple vehicles (with one or
two axles). Furthermore, flexural vibration introduces significant errors 1 4 9 1 . ~
Attempts to measure dynamic forces by monitoring tyre pressure variations
[96, 1411 were unsuccessful due to the nonlinear, frequency-dependent relationship
between pavement load and pressure change.9
Several systems based on the measurement of tyre deflections have been devel-
oped. These included (i) measurement of vertical deflections using an optical
sensor [6, 301 or a potentiometer mounted in the wheel rim of a tubeless tyre
Woodrooffe et. al. [I451 proposed a suspension testing procedure using this method to measure the
forces generated by suspensions mounted on a purpose-built trailer.
This method was first used in the AASHO road test [ 2 , 401 when it was reported that a linear
correlation was obtained between dynamic axle load, measured on an electronic weighscale, and tyre
pressure change.
VEHICLE-GENERATED ROAD DAMAGE 13 1
joined to the inner liner of the tyre by a cable [136]1° and (ii) measurement of the
lateral deflections of the sidewall by a mechanical or electrical pick up [136]. This
technique can give erroneous results when the tyre is rolling with side-slip. Both
methods use the assumption that the vertical stiffness of the tyre is independent
of velocity.
A number of workers [37,48,49,52, 104, 119, 120, 1411 have used strain gauged
hubs (first developed by General Motors), described in detail by Whittemore et
al. [141]. The transducers measure forces acting in the plane of the wheel between
the rim and hub by monitoring two orthogonal force components whose axes
rotate with the wheel. Vector addition of these components yields the'resultant
force in the wheel plane. A correction for the inertia of the wheel rim and tyre
may be included [37, 52, 104, 1411. A number of significant technical difficulties
exist in the calibration and data processing. These are described in detail in [37, 52,
1411.
Perhaps the simplest method for measuring dynamic wheel forces is to strain
gauge the axle housing between the spring mounting and brake back plate to
measure bending moments due to vertical tyre forces [20,28,66, 81, 82, 14 1, 142,
1431. Assuming that lateral movement of the tyre contact centre of pressure is
small compared with the distance between the static centre of pressure and the
strain gauge installation, the bending strain is proportional to the shear force
carried by the axle. It is necessary to correct the measured shear force for the
inertia (linear and angular) of all wheel and axle components 'outboard' of the
load cells (axle housing, brakes, wheel and tyre) [19]. Mitchell and Gyenes 1821
claimed a probable measurement accuracy of 3-5% with their system.
Sweatman [121] presented a brief review of the methods described above and
concluded that instrumented hubs are most accurate, but also the most complex,
and that strain gauging the axles is the only practical way to measure the tyre
forces generated by all axles simultaneously.
A novel 'wheel load measuring mat' has been developed in the UK by the
author and his co-workers for measuring dynamic wheel loads [29]. The mat
consists of 1.2m square polymer 'tiles,' each 13mm thick. Each tile contains three
narrow, accurate capacitative strip transducers mounted perpendicular to the
wheel path at 0.4m intervals. Any number of tiles can be laid end-to-end. The main
advantage of the mat is that statistically significant samples of dynamic tyre
force time histories can be collected for many heavy vehicles without any vehicle-
mounted instrumentation. The mat is relatively portable so that it can be laid over
different road surfaces to establish the influence of road roughness on dynamic
tyre forces. A pilot study using the wheel force measuring mat is currently being
undertaken in the UK by the author and his co-workers in conjunction with the
Hu 1551 deduced the tyre forces developed by a vehicle on a road simulator (electro-hydraulic
shaker rig) by measuring tyre deflection with a linear displacement transducer.
132 DAVID CEBON
Transport and Road Research Laboratory (TRRL). At the time of writing, the
first 10m of mat was installed on the TRRL test track. It is intended to increase
the length of the mat to 50m in the near future.
4.4 Influence of vehicle design on dynamic tyre forces

Magnusson et al. [7 11 presented a review of pre- 1984 literature concerned with
dynamic axle loads. They concluded (largely on the basis of the theoretical
publications) that soft suspension springs and tyres of low vertical stiffness are
desirable for minimising dynamic loads.' Futhermore, that an optimal level of
viscous damping usually exists depending on the conditions, and that any dry
(Coulomb) friction in the suspension usually increases dynamic tyre forces. Heath
[53] performed a large parametric study of dynamic wheel loads for 4 linearised
vehicle models travelling on random road surfaces. He corroborated the view that
soft suspensions and tyres are desirable, but noted that for very low tyre
stiffnesses it is possible for the low frequency force components, and hence the
RMS force levels, to increase. Heath's results also indicated the existence of
optimal suspension damping levels and he noted that it is usually better to have
too much rather than too little suspension damping.
There have been a number of major experimental studies of dynamic forces in
recent years: Whittemore et al. [I411 and Ervin et al. [37] in the USA, Leonard et
al. [68], Addis et al. [6] and Mitchell, Gyenes and Simmons [82,112] in the UK,
Sweatman [ 1 19, 1201 in Australia, Woodrooffe et al. [143] in Canada and a West
German study reported by Gorge [46] and Hahn [48]. These studies are summarised
in Table 1.
In general, the researchers have drawn broadly similar conclusions about the
effects of suspension and tyre types on dynamic tyre forces, and these conclusions
corroborate the trends predicted in the theoretical studies described above.
Dynamic tyre forces were found by all studies to increase with speed
(although not necessarily monotonically) and road roughness. Centrally-pivotted
tandem drive axle suspensions such as 'walking beams' and 'single-point'
suspensions12 were always found to generate the highest dynamic loads because of
their lightly damped pitching modes at around 8-10 Hz (see also Fig. 7). Hahn [48]
noted however, that these suspensions can be improved considerably by suitable
use of hydraulic dampers. 'Four-leaf tandem suspensions were generally found to
generate smaller dynamic loads than walking beams. Torsion-bar and air
suspensions generated the lowest loads. Hahn [48] also stated that modem single-
leaf parabolic suspensions with good hydraulic damping are "not significantly
worse" than stiff air suspensions. Sweatman [120] noted that reducing suspension
" Note that there are important implications o f low suspension and tyre stiffnesses for handling and
roll stability.
" S e e Sweatman [ 1201 for description o f suspension types.

Table 1 - Summary of major experimental programmes - dynamic tyre force measurement
Source Force Measurement Vehicles (2) Test Suspensions (4) Road Surfaces Speeds (kwh) Other Variable9
Notes (5)
Method (1)
Whitternore et. al.
[141],1970. USA
Hub
Strain
1 x Rigid
- 2 x A&
2 x Leaf spring single
1 x Walking beam .9 x Highway sections
Planks
54. 88, sweep
32,48.64,80
.. Tyre pressure
Fully laden
Tyre pressure tandem
Leonard el. al.
1681, 1974. UK
. Weigh scale
(Ground vibration)
8 x Arlic Leaf spring single
-
- 4 leaf tandem
5 x Planks of different 16, 32. 48, 64
profiles
Fully laden
Single point tandem

6 - leaf triaxle
Sweatman . Hub 9 x Artic
-
- 3 x Walking beam 6 x Highway sections 40. 60, 80 2 Tyre pressures
[119,120]. 1983
Australia
Torsion bar tandem
-4-leaf.6-leal . RTRRMS roughness
Fully laden
.Air tandem 8 triaxle

Single point tandem
Static bad sharing
EM^ et. al.

137).1983, USA
- Hub - 3 x Artic Walking beam tandem
4 - leaf tandem
3 x Highway sections 72. 88 RTRRMS roughness
Fully laden
Torsion bar tandem
Gorge 1461 1984
Hahn [48] 1987
- Weighted accns
Hub
9 x Anic
- 2 x Buses
3 x Leaf spring single - 3 x Test track seclions 30.50.70,80,90
- 1 x Air single 3 x Highway sections
Fully laden
West Germany (Pavement strains) 4 - leaf, 6 - leal

Air tandem 8 triaxle
1 x Single point tandem
Woodrootie el. al. Strain 1 x Artic (3) 2 x Walking beam 2 x Highway sections 40, 60.80 Axle spread
[ l q 1986
CaMda
(Pavement strains
8 delledons) - Air single, 2 xair tandem Planks
-
2 x 4 leal tandem Railway crossing
18, 40
40. 60.80
Static bad
RTRRMS roughness
~s el. al. Laser lyre deflection 1 x Arlic 2 x Leaf spring single 1 x Test track section 32. 48. 64 'TYre tYPe
[6]. 1986, UK . Strain
(Pavement strains)
4 - leal(wide)tandem Static bad
Mitchell el. al.

Simnons et. al. - Strains (all axles)
(Strairrgauged
1 x Rigid
- 2 x Arlic (3)
- 1 x Leaf spring single 3 x Test track seclions 32. 48, 64, 80, 96
1 x Single point tandem 25mmplank
. Fully laden
Static bad sharing
[82,112] suspension 2 x 4 - leaf, 1 x Meal 6 x Highway bridges 64-96
UK, 1989 components) 4 x ~ itandem
r 7 x Humped bridges
1 x Walking beam
1 x Air triaxb
- -
Nctes: (1) Hub Instrumentedhub transdu&r, Strain = Strain gauged axles housing, (2) Arlic ArticuMed tractor and semi-trailer.
(3) Interchameat& suspension sublrames. (4) See Sweatman [I201 for descriptionof suspention types. (5) RTRRMS Response Type Road -
i?&hnebs Measurement System.
134 DAVID CEBON
stiffnesses generally reduces tyre forces. Triaxle suspensions were found to be

better than tandem suspensions in several studies [48, 120, 1431. Woodrooffe et al.
[143] found that varying the axle spacing of an air spring tandem suspension had
negligible effect on the dynamic loads, whereas the Dynamic Load Coefficient
(DLC) generated by a four-leaf tandem suspension varied considerably with axle
spacing, depending on the speed and road roughness. In recent tests in the UK,
Mitchell and Gyenes [82] found that their test suspensions ranked in the same
order of DLC's, regardless of road roughness and speed. Other researchers,
however, have not found this to be the case [48, 120, 1441.
On smooth road surfaces, friction was found effectively to lock some leaf
spring suspensions [6, 481. 'This can lead to relatively large and lightly damped
vibration of the vehicle mass on the tyre 'spring' stiffnesses.
Most research has indicated that lower tyre pressures usually result in reduced
wheel loads [30, 37, 1411. Sweatman [119, 1201, however, reported that for some
suspensions the opposite was true. According to Ervin et al. [37] this anomaly
could be because Sweatman did not correct his measured wheel forces for
accelerations of the outboard mass, or due to "tuning" of one of the test vehicle's
vibration modes to the particular road profile. A third possible explanation is the
increase in the sprung mass contribution (to the wheel forces) ascertained
theoretically by Heath [53] and described above.
Finally, wide-based 'super single' tyres were found by Hahn [48] to generate
slightly lower loads than dual tyres and Addis et al. [6] noted that radial ply
tyres are slightly preferable to cross-ply tyres. Both of these conclusions are
consistent with the observed reduction of wheel loads with lower stiffness tyres.
5. ROAD DAMAGE DUE TO DYNAMIC TYRE FORCES
There have been two main approaches to the problem of estimating road damage
due to dynamic tyre forces. These will be discussed in the following two
subsections.
5.1 Road stress factor

In 1975, Eisenmann [33] derived a quantity known as the 'road stress factor,' a,
using the assumption that road damage depends on the fourth power of the
instantaneous wheel force. (See section 2.2 for a discussion of the 'fourth power
law.') Assuming that dynamic wheel forces are Gaussian (normal distribution),
Eisenmann showed that the expected value of the fourth power of the
instantaneous wheel force is given by:I3
l 3 Sweatman [I201 generalised eq. 3 to account for departure o f the wheel force probability
distribution from Gaussian, but showed that the effects of skewness and kurtosis on F were negligible
for his measured tyre force data.
VEHICLE-GENERATED ROAD DAMAGE
where
P(t) - Instantaneous tyre force at time t
Psta,
-
- E[P(t)] = Static (average) tyre force
- -
S - Coefficient of variation of dynamic tyre force
(essentially the DLC from eq. 2, see Sweatman [120])
E[ I - Expectation operator.
In 1978, Eisenmann I341 proposed a modified version of eq. 3 which accounted for
the effects of wheel configuration and tyre pressures (see section 3 for discussion
of these influences):I4
where
v = 1 + 6g2 +3s4
= "dynamic road stress factor" (Sweatman [120])
accounts for wheel configuration (single or dual tyres)

111
qI1 accounts for tyre contact pressures.15
Equation 4 has underpinned a substantial body of research in West Germany

during the 1980's by the 'Road Stress Committee' (11, 35, 46, 89, 1381. The
equation has the desirable (although not necessarily justifiable) effect of
decoupling the road damage problem into three sub-problems which can be studied
separately.
Considerable research effort has gone into quantifying q1 q I I and v for a
,
variety of suspensions and tyre contact conditions. Values for q1 and q I I can be
found in several papers [1 1, 35;46, 1381l 6 but will not be discussed here.
l4Sometimes written as F = (hl hII hlI1 Pstat)4 where hIIl = n 114 189, 1381.
I s An additional factor is sometimes included to account for the type of axle group (single/
tandernltriaxle) [89, 1381.
l6 It is interesting to note that hl and hll are considered to be 'penalty' factors or 'bonus' factors
depending on the author. For example, the OECD report: 'Impacts of heavy freight vehicles' [89]
recommended hI = 1.0 for twin tyres and 1.3 for single tyres, i.e. a 30% 'penalty' for single tyres,
whereas Eisenmann et. al. [35] recommended hl = 1.0 for single tyres and 0.9 for twin tyres, i.e. a 10%
'bonus' for twin tyres.
136 DAVID CEBON
For typical highway conditions of roughness and speed, Sweatman [120]

measured v in the range 1. I I to 1.46 depending on the suspension system. Other
researchers have published similar results [37, 46, 821. (It is expected that
suspensions should rank in the same order whether the wheel loads are compared
in terms of road stress factor or DLC.)
Mitchell and Gyenes [82] used the road stress factor to analyse their measured
wheel forces and those presented by Hahn [48]. They estimated that widespread
replacement of steel and rubber suspensions with air suspensions in the UK would
reduce overall damage due to drive axles by 8% and damage due to semi-trailer
axle groups by 10-20%. Their analyses of the UK and West German wheel force
data yielded qualitatively similar conclusions.
The road stress factor approach was used to analyse the West German research
results for buses [49]. This provided the information for West German
legislation, introduced in 1984, which allowed two-axle buses to carry eleven
tonnes rather than ten tonnes on air-suspended rear axles with dual wheels,
providing the sprung mass 'natural frequency' is less than 1.5 Hz, and the 'damping
ratio' greater than 0.25 [137].
It is worth noting that the West German Road Stress Committee developed a
nomograph for determining a'graphically, depending on the road roughness,
speed, static axle load and vehicle characteristics. It assumes a 114-car
representation of the vehicle [ l I]. The committee used this method to compare a
number of different vehicle configurations and recommended several 42 tonne
articulated combinations which might be expected to do less damage than existing
38 tonne combinations [l I].
Magnusson et al. [71] criticised use of the road stress factor. They noted that
the fourth power law arose from measureinents of the overall loss of
serviceability of the AASHO road test sections due to vehicles that applied wheel
loads which included a dynamic component. As a result, the fourth power law
implicitly accounts for dynamic wheel loads. "Eisenmann's supplementing of the
formula (fourth power law) consequently appears somewhat dubious" [71].
The road stress factor approach incorporates all of the uncertainties inherent in
the fourth power law, which has itself been the subject of considerable criticism.
It has three other questionable features:
(i) It assumes that strain in the road surface is directly proportional to the
instantaneous wheel force and neglects the sensitivity of road surface response to
the speed and frequency of the applied loads (see section 2.3.3).
(ii) It assumes that road damage is spread randomly over the surface and does not
account for any concentration of damage which may occur in the vicinity of
particular roughness features (see section 4.1.4).
iii) It assumes that each suspension system on a vehicle does not influence the tyre
forces, and hence road damage, generated by other axles. Thus suspensions are
compared through analysis of the wheel loads generated by individual axles or
axle groups, rather than through analysis of road damage done by the whole
vehicle. (See section 4.1.5).
According to Morris [85], the road stress factor is "a plausible rule of thumb that
can serve as a benchmark for comparison with more analytical approaches."
5.2 Analytical models of vehiclelroad interaction

A number of theoretical studies of the interaction between vehicles and road sur-
faces have been performed in recent years. They are summarised in Table 2. These
studies can be divided into two distinct classes denoted in the table as 'whole-life
models' and 'single vehicle pass' calculations.
5.2.1Whole-life models of flexible pavements

'Whole-life' models [12, 93, 1321 attempt to predict the deterioration of a pave-
ment's structural integrity and surface profile with time due to the applied
dynamic wheel loads. This requires an empirical relationship between the wheel
forces and the change of road surface profile. This is an area of considerable
uncertainty. The calculations also attempt to include the complex affects of
environmental/seasonal factors (temperature, frost, etc.) on road strength and the
statistical variation of structural properties along the road.
The three whole-life flexible pavement analyses were all validated using data
from the AASHO road test [I]. Predictions of rutting and cracking by Ullidtz et
al. [132] and Papagiannakis et al. [93] reproduced the AASHO test results well.
Papagiannakis et al. found that the dynamic analysis improved the accuracy of
their damage predictions considerably. Brademeyer et al. [12] also achieved
relatively convincing agreement of rutting and serviceability predictions with
AASHO test data. In this case, however, the improvement in accuracy was
relatively small over the results presented by Kenis et al. [63] who performed a
similar analysis of the AASHO road test (using the same VESYS analysis
program) without including dynamic loads. Readers are referred to section 2.2
regarding the selection of input parameters for this model. Fatigue cracking
predictions in [12] were inaccurate. Neither [12] nor [132] drew any conclusions
about the influence of vehicle design on road damage because the main emphasis of
these studies was prediction of pavement degradation with time. Papagiannakis et
al. [93] deduced that rubber suspensions (walking beam type) cause 17-22%
additional theoretical damage due to dynamics, and air suspensions cause an
additional 6-8%.
5.2.2 Single vehicle pass calculations

'Single vehicle pass' calculations [22,23, 83,881 determine the incremental change
in road wear due to one passage of a vehicle over a particular road. There are two
DAVID CEBON
0.25
-
1 A A i r spring
Four- leaf
Walklnn h ~ a m
-0
-0
.-0
0 10 20 30 43 50 60
Slope varlance ( x 10
---Air spring
Four- leaf
-- Walklng beam
r
/
r . ....I I
1 10
Frequency (/Hz)
1.15 L
'L
0
c)
1.10,
.-
0.95 Areal cracklng
- A Rut depth
Serviceability
0.90 I
Four Walking Alr

Leaf beam Spring
Fig. 12. The effect of suspension type on simulated tyre forces and flexible pavement damage.
From O ' C o ~ e let
l al. [88].
(a) Leading drive axle DLC versus slope variance
(b) Leading drive axle tyre force spectral density at slope variance = 50 x 10-6.
(c) Effect of suspension type on pavement damage
substantive differences in the assumptions made by O'Connell et al. [88] and

Monismith et al. [83], on one hand, and the author [22,23], on the other.
(i) O'Connell et al. and Monismith et al. used pavement models based on elastic
layer theory. Monismith et al. recognised the importance of the frequency
dependence of road response and modified the elastic modulus of the asphalt
according to the "predominant" loading frequency (wheel load resonant frequency
+ 5Hz to account for the speed of 90 km/h).
The author [23] accounted for the influence of speed and frequency of the applied
loads by calculating the dynamic response of an idealised road model consisting of
a beam supported by a damped elastic (Winkler) foundation.
(ii) There is an important difference in the assumed relationship between the

wheel forces and road deterioration. Monismith et al. and O'Connell et al. as-
sumed that the wheel loads are randomly distributed over the road surface so "any
single point in the wheel path is likely to sustain the same level of loading as any
other point ... (and hence) ... may be subjected to the full spectrum of loads that a
given truck might apply" [83]. Thus they calculated the average value of the
particular road damage criterion by assuming that each axle or axle group damages
the road independently. O'Connell et al. achieved this by calculating a modified
'road stress factor' (similar to eq. 3) based on theoretical pavement strain instead
of the dynamic wheel loads. Monismith et al. analysed the wheel loads generated
by one axle only of a tandem group.
Conversely, based on considerations of 'spatial repeatability' discussed in sec-
tion 4.1.4, the author [23] calculated the accumulated damage at particular points
along the road due to all of the axles of a vehicle and then assumed that the road is
likely to become unserviceable when a relatively small proportion of the surface
area is damaged.
Monismith et al. [83] concluded that for their particular conditions, the theoreti-
cal increase in damage done by,dynamic wheel loads of three tandem suspensions
compared with damage due to static wheel loads alone was: Torsion bar - 19%,
Four-leaf - 22%, walkin beam - 37%.
O'Connell et a]. [ tf81 performed a large parametric study of vehicle and
pavement variables (s+ Table 2). One typical result is shown in Fig. 12. They
concluded that:
(i) Dynamic tyre forces can cause a significant increase in theoretical pavement
damage, typically up to 25% depending on the conditions, but this can be improved
by careful suspension design.
(ii) Air suspensions were found to be the least damaging and walking beam
suspensions the most damaging (see Fig. 12).
Table 2 - Summary of theoretical vehicle-pavement interaction studies
Source Vehicle Models (1) Pavement models Vehicle model Pavement parameters Pavement damage Interaction assunlplions
parameters examined examined mleria (2)
U M z et. al. 114 Car Flexible Static bad 180 AASHO mad Cracking Whole life model
[132], Linear Elastic layer test sections Rutting Damage calculated
1983, Random property Detailed inclusion Serviceability (PSI) weekly
Demnark changes every 0.3m of ckrnatic factors Profile degradation with
time.
Cebon
121-231,
. 3 x Artic
1 x Rigid (Q4)
Flexible
Beam on damped
Road roughness
Speed
Fixed pavement
model
Fatigue
Rutting
Single vehicle pass
Damage stans a1 a lew
UK, 1985-7 1 x 4-leaf tandem.
Nonlinear - elastic foundation
Dynamic
LinearlNonlinear Sirrplifiedcriteria
using wheel forces
onlv
locations which
experience large strains
O'Connell,
Abbo el. al.
1 x Artic
with 3 tandem
. Flexible:
elastic tayer . Road roughness
Speed
Fixed pavement
models, flexible and
Cracking
Rutting -
Flexible:
Single vehicle pass
(4-leaf. waking Rigid: Suspension type and rigid • PSI Modified road stress
beam. air spring) plate on Winkler parameters (stWness. DLC factor
1986 Nonlinear foundation (FE) damping, fridion) Rigid:
Axle spacing Whole life model
Load sharing Joint faun degradation
Brademeyer
el. al. 1121
AASHO mad tesl
vehicles (single - Flexible
Elastic layer
. Static bad 23 AASHO road
tesl sections
Cracking
Rutting - Whole life model
Damage calculated
USA, 1986 axles) Statistical variation of
material properties
Modfied VESYS lllA
- 4 dmatic seasons
Several mughness
levels
PSI
Slope variance
(roughness)
. weekly
Road profile spectrum
degradation with time
Monisnith
et. al. 1831,
USA, 1988
Measured tyre
f o ~ e sfmm
, 1371
Flexible
Elastic layer
Frequency
- Suspension type
Tonion bar
4-leal
Fixed pavement
model
Fatigue Single vehicle pass
Each point on road
subjected to the full
dependent stiffness Walking beam spectrum of tyre forces
Papagiann- Statistics of Flexible Suspension type 10 AASHO road .Cracking - Spatial

Whole life model
akis eL al.
1931.
Canada
dyMnic bads Elastic layer
Statistical variation of
matehal properties
. Rubber tandem
Air tandem
test sections
5 climatic seasons
3 roughness levels -
Rutting
Slope variance
PSI
repeatability in
AASHO road test
Road profile degradation
1989 Modfied VESYS lllA due to cracking
(1) Artic =Articulatedtractor and semi-trailer. (2) PSI = Presenl Se~Ceabilityindex, from AASHO road test 11,2]. DLC = Dynamic load coefficient.
(iii) Although dynamic loads and theoretical cracking damage were found to
increase slightly with tandem axle spacing, rutting damage was found to decrease
dramatically because of reduced compressive strains in the subgrade.
Cebon [22, 231 concluded that dynamic wheel loads are likely to have a signifi-
cantly greater influence on pavement fatigue life than predicted in the other
studies because he asserted that road deterioration is governed by damage at the
worst locations (95th percentile) rather than the average value. Gordon [45]
postulated the same damage mechanism. It is also discussed by Sweatman [120]
and Mitchell and Gyenes [82] (see, also section 4.1.4.). Cebon also concluded that:
(i) Theoretical fatigue damage was found to be up to four times that due to
moving static loads at the worst locations, for typical conditions of highway
speeds and surface roughness.
(ii) Theoretical road damage done by articulated vehicles was found generally to
increase with speed. Certain "critical" speeds exist at which increased damage oc-
curs due to pitch coupling between the axles and increased excitation of the modal
responses on the vehicle. One typical result is shown in Fig. 13, from [23].
8 r . . 8 1 s . 8 s ~ - . . 8 ~ . ~ ~ . 1 - n ~ .
-
+Peak value due to I2 mm step
- - - - - Random road profile 1
6- -
4- -
-
A 95th percentile -
98th percentile -
I 99th percentile j
Speed
-
mls
Fig. 13. Variation of normalised theoretical fatigue damage with speed, due to one pass of a two
axle vehicle model with a four-leaf tandem suspension system. From Cebon [23].
142 DAVID CEBON
(iii) On roads with relatively smooth surface profiles, at highway speeds, the
increase in dynamic wheel loads with speed may be outweighed by the decrease in
dynamic response of the road surface. The net effect may be a reduction in fatigue
damage with speed. This is shown in Fig. 13.
5.2.3 Rigid pavements

The jointed rigid (PCC) pavement analysis by Abbo et al. [3] is a special case
because it is largely a 'single vehicle pass' analysis but it includes a model of joint
fault degradation with time. This study concluded the following:
(i) Under static vehicle loads, the ends of concrete slabs are more prone to fatigue
: damage than the mid-slab region, due to the discontinuity in bending strength at
the joints. Under dynamic loading, however, excitation of the sprung mass modes
of the vehicle by joint faults can increase significantly the fatigue damage
predicted for the mid-slab regions.
(ii) Suspensions ranked in order of increasing damage:

single axle < four-leaf tandem < walking beam tandem.
Reducing the spacing of the four-leaf tandem increased the predicted pavement
strains and damage slightly, whereas reducing the walking beam spacing reduced
dynamic loads substantially at highway speeds (depending on the speed, because of
wheelbase filtering effects) and hence reduced predicted damage.
(iii) Suspension spring characteristics (stiffness, hysteresis) were found to be

important, but tyre pressure was not.
Finally, Savage [102] described an interesting mechanism for the occurrence of

cracks near to the downstream edge of slabs in jointed PCC pavements. He
postulated that when an axle drives off a slab, large rebound accelerations of the
slab end can occur. These result in horizontal cracks which propagate along the
reinforcing mesh. The ingress of loose particles into the crack faces may then
allow large bending stresses to occur in the concrete surface when it is loaded
subsequently, resulting in vertical cracks and spalling. Analysis of this damage
mechanism would require a dynamic model of the slab.
6. CONCLUSIONS AND RESEARCH NEEDS
6.1 Road surface response and damage

(i) The principal features of the response of road surfaces to vehicle loads are
relatively well understood. They can be considered to be linear for vehicle loads,
isotropic over short distances, dependent on the speed and frequency of the applied
loads, and are highly sensitive to environmental influences.
(ii) The mechanisms by which roads suffer damage due to vehicle loads are not
well understood.
(iii) Many static models of road surface response to vehicle loads have been used,
but not extensively validated. Dynamic models have recently been developed and
validated and are potentially more accurate than static models for analysing
dynamic tyre forces.
6.2 Static loading considerations

(i) Static analyses have shown that optimum tandem and triaxle group spacings
exists. These minimise road damage for given static loading conditions.
(ii) The physics of uneven load sharing in some axle group suspensions is now
relatively well understood. Depending on the assumptions, theoretical road dam-
age is increased by a factor of 1.2 to 2.0 for tandem suspensions with (typical) load
sharing error of 20% (LSC = 0.8).
iii) Variations in tyre contact conditions, including the number and type of tyres
on an axle, contact area, pressure and pressure distribution mainly influence fa-
tigue and rutting damage just below the surface of flexible pavements,
particularly for thin, wearing courses. Subgrade rutting and fatigue damage in
thicker pavements is largely governed by the total dynamic wheel load.
6.3 Dynamic tyre forces of .heavy vehicles
(i) Dynamic tyre forces of heavy vehicles can be considered to be Gaussian with
typical RMS amplitudes approximately 20-30% of the static load. They increase
with speed and road roughness. Most vehicles generate their dynamic tyre forces
because of sprung mass motion in the 1.5-4 Hz frequency range, but some poorly
damped axle group suspensions also generate a large component at 8-15 Hz, due to
unsprung mass vibration. All suspensions contribute to the dynamic loads
generated by each axle of an articulated vehicle but the effects of structural
vibration, roll-plane motion and tyre nonuniformities are small. The dynamic
loads generated for given test conditions are repeatable in space on subsequent
tests.
(ii) Techniques for simulating and measuring dynamic wheel loads are relatively
well developed.
(iii) Viscous damping and soft spring and tyre stiffnesses are desirable for
minimising dynamic loads, dry (Coulomb) friction is undesirable. Multiple-axle
suspension systems generally rank in the following order of increasing dynamic
loads:
144 DAVID CEBON
(Air spring, torsion bar) < (four-leaf, six-leaf) < (walking beam, single-point).
This order depends to a certain extent on the particular suspension system and test
conditions.
6.4 Road damage due to dynamic tyre forces
(i) Theoretical road damage increases with road roughness and speed, but it may
decrease at higher speeds due to decreasing dynamic response of the road structure.
(ii) According to some theoretical road damage analyses, suspension systems rank
in approximately the same order as in section 6.3 (iii).
(iii) Depending on the method of analysis and assumptions, dynamic wheel loads
increase theoretical road damage by a factor of 1.2 to 4 for typical vehicles and
operating conditions.
6.5 Research needs

There are many important topics of research in this field and it is not practical to
list them all here. It is the author's opinion, however, that two fundamental
questions about the interaction between heavy vehicles and roads remain to be
answered:
(i) What are the physical mechanisms by which road surface cracking and
permanent deformation damage occur?
(ii) Are the dynamic loading patterns generated by the heavy vehicle fleet
sufficiently 'repeatable' in space to cause excessive damage at particular points
along the road, or is the damage initiated at weak spots in the road structure under
a wide spectrum of wheel loads?
The answers to these questions will contribute significantly towards the

ultimate objective of minimising road damage caused by heavy commercial
vehicles.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is grateful to DJ Cole. TD Gillespie, MSA Hardy. JK Hedrick, CGB Mitchell, HF Southgate, M
Thompson, and JHF Woodrooffe for permission to reproduce their diagrams. Particular thanks to Kit
Mitchell of the TRRL who provided valuable translations of several non-English language publications and
to Tom Gillespie for many helpful comments on the first draft.
VEHICLE-GENERATED ROAD DAMAGE
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Vehicle System Dynamics: International Journal of

Vehicle-Generated Road Damage: A Review

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00423118908968916

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Vehicle-Generated Road Damage: A Review

* Cambridge University, Engineering Department, Cambridge, CB2 IPZ, U K

investigated the influence of vehicle suspension design features on static and

2. ROAD SURFACE RESPONSE AND DAMAGE

2.1 Background to road surface wear

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 '0.5 0.6 0.7

Measured rut depth (cm)

Each of these road types has a number of characteristic failure mechanisms.

2.2 Prediction of road damage

Pavement damage terminology is defined by Kennedy et. al. [64].

approximately 46% and 54% respectively. Pavement designers often attempt to

2.3 Principal features of road surface response

2.3.2 Dynamic coupling

2.3.3 Effect of speed and frequency

I2 HIP SINOLE AXLE LOAO

on the variation in properties of a special purpose test track: layer thicknesses -

Despite this expected variation in thickness, measurements by Hardy and

2.3.5 Effect of the environment

2.4 Modelling pavement response

2.4.1 Static road response models

200 : A BASE STRAIN -

2.4.2 Dynamic road response models

(ii) A structure comprising one or more layers of elastic or viscoelastic material

[lo, 39,42,59, 106, 107, 1401.

3. STATIC LOADING CONSIDERATIONS

3.1 Axle configuration

3.2 Static load sharing

3.2.1 Uneven tyreforces

I@O 10 20 30 40 X, 60 70 gl 90 100 110 120 I30 140

Mean measured wheel load

l b ) 114 2-axle rear bogies o n rigid vehicles

.Sweatman observed some interesting anomalies, in particular that the worst

See Sweatman 11201 for a description of these suspensions.

(i) Poor load sharing is largely a quasi-static phenomenon which is independent of

3.2.2 Predicted road damaging effects of uneven load sharing

3.3 Tyre effects

3.3.1 Contact pressure distribution

3.3.3 Effect of tyre configuration on flexible pavement response and damage

4. DYNAMIC TYRE FORCES OF HEAVY VEHICLES

4.1 Principal features

4.1.1 Probability distribution

RMS dynamic tyre force

At 100 kmh, these modes of vibration are excited by roughness irregularities

4.1.4 Spatial repeatability

4.1.5 Contribution of all suspensions

4.1.6 Effects of structural vibration

4.1.7 Influence of roll motion

4.1.8 Influence of lyre nonuniformities

4.2 Simulation of dynamic tyre forces

4.3 Measurement of dynamic tyre forces

4.4 Influence of vehicle design on dynamic tyre forces

" S e e Sweatman [ 1201 for description o f suspension types.

Single point tandem

.Air tandem 8 triaxle

EM^ et. al.

West Germany (Pavement strains) 4 - leaf, 6 - leal