Silvicultural Systems

Course Code: SFB 201

Presented By: Apsara Gautam
Assistant Professor
Agriculture and Forestry University
Review of Regeneration Method
Natural Regeneration
• Natural regeneration is defined as the renewal of a forest crop by means of the
natural process of seed sowing, germination and establishment , or by coppice or
root suckers.
• It also refers to the crop so obtained.
• The natural regeneration can be obtained from the following two source.
1.Natural Regeneration from Seed.
2.Natural regeneration from vegetative parts(Coppice).
• Natural Regeneration from Seed:
This is the process in which regeneration is obtained by the process usually adopted
by nature that is seed production, seed dispersal, seed germination and seedling
establishment.
These four form the main stages of the process of natural regeneration from the
seed.
• Seed Production
• Seed Dispersal.
• Seed Germination
• Seedling Establishment
A. Seed Production:
• The most important consideration for natural regeneration from seed is the
production of adequate amount of fertile seeds by the trees of the area or in the
vicinity. The production of seed depends on the following
• Species, Age of trees, Size of Crown, Climate, and other external factors.
1.Species:
• All species do not produce seed annually and abundantly.
• Some species like Teak, Acacia, and Sisoo etc. Produce seed annually.
• While Deodar, Fir and Spruce etc. seed at an interval of years.
• The quantity of seed produced by annual seeders varies. This variation in seed
production is the seeding periodicity.
• Depending on the amount of seed produced, seed years are described as Good,
Moderate, or poor.
Moderate and Good seed years of some important species is mentioned as follows.
• Species Moderate Good
Seed years Seed years
• Shorea robusta 2 3-5
• Terminalia tomentosa 2 3-4
• Pinus wallichiana 2 2-3
• P. Roxburghi 3 4-5
• Cupressus torolosa 3 7-8
• Cedrus deodara 3 4-5
• Picea smithiana 3 5-6
• Abies pindrow 6 10
2. Age of Trees:
• The age of trees also affects the production of adequate amount of fertile seeds
• The seed produced by immature and over mature trees are sometimes infertile.
• Abundant amount of fertile seeds are produced from middle aged trees. Abundant
amount of fertile seeds is produced by the trees when height growth is culminated
and during this period carbohydrate produced is translocated to seed formation.
3. Size of Crown:
• The size of the crown of trees also affect seed production.
• As a general rule, the bigger the crown, the larger the seed production.
4. Climate:
• Climate also affects the seed production. As a general rule warmer climate favors
larger seed production.
• Hot dry airs are generally followed by heavy seed years on account of increase in
Photosynthesis.
• Heavy rainstorms at the time of pollen dissemination reduce chances of pollination
and good seed production.
• Late frost adversely affects seed production.
5. Other external factors:
• Injury by fire and insect attack reduces seed production by damaging the crown.
• If the damages are only concentrated on barks then it stimulates seed production
by transporting carbohydrate to the seeds and not to the roots.
• Girdling also favors heavy seeding due to same reason.
B. Seed Dispersal:
The seed produced by the trees is dispersed by the agency of wind, water, gravity,
birds and animals. Some examples of seed dispersal by various agencies are given
below.
• Wind: All conifers and several dicots (Acer, Betula, Populus, Alnus , Salix,
Terminalia, Dalbergia, Acacia , Adina and Bombax.
• Water: Mangrove , Dalbergia, and Teak.
• Bird: Prunus, Mulberry, and Diospyrus
• Animals: Acaica arabica, Prosopssis juliflora, Zizyphus, and Anthocephallus.
• Gravity: Oak, Juglans, and Aesculus.
C. Seed Germination:
• After dispersal insect birds and rodents destroy a lot of seeds. The others
germinate provided they are deposited on suitable soil. Germination of seeds
depends upon several internal and external factors listed below.
Internal Factors:
• Permeability to water
• Permeability to O2
• Development of embryo ( i.e.Fraxinus floribunda takes one year)
• After ripening (i.e.Juniperus macropoda)
• Viability of Seeds
• Size of seeds
• Germination capacity
• Germination energy
• External factors:
• Moisture
• Air
• Temperature
• Light (i.e. Cassia fistula or Albizzia procera requires light)
• Seed Bed
D. Seedling establishment:
Even if germination is good it does not mean that natural regeneration would be
good, because a large number of seedlings die at the end of rains or as a result of
frost during winter or drought during summer. In addition there may be other
factors such as weeds, grazing, fire, which may kill them.
• Thus, establishment is defined as the development of new crop ‘naturally or assisted’ to a stage
when the young regeneration ‘natural or artificial’ is considered safe from normal adverse
influences and no longer needs special protection or tending operation other than cleaning,
thinning, and pruning.
The following factors affect establishment of seedlings.
1.Development of root
2.Soil condition
3.Moisture
4.Aeration
5.Nutrients
6.Light
7.Temp.(Frost, Drought)
8.Rainfall.
9.Drip (Slash erosion)
10.Condition of grasses and other competing weeds
11.Grazing, Browsing and Fire
12.Composition of the crop
Natural Regeneration from Vegetative parts

Vegetative reproduction or asexual reproduction is the reproduction in plants

through same part of the plant body .e.g by coppice or root sucker ,etc.
Advantages of vegetative reproduction include:
1.One plant may produce several plants.
2.Plants not capable of producing seed may also reproduce.
3.Plants produced from vegetative reproduction are relatively fast growing.
4.Vegetative reproduction may be used as a technique for fusing genetically superior
trees with inferior ones.
Methods of Vegetative Reproduction
1.Coppice:When certain plants or seedlings are cut from near ground
level ,they produce a flush of fresh seeds. This is known as coppicing.
2.Root sucker: The method under which the root of a plant is partially
or wholly cut to produce a shoot.
3.Cutting: A part of the stem, root or branch is planted in the soil. A
new shoot is thus produced.
4.Layering:Roots developed on a girdled portion of a branch.
5.Grafting: The cut part of a plant is grafted to another so as to form a
fresh plant.
6.Budding: A bud is grafted to the bark of another.
Natural Regeneration by Coppice

Coppice is commonly of two types:

1.Seedling Coppice
2.Stool Coppice
Seedling Coppice: This is the method of producing coppice shoots from the base of
seedlings which have been cut back.
Stool Coppice: These are the coppice shoots growing from a stool or a living
stumps.
 Natural Regeneration
Under Different Systems.
Natural Regeneration under Clear Felling
System
• This system has also been termed as the clear cutting system.
• Negi(1986) states “Under this system, successive clear felling and
regeneration operations are carried out in a particular area”.
• It is a system in which the mature crop is felled in one operation.
Regeneration is then established in this area, either by natural or
artificial means.
Natural Regeneration under Clear Felling
System
In natural regeneration of clear felled areas, seed or seedling may be
obtained from the following sources:
a)Seed which is already lying in the clear felled area. Seed fall may
have occurred prior to the felling operations.
b)From adjacent areas bearing a mature forest of the desired species.
c)Ripe seed borne on the mature trees before they were clear felled.
d)From advance growth which may be exisiting in the area where
felling operations have been carried out.
Natural Regeneration Under Selection
System
• In this system. Felling and regeneration operations are not confined to
any particular area, but are distributed all over it.
• Fellings comprise of the removal of trees either singly or in small
groups scattered all over the forest.
• They form an unevenaged type of forest in which all age classes occur.
Such a forest has been termed as selection forest.
Natural Regeneration Under Selection System
Following operations may be carried out to assist in the establishment of
natural regeneration:
A)Removal of raw humus from the forest floor so as to give the
seedlings, better chances of survival.
B)Removal of the felling refuse from the forest floor so that it does not
hamper the establishment of seedlings.
C)Cleanings are carried out in the younger age classes, or as per the
condition of the crop.
D)Light soil workings may also have to be carried out wherever
necessary.
E)Removal of exploitable diameter.
Natural Regeneration under Shelterwood
Systems
• Natural regeneration is more complex under shelterwood system than
in the clear felling system because of many factors.
• In order to get good regeneration, the following management practices
are needed:
A)Seed for regeneration is obtained from trees retained in adjacent.
B)Light requirement and canopy manipulations are inevitable so as to
facilitate light penetration to the ground layer where young regeneration
is coming up.
C)Soil Condition: Digging along strips or by tractor ploughing will
encourage better regeneration.
Natural Regeneration under Shelterwood
Systems
D)Burning of underground vegetation decreases the weeds and other
adverse plants. In certain cases, seed itself require such heat treatment
for breaking its dormancy.
E)Slash disposal cleans the local land and provide good physical surface
for the generation.
Artificial Regeneration
• Artificial regeneration: It is defined as renewal of forest crop by
sowing, planting or other artificial means. (direct seeding, or planting)
AR of forest falls under two categories:
• Reforestation and Afforestation
A. Afforestation: It is the establishment of forest by artificial means
over an area from which forest vegetation has always or long been
absent.
B. Reforestation: It is the artificial restocking of forest area or otherwise
cleared woodland from where a tree crop has recently been removed.
Choices between AR and NR
• The choice between the two methods of regeneration is governed by
following factors:
Risk of loss and deterioration of soil (NR)
Crop composition (AR)
Genetic consideration (AR)
Risk of damage by pests (NR)
Flexibility of operation (NR)
Density of stocking (correct or uniform) (AR)
Yield for better volume and financial return(AR)
Time factor (AR)
Cost (NR)
Concept and Classification
of Silvicultural System
Silvics: The study of life history and general charactericts of forest tree
with particular reference to environmental factors as basis for practice
of silviculture.
Silviculture is the art and science of cultivating forest crops. In broad
sense, silviculture includes practical application of silvics.
It deals with establishment, and development of trees and forests, the
effects of environment on them, techniques of regenerating them (either
naturally or artificially), and method of tending them.
Silvicultural System
• Since the techniques of regenerating forest crops vary with types and
sub-types of forest, and physical conditions in which they exists, it
becomes necessary to identify the different methods or techniques for
different sub-types in different localities.
• Thus,a silvicultural system may be defined as a method of
silvicultural procedure worked out in accordance with accepted sets of
silvicultural principles, by which crop constituting mature forests
harvested, regenerated, tended and replaced by news crops of
distinctive form.
• It begin with regeneration felling, includes adoption of some suitable
method of regeneration and tending of the new crop throughout its
life.
Silvicultural System
• A silvicultural system was defined by Troup (1928) as: the process by
which crops constituting a forest are tended, removed and replaced by
new crops, resulting in the production of woods of a distinctive form.
Figure: Silvicultural Systems
Silvicultural System
• A Silvicultural system thus, describes the means of effectively
regenerating, tending, and harvesting forest crop in a timely and
economically viable manner.
• It is a technique perfected on basis of knowledge of silviculture, but
its application is governed by requirements of forest management or to
achieve objectives of forest management.
Silvicultural System
• Essential characteristics:
1.Pattern of felling to be adopted in harvesting a mature crop to be
regenerated: It includes felling of single tree to clear felling, which
depends on, Silvicultural requirements of species to be regenerated,
utilization of the species and its timber, and Intensity of demand of
forest products.
It affects form or character of new crop i.e. even aged and uneven aged
2. Method of regeneration to be adopted: Success of the system depends
on success of regeneration. By seed, either self sown or sown
artificially, by coppice or by any other vegetative method.
Silvicultural System
3. Tending of new crop: Important silvicultural operation carried
between seedling and mature stage, carried out for the benefit of a
forest crop, helps in obtaining regeneration in a given area, there by
averting management problems resulting from failure of regeneration
in the given regeneration area.
4. Form or character of crop produced: Depends on the patterns of
felling, which is distinguishing the characters of a silvicultural system.
Classification of Silvicultural System

Silvicultural systems have been classified in a variety of ways but most

commonly used classification is based primarily on mode of regeneration and
further classified according to Pattern of felling carried out in the forest crop.
According to method of regeneration, silvicultural systems are of following
two types:
1. High forest systems
2. Coppice systems
High forest systems are those silvicultural systems in which the regeneration
is normally of seedling origin, either natural or artificial (or a combination of
both) where the rotation is generally long.
Classification of Silvicultural System
• Coppice systems: Those system in which the new crop originates
mainly from stool coppice and where the rotation of the coppice is
short.
High Forest Systems
High forest systems are further classified on the basis of pattern of felling, in
turn affects the concentration, or diffusion of regeneration and the form or
character of the new crop.
1.System of concentrated regeneration
2.System of diffused regeneration
3. Accessory systems
1.System of concentrated regeneration (In which the regeneration fellings are
for the time being concentrated on part of the felling series). Divided in to 2
main category:
A. Clearfelling systems: Clearfelling system, Clear strip system, Alternate
strip system
B. Shelterwood Systems: Uniform system, Group system, Strip system,
Irregular system, Indian irregular system

2. System of Diffused regeneration (In which regeneration fellings are

distributed over the whole felling series)
A. Selection system: Single tree selection,
B. Group selection method.

3. The Accessory System (Silviculture system in which irregular felling or

two storeyed high forests is observed.)
A.Two-storeyed high forest system
B.High forest with reserve System
C.Improvement felling
Coppice System

Silvicultural systems in which crop originates mainly from coppice and

rotation is short.
• Following are the main Coppice system.
A.The simple coppice system
B.The coppice with standard system
C.The coppice with reserve system
Clear-Felling Systems
Introduction
• It is defined as a silvicultural system in which equal or equi-productive
area of mature crop are successively clear felled in one operation to be
regenerated most frequently, artificially but sometimes naturally also.
• The area to be clear-felled each year in uniformly productive sites is
1/N of the total area allotted to this system, where N= Number of
years in the rotation and is usually referred to annual coupe.
• The coupes to be felled every year are made equi-productive.
Regenerated crop is absolutely even aged .
• As clear felling and regeneration work is carried out every year
throughout rotation, a normal series of age gradations from 1 to n
years is formed.
Method of obtaining Regeneration
The area can be regenerated mostly by artificially sometimes naturally
also.
Artificial regeneration is preferred due to following reasons:
1)It is the surest and quickest method of improving crop composition.
2)It facilities introduction of fast growing and high yielding exotics.
3)It provides better financial returns. The regeneration is established
sooner.
Method of Artificial Regeneration
1. Departmental plantation:
 Plantations raised by the forestry department.
 Stock map of the area is prepared.
 Auctioned
 All the trees are marked except those retained and auctioned.
 Plantation area is cleared after exporting the material and soil working
is done.
 Sowing is done before the rain starts and planting is done during rainy
season.
 Plantation is weeded during rain and protected against fire during
summer.
2. Taungya
Taungya Burmese word (Taung= Hill and Ya= Cultivation) means
cultivation in hills.
• The plantation in which forest crops are raised along with agricultural
crops.
• First evolved in Myanmar/ Burma in 1870s for replanting large Teak
areas.
• Modification form of shifting cultivation which is defined as method
of cyclic cultivation where cultivators cut the tree crops, burns it and
raised field crops for one or more years (generally less than 5 years)
before moving on to another site and repeating the process.
2. Taungya
Practiced only Terai region of Nepal , started in 1972 at Tamagadhi area
of Bara district by DoF.
Species like Eucalyptus camaldulensis, D. sissoo, and Tectona grandis
are inter-planted with agricultural crops in the space of 2m x 4m.
Essence of the system is to encourage the local villagers as Taungya
planters. Keep down the weeds and get additional revenue.
2. Taungya

Departmental Taungya: Plantation in which the forest department gets

agricultural crops also raised along with forest plants.
Leased Taungya: In which the agricultural crops are raised in the line of
forest plants, by giving the lands on lease to the person who offers
maximum lease money.
Village Taungya: Taungya which are raised by villagers who have
settled down in a village inside the forest for the purpose.
Method of Natural Regeneration:

• It is promoted when it is absolutely certain otherwise there will be

greater cost involved. Obtained from seed or advance growth.
1. From Seed:
Seeds stored in the area: Come from the seed stored on the ground.
Seeds received from outside: from seed reaching the area from out
side.
2. Natural regeneration from advanced growth: Established seedlings,
saplings and young plants) after clear felling.
• Character of the Crop: The resultant crop produced by adopting clear
felling system is even aged.
• If there is no accidents or failure, the system gives a normal series of
age gradation.
Consideration for Application:

Silvicultural system requires large sum of money and labors to regenerate the
forest artificially.
Therefore it should be applied after careful consideration of following factors:
1, Factors of locality: The species must be suited to locality factors in general
micro climate and other climatic and biotic factors in particular, affect choice
of species.
2. Potential productivity of site: In order to ensure the good result and that
too in a reasonably short time it is important that necessary inputs should be
applied not only to maintain fertility of the soil but also meet the requirement
of the species.
3. Species and composition of crop: Most suitable to light demanders, fast-
growing. Only system by which crop composition can be changed.
Consideration for Application
4. Regeneration: Success of any system depends on regeneration. If
regeneration is not successful the system will fail.
Clear felling system followed by AR is the only system by which area
can not be regenerated satisfactorily in short time by any other high or
coppice system.
 It require detail and careful planning, adequate quantity of genetically
superior seeds and plants , sufficient labour and tools etc. will be
arranged well in time. Clear felling System
Advantages
 Simplest of all high forest system.
 Does not require high degree of skill.
Easy to practice.
 Introducing fast growing exotics and regulating composition of new
crop through artificial regeneration is advantageous.
Makes supervision of all operations (felling to extraction) easy.
 No damage to new crop by felling as happens in Selection and
Shelterwood system.
Advantages
• As felling is concentrated, even aged crop produced have trees with
uniform, cleaner and more cylindrical boles than those of trees
produced by other system.
• Entire crop is regenerated in one operation.
• Its establishment is quicker there by reducing cost and rotation.
• As regeneration gets establishes early, as result of intensive early
tending.
• Distribution of age class is very regular. Success or failure of
regeneration is clear by end of first year or in few years.
Disadvantages

• Most artificial system.

• More danger of soil deterioration and erosion as soil remain exposed
till the canopy closes.
• Not suitable on hilly area and sloppy/rugged terrain.
• Increase in danger of weeds and grass invasion. More susceptible to
damage by insects, plant parasites and pathogens.
Disadvantages
• Growing space and site factors are not fully utilized.
• When it is applied for the first time, it involves sacrifices of all
immature crop that may still be putting on valuable increment.
• Undesirable from aesthetic point of view as large area are clear felled
which presents a devastating look.
Application
1.Species: specially indicated for strong light demander which will not
tolerate shelter. In the areas subject to frost, drought, or other risk
unsuitable for sensitive shade bearer.
2.Locality: All the soil remains exposed till the canopy closes, there is
great danger of deterioration of soil and the possibility of soil erosion
increases. So can not be applied in the areas of geologically unstable
areas such as unstable hill, sloppy, erosion prone areas.
3.Condition for Regeneration: Not be introduced unless the regeneration
in each year can be assured.
Application
5. Types of forest Produced: Even aged stand, production of large
quantities of materials of specified size.
6. Change of species or composition of forest: Commonly adopted for
replacing existing forest or entirely new crops.
Types of Clear Felling System
•Clear felling by Patch .
•Clear strip (Progressive strip).
•System Alternate strip System.
1.Clear Felling by Patch/Compartment

Clear felling system in which patch/compartment of mature crops are

successively clear felled in one operation to be regenerated.
 It is applied on rugged and irregular terrain or in even-aged stands
that lack uniformity or regular arrangement of cutting areas in stripe
is impossible.
Pattern of Felling

• The clear felled in patch of certain size according to the circumstances.

• In first operation the stands are selected for some reason should be cut
before the rest of the stand.
• In the succeeding operations these patches are enlarged or new patches
are created else where in the forest.
Character of the Crop Produced:
Production of even aged crops as each patch can be treated as
compartment.
2. Clear Stripe System

A silvicultural system in which, clear felling is done in the form of strips

which progress successively in one direction (usually against the wind)
across the regeneration area.
The crop produced is even-aged considering each strip as a
compartment.
Object of Felling in Strips

• When it is not possible to clear fell the whole compartment in one

operation.
• Clear felling is done in strips.
• To regenerate the area naturally by seed from adjoining areas.
• To protect the young crop against wind, snow, insect or fungal attack.
Pattern of Felling

• The clear felled strips in this system are separated by unfelled forest of
sufficient width which may be the multiple of the width of the clear
felled strip.
• For example if the felling period is 4 years, regeneration has to be
divided in to 4 cutting sections marked I to IV.
• Mode of Regeneration Can be regenerated artificially or naturally
depending on the circumstances.
• Character of the Crop Produced Production of even aged crops as each
strip can be treated as compartment.
Advantages
All the advantage of clear felling system.
It also maintains the aesthetic beauty and there is less deterioration of
soil.

Disadvantages
• All the disadvantage of clear felling system except site deterioration
and aesthetic consideration.
• Burning of felling refuse in the strips often results in fire spreading to
the unfelled forest.
3. Alternative Stripe System:

 A silvicultural system in which clear felling is done in the form of

strips and the clear strip alternate with un-felled strips of similar width.
Clear cut strips are oriented at right angle to the direction of wind.
Pattern of Felling
• The clear felled stripe and unfelled strips alternate with each other.
• The strips to be clear felled are clear felled first and when they are
regenerated, the unfelled strips are clear felled and regenerated.
• The width of felled strips as well as the period after which the unfelled
strips is felled and regenerated varies species and locality.
• In France clear felled strips of 40-50 m and unfelled strips 15-25m. In
America, width of the felled strip is recommended double that of the
unfelled strips.
Method of Regeneration

• The initially felled trees are regenerated naturally but the unfelled
strips may be regenerated naturally and artificially depending on the
circumstances.
Character of the Crop
It depends on the period after which the alternate strips are felled and
rotation. But, usually it is even aged.
• Advantage
Supplies seed to the felled strips from two sides.
There is less damage to seed bearers from wind.
It afford complete overhead light for the natural regeneration of light
demander.
• Disadvantage
Does not afford any protection of the shade bearing species.
 Fire protection is very difficult.
Introduction
• Seed Tree: Tree left as a source of seed for regeneration after
reproduction cutting has been done. These seeds serve as both the gene
source for the new crops of regeneration and as a source of timber
during future cutting.
• Seed Tree Method: Removal of old stand (i.e. most mature trees) in
one cut, except for a small number of trees left singly, in small groups,
or in narrow strips, as a source of seed for natural regeneration for new
even aged community.
Introduction
• In this method the stand is clear felled except for a few seed trees,
which are left standing singly or in groups to produce seeds for
regeneration
• After a new crop is established these seed trees may be removed or left
indefinitely.
• The chief distinction from shelter wood system is that the seed trees
are retained only for seed production and not enough to provide shelter.
Characteristics of Seed Trees

1.Phenotypically superior to ensure good growth and form.

2. Resistant to local insect, disease and pest.
3. Wind firmness: Healthy to withstand wind and exposure. Tree should
not be easily thrown or broken by the wind.
4.Seed producing ability: The best trees are members of Dominant and
co-dominant crown class with relatively large crown.
5. Age: Mature enough to produce enough abundant seeds.
Pattern of Felling
• Removal of mature stands in two or more successive felling,
temporarily leaving only a few widely scattered mature trees(singly,
groups, or in strips) to serve as a source of seed.
• Method of Regeneration
Maintains only a few widely spaced residual trees as a source of seed
ensuring its uniform distribution across the regeneration area. Thus,
producing even-aged crops.
Types of Seed Tree Method
1. Single Tree Method:
The seed bearers trees are left scattered singly over the entire area.
2. Group Tree Method:
The seed bearers trees are left in groups scattered over the entire area.
3. Strips or Rows Method:
Seed trees are left in strips or in rows.
Advantage
Logging is concentrated on relatively small areas.
This kept logging and transportation cost low.
Furnished a bare exposed site for the start of natural regeneration and
hence may be the good method for those species which require such a
germination bed.
 Simple and easy to practices.
Ample opportunity for phenotypic selection.
Disadvantage
• Exposure to the site takes place to a degree only slightly less than in
clear cutting/felling with similar disadvantage.
• Affords poor protect against erosion, landslide and snow slides.
• It is not considered as much aesthetic compared with Selection and
Shelterwood system.
• Applicable with only deep rooted species.
Shelterwood Systems
Introduction
• Establishment of new tree stand under the old stands.
• A silvicultural system in which over wood is removed gradually in
two or more successive felling depending on progress of regeneration.
• In other words, shelter wood system involves gradual removal of
entire stand in two or more successive felling extending over a part of
rotation.
• The essential characters are that new stand is established naturally or
artificially before the last of the old one is removed.
Introduction
• Trees which are no longer capable of increment in value, are removed
to make room for regeneration to come in.
Trees which are growing vigorously are retained to:
• provide shelter,
• seed,
• rapid diameter increment
• and protection of site against deterioration.
Conduct of Felling:
• Regeneration Felling
Felling made with a view to inviting or assisting regeneration.
It includes:
1. Seeding felling: Opening the canopy of mature stand to provide conditions
securing regeneration from seed of trees retained for that purpose. It is first
stage of regeneration felling.
2.Secondary Felling: Regeneration felling carried out between the seeding
felling and the final felling in order to gradually remove the shelter and admit
increasing light to regenerated crop. Also called as intermediate felling.
3.Final Felling: The removal of the last seed or shelter tree after regeneration
has been established. It is final stage in regeneration felling.
Method of Regeneration:
• The method of obtaining regeneration is mainly natural but it has
often to be supplemented by artificial regeneration because often,
the natural regeneration is not uniformly achieved.
Character of Crop
The crop produced is even aged and uneven aged depending on
pattern of felling (the process of opening of canopy).
Uniform Shelter wood system: even aged
Irregular Shelter wood system: un even aged
 Important Terms:
• Rotation: The planned number of years between the formation/
regeneration of a crop and its final felling.
• Period Block: parts of the forest set a side to be regenerated or
otherwise treated in a particular period.
• Regeneration Period: period required to regenerate the whole of a
periodic block.
No. of PB = Rotation/ Regeneration period
Area of Periodic Block = Area of FS/ No. of PB
Types of Shelterwood System
1. Uniform Shelterwood System
2. Indian Irregular Shelterwood System
3. Group and Strip Shelterwood System
Uniform Shelterwood System
Introduction
• Shelterwood system in which the canopy of a mature forest is
uniformly opened up over the whole area of a compartment to obtain
uniform regeneration under the shelter of remaining old crop.
Mode of Regeneration:

Mainly natural though it has been supplemented by artificial regeneration.

Pattern of Felling
1.Preparatory Felling:
Create gap in the canopy, create favourable condition on the forest floor.
2. Seeding Felling: Objective is to make opening the canopy all over the
compartment so that favourable conditions are created for regeneration.
Some important considerations are:
2. Seeding Felling
A. Quality of trees to be retained:
Genetically superior trees
B. No. of seed bearers required per unit area:
Varies according to silvicultural requirement of species. Quality of seed
produced every year and size and wt. of the seed. Seed requirement of
area, Moisture condition, Amount of light to be admitted (shelter).
C. Distribution of seed bearers: served their purpose only when they are
uniformly distributed.
Species No. of Seed Approx. Distance
Bearer(per ha) between Seed
Bearer
1. Chir pine 12-25 20-30m

2. Deodar 40-50 14-15m

3. Silver Fir 75-87 11-12m

(Abies
spectabilis)
Pattern of Felling
3. Secondary felling: Removal of trees depends on progress of
regeneration and its light requirement. It also helps in manipulation of
mixture of crop.
4. Final felling: Final stage of regeneration felling when areas completely
stocked with established regeneration do not require shelter.
To ensure that the entire forest area is felled and regenerated systematically
within the rotation, it is necessary to divide rotation period into as many
parts as the number by which rotation is divisible by time taken to
regenerate area.
Example: If rotation is 120 years and if it takes 30 years to regeneration area
naturally, there will be 120/30= 4 Periodic blocks i.e.
P. B. = Rotation/ Regeneration Period
 Periodic Block And Regeneration Period

Periodic Block At beginning of At the end of

Period Period

I 61-80 1-20

II 41-60 21-40

III 21-40 41-60

IV 1-20 61-80
Periodic Block And Regeneration Period

• Allotment of areas to Periodic Block (P.B.)

1. Fixed or permanent
Area of P.B. =[F.S. (area of felling series) x R.P. (No. of years in the
regeneration period)]/R (rotation)
Example: (1000 x20)/80=250 ha

2. Floating (Regeneration period not fixed)

Area of P.B. = (F.S. x estimated regeneration period)/Rotation)
Length Of Rotation
• Using the example of 4 P.B.s, silvicultural operations to be carried out in various
periodic blocks will be as follows:
Periodic Block I II III IV

Age class 61-80 41-60 21-40 1-20

Silviculture Regeneration Thinning, Thinning Cleaning

operation felling, Final preparatory
harvesting felling if
required

Character of the Crop: The crop produced is even aged. How ever not
as even aged as the clear felling system.
Advantages
1. Marking and felling of trees over-wood are simpler to selection
system.
2. Little risk of soil deterioration and erosion.
3. Less danger of weeds invasion and grasses in the area.
4. Young crop is protected against adverse climatic factors such as cold,
frost, wind, drought etc.
5. As regeneration is obtained from seeds of best selected trees, new
crop is superior.
Advantages
6. Growing space is fully utilized as regeneration grows under shelter of
older trees.
7.Supervision and control of various operations easy as work is fairly
concentrated in a compartment.
8. From aesthetic point of view, this system is superior to clear felling
system.
Disadvantages
1. As over wood is removed in more than one operation, there is much
damage to young crop.
2. Isolated seed bearers are susceptible to wind damage.
3. In species having long interval between seed years, after seeding
felling, there may be invasion by weeds and regeneration may be
affected.
4. In species with longer regeneration period, weeding and cleaning has
to be done for longer period and natural regeneration becomes costly
Consideration for Application
• Applicable where regeneration requires protection against adverse
climatic factors during initial stage of development, area is prone to
soil erosion and invasion of weeds.
• Not applicable where wind storms occurs frequently may cause in
uprooting the seed bearers, very steep slope and rugged, seed of old
crop is not suitable for use due to infertility or defects.
2. Irregular Shelter wood System
• It is a silvicultural system in which regeneration felling are done in the
pattern of group system but the regeneration period is long which resulting
in irregular crop.
• Crop to be regenerated is open up irregularly and the resultant crop is
uneven aged.
• This is a modification of uniform system where large quantities of advance
growth of various ages and sizes trees are retained as the part of future
crops.
• This system is compromise between the uniform and the selection system.
• As uniform character of the crop is lost by retention of trees up to 40 cm
dbh, the use of word “Irregular” is justified.
• It provides for retention of groups of well grown poles and immature
trees (up to 40 cm diameter) as future crops.
• This system also retains canopy trees throughout the process rather
than remove them in the removal cut.
• It permits adoption of selection felling on steep and rugged portion of
compartment worked under uniform system.
• This method also improves structural diversity and enhances
aesthetics, wildlife habitat, and biodiversity in forests
Pattern of Felling

Felling of the crop to be regenerated is irregular and does not follow the
any regular pattern.
The irregular opening of the crop is due to following circumstances:
1.The irregular nature of the crop being regenerated.
2.Difficulty in obtaining regeneration at will.
3.Steepness of terrain.
4.Danger of loss of soil fertility.
Method of Regeneration

Though natural regeneration is attempted, but where it can not be

induced, artificial regeneration is done.
In case of Sal, in areas affected by the dying back disease regeneration
is very difficult to induced.
Character of Resultant Crop
• As immature poles and trees upto 40 cm are retained as part of the
future crop the character of resultant crop is uneven aged.

Application:
• Commonly applied to Deodar forest in U.P. India
• Fir and Spruce in U.P. India Sal in Dehradun, India
• Sal in Terai forest of Nepal
Advantages
 Soil is exposed to minimum, it is not exposed even that much as in
the case of uniform system.
Retention of all advance growth in the form of woody and established
regeneration and saplings present in the area as a part of the future
crops, make more successful.
Disadvantages
Considerable skill is required to regenerate an area naturally when
dealing with species, in which good seed years comes after long
intervals, for which nursery techniques has not yet been finalized.
As the establishment of regeneration can not be obtain at will in a
reasonable period, keeping area closed to grazing becomes serious
problems.
As mature crops has to be removed in more than one operation, the
cost of felling and extraction of materials and damage to young
regeneration.
3. Group Shelterwood System
• It is a silvicultural system in which regeneration felling are carried out
in a scattered groups due to presence of advanced growth which
induces regeneration.
• Regeneration fellings, instead of being done uniformly all over
compartment, are carried out in scattered groups either because of
presence of advance growth or to induce regeneration and to
spread/enlarged centrifugally finally covering the whole area (to
merge with each other ultimately).
Pattern of felling:
• Group of promising advance growth is identified and located in the
compartment.
• Seeding felling is done all around the periphery.(group I)
• If advance growth is inadequate ,gaps are created by felling.
• Gap created will be more for light demanding species and vice-versa.
• Secondary felling is done when regeneration appears in gaps in the first
group.
• Now seeding felling is done around this group.(group II)
• When regeneration comes up well in this, secondary felling is done in group
II.
• Now final felling is done in the group I and seeding felling is done in the
successive areas (group III).
• In this way, the felling proceeded so as to complete the whole forests
Method of Regeneration
Mainly natural but in a mixed crop the control of mixture has to be often
achieved by sowing or planting.

Character of the Crop

• Not even aged as in Uniform system.
• Uneven aged when young but even age later.

Advantages
 Young crop develops in more natural way.
Adjoining trees protect young regeneration.
Little danger of seed bearers being uprooted by wind.
Less damage of young crop by regulating fall of trees in unfelled areas.
Disadvantage.
Location of existing advance growth is difficult in hills. Marking of
seeding felling is difficult around group of advance growth in hilly
areas.
 Weeding and cleaning is difficult and costly. As work gets diffused,
its supervision and control becomes difficult.
 Over extensive area, intensive work not possible.
Requires individual attention of a single officer for about 30 years,
which is not possible.
4. Shelter wood Stripe System
• It is a silvicultural system in which regeneration felling are done in the
form of strips, arranged successively from one side of the
compartment to other usually against the direction of wind.
Pattern of Felling
• Seeding felling is carried out in narrow strip in one side of the
compartment.
• After regeneration is established in the felled strips, secondary felling
is done.
• Now successive strip is selected where seeding felling is carried out.
• When second strip needs more light, secondary felling is carried out in
this strip.
• Now final felling will be carried out in strip I and seeding felling was
done in strip III.
• The sequence is continued till it reaches the next end of the
compartment.
• Width of strip may vary from 20-30m or even more.
Advantage:
1. It provides protection from wind.
Disadvantage:
1. Laying out of strips
2. execution of felling,
3. logging, transport of material is difficult.
4. protection against grazing and fire is difficult
• Consideration for Application
Applicability: Sal, Chir pine, Blue pine, Deodar
Difference between Clear felling and Shelter
wood System
In CF system regeneration is achieved in full over head sunlight while
in SW system comes under the shade of shelter tree/Seed tree.
 In CF system regeneration concentrated in the coupe of the year
while in SW system regeneration completed in a part of the rotation
called period.
In CF New crop produced even-aged, as one coupe is regenerated
every year, a series of age gradation from 1 year to rotation age are
formed while in SW system new crop produced also even aged but
regeneration is completed in a period crop is divided in to age classes
whose range equal to the number of year in the regeneration period
example: 1-20, 21-40, 41-60, and 61-80.
Selection System
Introduction
• Silvicultural system in which felling and regeneration are distributed over
whole of area and resultant crop is uneven aged.
• Trees of all ages are found mixed together over every part of area.
Regeneration operations are carried out throughout life of crop. Such a crop
is referred as “Selection Forest” or all aged forest.
• Scattered mature trees are selected all over the area and felled to enable
regeneration to replace them.
• The selection system differs from the clear felling and shelter wood system
that regenerations in CF and SW system are confined to a certain part of the
whole area whereas in the SS these are distributed over the whole area.
Pattern of Felling:
• The selection system fallows the nature in respect of its pattern of
felling like dying of mature trees and taking place by younger
regeneration.
• Just as in nature, mature trees dies out singly in the forest and their
place is taken up by new regeneration.
• Single Tree Selection: When tree are felled singly.
• Group Selection: When trees are felled in groups.
• Stripe Selection: When trees are felled in strips.
Conduct of Felling
• Following categories of trees are generally removed:
1. Dead, dying, diseased, misshapen or defective trees interfering with
growth of better trees.
2. Trees of undesirable species
3. Immature trees, removed in thinning carried out in different age
classes.
4. Mature trees (of and above exploitable diameter)
5. Proper proportion of diameter classesreverse ‘J’ shaped curve is
maintained
Types of Selection System
• Ideal Selection System: Fellings are carried out over the whole area
each year.
• Periodic Selection System: Felling of trees all over area of a forest is
possible when area is small. When
fellings are carried out over only a part of forest each
year under a felling cycle.
• If area is large, it is not possible to fell trees over entire area annually.
Therefore the area to be worked under selection system
is divided into certain coupes(i.e. felling cycle ) and
felling is confined to one coupe every year.
Felling Cycle:
• Felling of scattered trees all over the whole area of a forest is possible
only when the area is small and can be gone over every year. But the
area to be worked under selection system is very large and it is not
possible to cover the entire area annually.
• To overcome this difficulty, the area to be worked is divided into
coupes and one coupe is felled every year in sequence and when all
the coupes have been felled, felling starts in the first coups in the
second cycle.
• Thus, Felling cycle is defined as the time that elapse between two
successive main felling on the same area.
Method of obtaining Regeneration
• It is expected that the natural regeneration will come up in gapes
created by felling trees, the seeds for which is supplied by the large
number of trees standing in the area.
• Thus, the method of regeneration in selection system is natural.
• However, if natural regeneration does not follow, artificial
regeneration is attempted.
Character of the Crop
• Uneven aged with all age classes mixed together on each unit of area.
Advantage
• Results in the production of uneven aged forest where trees of all ages are
mixed together on each unit of area.
• Thus, growing space and site factors are fully utilized By maintaining
continuous leaf cover, it conserves soil and moisture to fullest extent
possible.
• Forest produced is more resistant to injuries by insect pests and adverse
climatic factors.
• It prevents invasion of grass and weeds.
• Natural regeneration comes up without difficulty due to abundance of seed
bearers, use of every seed year and protection afforded to seedlings.
• The forest regenerates itself continuously without any limits to the length.
• As lower age class trees grow below older trees, it results in producing
more growing stock in large size trees per unit area than uniform
system.
• Produces a forest which is superior biologically as well as in its
aesthetic and scenic values to the forest of other high forest system.
Disadvantage
• Considerable skill required in carrying out marking and felling to
ensure regeneration to come up in gaps.
• As mature trees to be removed are scattered, cost of logging and
extraction is high.
• Felling, logging and extraction cause damage to young crop.
• Seed is obtained from good as well as bad trees and thus, there is
genetic deterioration of future crop. As area is extensive, strict fire
protection is difficult.
• Thus, accidental fires result in damaging new crop. Possible damage
of grazing.
• Success or failure of regeneration is difficult to assess.
• In a mixed crop with lower percentage of valuable species, when
valuable species are removed, vacancies are filled by less valuable
species.
• Maintaining proper proportion of each diameter class is very difficult.
Difficult to know exact growing stock, normal distribution of tree
species and DBH.
Consideration for Application
The system is eminently suitable for following conditions:
1.Where slope is steep and terrain is broken to serve the soil
conservation and landslide protection.
2. It is necessary where continuous ground cover is necessary such as
catchment areas and erosion prone area.
3. In the areas where the product of particular size and species is in
demand.
4. Sensitive shade bearer species are more suitable to work under this
system. Example: Sal, Fir, Spruce, etc.
Difference Between Selection system and
Shelterwood system.
1. Felling Pattern:
In selection system scattered single trees are removed all over the area
except in so far felling cycle introduces as modification, and felling is
concentrated all over the area whereas in shelter wood system mature
crops are opened up uniformly or irregularly all over the compartment
or sub compartment leaving specified number of seed trees/shelter trees
for seeding the area, and felling is concentrated in compartment or sub
compartment only.
2. Mode of Regeneration:
In selection system regeneration mainly natural which appears in the
opening mode. Regeneration diffused is a continuous process which
goes on throughout the life of the crop whereas in shelter wood system
mode of regeneration natural though often by artificial regeneration.
Regeneration comes under the shade of shelter trees and regeneration
completed in a part of rotation which is called as period.
3.Character of Crop:
In selection system the crop produced is completely uneven aged so
much so that all ages found mixed together in every unit of area whereas
in shelter wood system the crop produced is even aged as regeneration
is completed in a period crops is divided in to age classes whose range
equals to the number of year in regeneration period.
Accessory systems
Introduction
• Accessory systems are those high forest system which originate from
other even aged systems through slight modifications. This resulting in
an irregular or two-storeyed high forest.
• Following Accessory systems are generally found:
1. Two storeyed High forest system
2. High forest with Reserve system
3. Improvement felling
1.Two storeyed high forest system
 Silvicultural system which results in formation of two-storeyed forest in
which canopy can be differentiated in two strata, in each of which dominant
species is usually different.
Here, the canopy occurs in two strata viz. upper and lower canopy.
Crop in each storey is approximately even aged, and is of seedling origin.
Lower storey may be obtained by natural regeneration by seed brought from
outside, but usually by under-planting or enrichment planting which is done
for following objectives:
1. Protection of soil
2.Increasing proportion of valuable species (enrichment planting)
3. Propagation of species, which cannot be raised in open.
Advantages:
• To protect the soil with the lower storey crops when the upper storey
crop is incapable of doing so;
• To increase in production by growing two crops on same land.
• To Propagate shade bearing species or frost tender species which can
not be grown without protection.
• Changing of species gradually
• Provision for a vertical mixture in species composition
Disadvantages
• Under planting is difficult operation and unless done carefully, it is
likely to fail.
• It needs much knowledge and skill.
• Thinning in upper storey may causes damage to the lower storey.
• Under storey crop may affect growth of upper storey crop.
Applicability
• Chirpine and Sal forest where Sal grows under Chirpine,
• Deodar under pure crops of Chirpine,
• Oaks under Deodar and Chirpine,
• Introducing Teak under Sal,
• Sissoo under Sal areas,
• Planting Mulberry under Sissoo
2. High forest with Reserve system
In this system selected trees of the crop being regenerated are retained
for part or whole of the second rotation, in order to produce large size
timber
Form of forest produced by retaining certain tree of the old crop after
regeneration is completed is called high forest with Reserve System.
 clear felling system with reservation
reservation of some trees during final felling in uniform sheltered
system.
3. Improvement felling
• Improvement felling is a method of treatment involving the removal of
inferior growing stock with the interest of better growth of more
valuable species.
• It is not a silvicultural system as it neither aims at regenerating crop,
nor producing a crop of distinctive characteristics.
• But this aims at bringing a forest into a normal state.
Following operations are done:
1.Felling of dead, dying, and diseased trees(3D).
2. Felling of saleable unsound over mature trees.
3. Felling of unsound or badly shaped mature or immature trees,
provided their removal will benefit same or valuable trees.
4. Thinning of congested group of trees and poles.
5. Removal of badly shaped and damaged saplings and advance growth
expected to give better coppice shoot.
6. Removal of undesirable undergrowth or trees of inferior species .
7. Climber cutting.

Applicable: Mixed uneven-aged forest.

Coppice System
Introduction
 Silvicultural system in which new crop is regenerated mainly from
stool coppice and with short rotation.
Reproduction is obtained from shoots arising from stumps of felled
trees.
A thickets or groove of small trees or shrubs especially maintained by
periodic cutting at back ground level to stimulate growth and provide
firewood and timber.
Factors affecting natural regeneration by
coppice
1.Species: Coppicing power(Sal, Sisoo,Eucalyptus, Siris, Khayar)
2. Age of tree: Pole and young trees
3. Season of coppicing: Before spring
4. Height of stump-15-25cm
5. Rotation: Short
Types of Coppice System
On the basis of pattern of felling the coppice system is of various types:
1. Simple coppice system
2. Coppice with standard system
3. Coppice with reserve system
4. Shelter wood coppice system
5. Coppice selection system
6. Coppice with two rotation
Simple Coppice System
Introduction
Silvicultural system based on stool coppice in which each trees of old
crop is coppiced (clear felled) completely with no reservation for shelter
or any other means.
Pattern of Felling:
Pattern of felling in simple coppice system consists in clear felling a
fixed area annually.
Area of coppice coupe=1/n x total area of forest, where n is number of
years in rotation.
Season of Felling:
• Best season for coppicing is a little before the growth start in spring
because at this time there is large reserve food material in roots which
is utilize by the coppice.
• During dormancy period (Nov-Feb/March).
Method of Felling:
1. Stump should neither be too low nor too high, usually kept 15-25 cm
2. Trees are cut in such a way that the stumps does not split the bark
does not detached from the wood and that it slopes slightly in one
direction so that rain water may quickly drain off.
Tending:
1. Cleaning done in 2nd year to remove climbers and inferior species
and to reduce no. of shoots to two to three.
2. If the objective of coppice is to produce pole or timber, thinning
becomes necessary.
First thinning is carried out in fifth year and no. of shoot is reduced to
one stool.
This is called singling out operation.
Character of the Crop
The resultant crop is even aged.
Advantages:
• System is very simple and does not require any skill in marking.
• Regeneration is more certain than the system based on NR from seed.
• As coppice shoot grow faster in the beginning, cost of weeding,
cleaning and protection is much less than in case of reproduction by
seed.
• Mean Annual Increment (MAI) of coppice crop is much higher than
that obtained under high forest.
• Net returns on investment are relatively higher mainly due to short
rotation and less investment.
• Very suitable for fuel wood and small sized timber.
Disadvantages:
 It tends to exhaust mineral substances in soil as growth is vigorous.
 It is not a permanent system because trees cannot keep on coppicing
indefinitely.
Coppice crop is liable to be damaged by frost and wind.
Not a very desirable system from aesthetic point of view.
Risk of site deterioration (soil erosion, weed invasion etc.)
Condition of Applicability:
This system is suitable for areas where the factors of locality are low
and incapable of producing large sized timber.
Thus, applicable only to the area where there may be demand of fuel,
poles and small sized timber.
With low investment, quick return primarily suitable for private land
or community forest.
Coppice with Standard System
• Silvicultural system based on coppice in which an over wood of
standards, usually of seedling origin and composed of trees of various
ages is kept over coppice for period which may be of multiple of
coppice rotation and as a permanent feature of crop throughout its life.
Purpose of standards:
1. Supply of large sized timber
2. Protection against frost
3. Enrichment of coppice
4. To provide seedling regeneration
5. Increase in revenue
Thus, it has two main features:
1. Constitution of crop: lower storey (even aged coppice crop), upper
canopy (over wood of standards)
2. Rotation: two rotation-one for coppice and one for standard (multiple
of coppice rotation)
Pattern of felling:
All trees except standards are clear felled and selection of standards
depends on following factors
1. Species: same species or different species or mixture of species.
2. Character and quality of standards
• Most valuable species
• Long, clean bole with light foliage
• Capable of putting on increment
• Wind firm
• Light demanders
3. No. of standards:depends on following
• Objectives of management
• Climatic factors (frost)
• Silvicultural characteristics of species (light, frost etc.)
• Standards should not occupy more than one third of canopy (33%).
• Space allotted to standards is to be properly distributed amongst
various age classes.
4. Distribution of standards: Uniformly distributed over whole area,
If 0.3% of canopy area is occupied by standards and there are three age
classes present, then each age class will occupy 0.1% of canopy area.
Number of standard are 10 or 20 per meter square.
Mode of regeneration:
• It is mainly of stool coppice but gaps are filled by artificial
regeneration and by allowing the natural seedling to grow.

Character of the crop:

• Crop consists of two storeys –over wood and under wood.
• Over wood is uneven age and
• Under wood is even age.
Advantages:
• Greater protection to soil
• Advantage of heavy shelter wood felling and selection system
• Standards serve as seed bearers
• Investment is small and net return is high
• Aesthetically superior than simple coppice
Disadvantages:
• Requires great skill in maintaining correct balance between standards
and coppice and between standards of different classes
• It has exhaustive effect on soil
• It is a combination of simple coppice system and high forest system
with advantage of none.
• Felling and extraction cost higher than high forest system
Applicability:
• Where there is demand of firewood, pole, timber.
• Where simple coppice is inhibited due to climatic factors and
silvicultural characteristics of species.
• Not suitable for:
1. If required no. of standards of desired species are not available.
2. Poles of valuable species have to be coppiced immaturely which can
produce large timber if thinning is done .
Applicability:
• Economic, silvicultural or protective consideration, however important
and necessary these may be Example:
Forest Coppice rotation Standard rotation
1. Sal 30 yrs. 60 yrs
2. Jamun 20 or 30 yrs 40 or 60 yrs
3. Dry deciduous forest 30 yrs 90 yrs
Coppice with Reserve System
• Silvicultural system in which felling is done only in suitable areas
likely to benefit, after reserving all financially immature growth of
principal as well as other valuable miscellaneous species, either singly
or in groups.
• The trees reserved should be based on economic or protection
considerations.
• First introduce in 1934-35 and was recognized as silvicultural system
in 1961 by 10thSilvicultural conference and recommended dry
deciduous forest extensively.
Pattern of Felling:
• The desired individuals of the concerned species are reserved first.
• After that , the rest of the crop is felled.
• Felling considers mostly the financially immature trees.
• Regeneration is obtained either from coppice or from advance growth
obtained from the seeds.
• Tending operations includes climber cutting, cleaning at 5-8 years and
thinning of coppice shoots (2-3 per stool)
• Emphasis is more on conservation than felling.
• Reservation of old crop to form part of the new crop is done in the
following ways:
• Reservation by Area
• Reservation by Species
1. Reservation by Area:
Under stocked areas where felling is likely to retard process of
rehabilitation by nature
Eroded areas or areas liable to erosion, strips of land along streams
Area around springs, wells, camping sites and places of worship.
Areas having dense pole crops
High quality areas where crop is in optimum condition.
In such areas, light improvement felling can be done if necessary.
2. Reservation by Trees:
It is done based on the diameter or girth of the individual tree.
Reservation of individual trees upto a fixed girth class of 60-75 cm.
Reservation of trees for maintaining healthy mixture in a forest.
Soil under pure teak detoriates hence mixture of species is
recommended.
All advance growth of valuable species up to 24 cm gbh is reserved.
Trees are reserved for completing the stocking and supply of seed.
 Species which yield edible fruits and NTFPs like Jamun, Harro.
Barro, Amala. And industrial timber like Khair, Sisoo etc.
Mode of regeneration:
• Regeneration is generally obtained by coppice but advance growth and
regeneration from seed also make substantial contribution to it.
Tending: Cleaning, climber cutting, and reduction of coppice shoots.
• Climber cutting in the following year.
• Cleaning between 5-8 years of reducing coppice shoots to 2-3/stools.
• Thinning at mid rotation age.
Character of Crop:
• The resultant crop in this system comprises of irregular groups of
even aged coppice with uneven aged reserve crop scattered irregularly.
• Thus, as a whole, the crop is uneven aged.
Advantages:
• Helps in improving quality of locality as a result of soil and moisture
conservation, maintenance of crop mixture.
• Helps in improving condition and composition of crop.
• Fulfills needs of local population and requirements of industries.
• It facilitates regeneration of valuable species naturally.
• Avoids sacrifice of financially immature crop whose value increases.
• Thus, offers best financial returns per unit area.
Disadvantages:
• Execution requires high degree of skill and needs expertise in
executing the works.
• Reservation of large no. of trees affects coppice growth adversely.
• This system is not applicable when the species is shade bearer or frost
tender.
• This is not suitable where weed or grass growth is higher.
Condition of Applicability:
1.It is applicable
• When crop varies greatly in density, composition, and quality and
proportion of valuable species is low.
• When most of species are good coppicers and coppicing power of
most valuable species is vigorous.
• When valuable species in crop is light demanders.
2. It Not applicable: When valuable species are shade bearers and frost
tenders. When crop does not contain valuable species. When it is not
possible to protect area against fire and grazing at least for five years
after main felling.
Difference between CWS and CWR System
1.In Coppice with Standard (CWS) system crop is composed of two storeys.
The under storey is even aged and the upper storey is uneven aged standard.
Whereas in Coppice with Reserve (CWR) system the resultant crop can not
be differentiate in to different storey as the coppice and reserved trees are
irregularly scattered.
2.In CWS system there are distinct treatments and rotations for under storey
and upper storey whereas in CWR system the crop is treated as a whole.
3.In CWS system the standard are selected individually and spaced uniformly
over the area. They occupy a fixed position in canopy whereas in CWR
system reserves are selected both singly as well as in groups. Uniform
spacing is not necessary, they are irregularly distributed.
Difference between CWS and CWR
System
4.In CWS system the main objective of retaining standard is production
of large sized timber where as in CWR system the objective of reserving
the trees is protection of soil, maintenance of soil fertility, supply of
seed, fruits or any other economic forest produces.
5. CWS is rigid system and follows the predetermined fixed pattern of
treatments whereas the CWR system is flexible as the crop is treated
according to its requirements without following a fixed patterns.
6. In CWS system the standards are of one or two valuable species
whereas in CWR system the reserves are of several species.
Conversion
Introduction
Conversion in silvicultural terms means change from one silvicultural
system to another or one set of species to another.
• Thus, concept of conversion involves change in crop composition
and/or change in the silvicultural system.
1. Change in crop composition:
It is applied for any of the following reasons:
A. Increasing yield from forest: Pine plantation in hills, Eucalyptus
plantation in Sagarnath, Sissoo plantation in Kohalpur.
B. To meet demand of industry: Populus, Eucalyptus, Acacia, Bombax,
Teak etc.
2. Change in Silvicultural system :
It is done due to following reasons:
A)Advantage of a particular system: Selection or selection/
improvement felling replaced by Uniform system.
B)Failure of an existing system: Uniform system to Sal in Haldwani
failed and Indian Irregular shelter wood system adopted. In case of Fir
and Spruce, uniform system was changed to Selection system or clear
felling with reservation.
C)Advances in silvicultural knowledge and perfection of regeneration
techniques.
D) Development of communication and increase in market demand
necessitates replacement of old system with modern systems.
• Selective felling or selection cum improvement felling changed to
concentrated regeneration
Techniques of conversion
When a change in silvicultural system is desired, entire area is not
subjected to conversion at a time. Only a part of forest is taken for
conversion under new system and rest is worked under old system.
For example: if an irregular forest previously worked under selection is
to be subjected to convert to uniform by clear felling followed by
artificial regeneration, only some area is taken up for clear felling
followed by planting during the working plan period, and the rest is
worked under selection system till then.
A. Conversion by Natural Regeneration
I.Conversion of CWS to uniform broad leafed high forest (by uniform)
II.Conversion of CWS to irregular broad leaved high forest (By
selection)
III.Conversion of CWS to coniferous high forest (in case of fir)

B.Conversion by Artificial Regeneration

I.Artificial conversion by clear felling
II.Artificial conversion under a shelter wood (fir)
III. Artificial conversion by groups (spruce)
Pace or Speed of conversion
• Very important consideration.
• Conversion period means period in which conversion work is to be
done. When conversion period is short, conversion proceeds with a
fast speed/pace or on the other hand, if it is long the conversion is
slow.
Following considerations affect decisions about length of conversion
period:
1. Sacrifice of immature crop is higher when the length of conversion
is smaller and vice-versa.
2. In case larger proportion of mature trees in the forest, the length of
conversion is shorter and vice-versa.
3. The age of first converted crop is considered along with the time
required to reach the exploitable diameter.Both should be more or less
equal.
4.Difference will creates problem in fixing rotation.This can be suitably
managed by fixing the rotation first.Thereafter conversion period is
fixed accordingly.
Example of Conversion
1.Conversion to uniform by clear felling with natural regeneration and
clear felling with artificial regeneration.
2. Conversion to relatively less irregular crop by retaining young poles
up to 20-30 cm diameter in clear felling
3. Conversion from CWS to CWR (dry deciduous forests)
4. Conversion of coppice and CWS to high forest (practiced in Europe)
Thank-You!!
Formulation of Silvicultural
System
Introduction:
• A good silvicultural system is a long term program of treatment
designed to fit a specific set of circumstances.
• It is not likely to be something that has already been invented and can
simply be selected from schematic description of silvicultural system
given in books .
• In fact there is no cookbook for the application of silvicultural
systems.
• A silvicultural system evolves over time as circumstances change and
knowledge of them improves.
• Formulation of Silvicultural system should start with the analysis of
the natural and socio-economic factors of the situation.
• If Silvicultural systems are not chosen readymade from a manual or a
book, it is logical to examine the various considerations that enter in to
their construction and evolutionary development.
• A rational silvicultural system for a particulars stand should fit
logically in to the over all management plan for the forest of which the
stand is a part.
Factors to be considered while selecting and formulating a system :
1.Harmony with goal and characteristics of Ownership.
2 .Provision for regeneration
3 Efficient use of growing space
4 .Control of damaging agencies
5 .Provision of sustained yield
6 .Optimum use of capital
7.Concentration and efficient arrangements of operations
8. Resolution of conflicting objectives
1.Harmony with goals and characteristics of ownership:
Choice among all the objective of silvicultural treatment is greatly
simplified by clarification of the objective of ownership.
 Objective of ownership clearly dictate relative amount of attention
paid to management for timber, fuel wood, wildlife, forage, water and
soil conservation, recreation or other benefits that forest may provide.
Analysis of objectives of ownership will normally define kind of trees
to be grown, and amount of time, money, and care that can be devoted
to the process.
 However, choice of objectives considered by owners must be limited
to those that reasonably attainable.
2. Provision for Regeneration
 Continuity of any forestry enterprises, ultimately and absolutely,
depends on replacing old trees with new.
It is necessary to reduce competition from older vegetation to provide
sufficient growing space for new crop to regenerate.
This often requires cutting some trees before they are mature or
reserving others beyond time of maturity as sources of seed or shelter
for new crop.
Only that system should be adopted which suits silvicultural
requirements of principal species to be regenerated.
The most important factors, which should be considered, are light
requirement, seeding, and ease of regeneration
3. Efficient use of Growing space and Site productivity
Forest vegetation usually seems to fill all of available space but not all
plants growing are equally efficient or desirable.
 One important goal of managing a forest land is to see that all available
space is filled with useful plants.
 Most serious loss of potential production occurs during any interval of time
that elapses between removal of previous crop and establishment of new
one.
Ideal way to reduce such loss of production is to start stand under old one.
During rotation, increased efficiency in use of growing space can be sought
by application of intermediate cutting, including thinning and techniques of
adjusting stand composition.
Maximum efficiency in use of growing space is more likely to be achieved
with mixed or uneven aged forest.
4. Control of Damaging agencies
 Any successful silvicultural system is modified by objective of
creating stands with adequate resistance to insects, pathogens, fire,
wind or other injurious biotic or abiotic agencies.
The modification is specific steps taken against specific damaging
agencies.
There are general view that vigorous fast growing trees are more
resistant than slow growing ones; that mixed stands are safer than
pure; that uneven aged stands are more resistant than even aged; and
that close duplication of natural conditions will safeguard against
many difficulties.
5. Provision for Sustained yield
Most ambitious goal of forestry is that of making each forest the
source of indefinitely sustained and uniform flow of wood and other
benefits.
Difficulty of attaining this goal is greater , longer the production cycle
of the benefit or age of stand on which it is dependent.
Sustained yield is most difficult with timber and other benefits
available only from stands that have ages measured in decades or
centuries.
Each annual age class from one year rotation to that of rotation age
which is being harvested and replaced, must be equally represented in
whatever forest unit is the source of sustained yield.
6.Optimum use of Capital and Growing stock
• It takes so long for trees to grow that silviculture, especially that for
timber production, is powerfully affected by policies about long term
investment of capital.
• These are following two quite different kinds of capital investment
that are made and it is important to analyze them separately:
1. Treatment of monetary investments:
Most obvious investment is money actually invested out of pocket in
cost of growing trees and holding land beneath them.
A common way of analyzing these kinds of investment is by using
compound interest calculations to compare present worth of different
course of action.
One of most important uses of this particular analytical technique is
financial comparison of systems of silvicultural treatments.
Comparison of present net worth help with choices of regeneration
techniques, rotation length, thinning programmes, logging methods, and
many other decisions made in formulating a silvicultural system.
Operational cost is also an important consideration.
So, the system in which cost of felling, logging, and extraction is less
should be selected.
2. Investment in growing stock: Second kind of capital investment is value
tied up in merchantable trees that are standing and growing.
It is desirable to manipulate the growing stock so that its increase in value
represents and acceptable rate of compound interest return on its own value.
The assessment of this situation is called financial maturity analysis.
7. Concentration and Efficient use of operations:
Harvesting of timber is usually most expensive operation conducted in
forest.
Thus, it is important to arrange stands so that cost per unit of the volume
harvested will be kept lowest level consistent with other objective.
Transportation is component of logging cost most affected by arrangement
of stands.
Concentration of work reduces cost of felling, logging, and extraction
operations.
 Thus, systems based on concentrated felling and regeneration offer a great
advantage over selection system which results in diffusion of works.
 Clear felling and simple coppice are most advantageous, as regeneration
period is shortest.
8. Resolution of Conflicting objectives
There is no inherent harmony among various major objectives sought in
managing forests.
Such harmony can be created by weighing various objectives and above
said considerations individually and formulating a silvicultural system.
Sometimes, one is faced with two or more problems, each of which is
separately soluble but which can be neatly combined into a single solution.
 Foresters are more able to formulate and prescribe silvicultural treatments
than lay people such as corporation directors, accountants, or users of
forests.
However, when these other kinds of people represent ownership of forest
(public or private), it is they who determine objectives of management and
policies of use of forest.
Foresters should advise and tell what potentialities are but they should then
be content to execute the policies.
APPLICATION OF SILVICULTURAL
SYSTEMS
• Silvicultural system for a particular forest stand should be formulated
or selected on the basis of important silvicultural characteristics of the
species, forest condition, Forest owner's objectives of management,
and several other consideration described earlier.
• However looking on the important silvicultural characteristics and
other considerations some of the important silvicultural systems,
which may be applicable for different forests in various circumstances,
is prescribed here.
Application/Choice of Silviculture system depends on:
1.Regeneration ecology of trees/ Suitability of system to particular
species
2.Topography, and Soil
3. Resistance offered to external factors( Pests and Diseases, Fire Risk,
Climatic risks)
4.Objective of management
5. Financial constraints
6.Skilled Labour/staff
7.Development of communication
8.Aesthetic consideration.
Silvicultural Characteristics of Sal
(Shorea robusta)
• A large tree, exceptionally reaching a height of 45m, dominant in
Terai, except in very high rainfall area replaced by mixed forest and
along streams.
• Maximum altitude is 1500m, but common among 1000m.
• Light demander.
• Grows on wide range of soil, except in sandy, or very gravelly soil.
• Good coppicers (stems up to 20-30cm in diameter)
• Seedling die back due to frost, drought, fire, and dense over-storey
• Annual seeder but good seed years after every 2 years.
Silvicultural Systems applied on Sal Forest
• Selection system (Group selection)
• Irregular Shelter wood system
• Clear-felling system (plantation by Taungya)
• Coppice with standards
• Coppice with reserves
• Simple coppice
Silvicultural Characteristics of Saj
(Terminalia tomentosa)
• Found between 200-1400m, usually associated with Sal but occasionally
forming almost pure forest.
• A large deciduous tree over 30m height.
• It is light demander.
• Seedlings can withstand moderately side shade but are killed by more than
one year of heavy shade.
• Grows best on deep alluvial soil, also can withstand good deal of
waterlogged.
• Less liable to damage by grazing as they are leaf less during hot season.
• The tree is fairly tolerant to fire damage.
• It coppices well(up to 40cm. in diameter), pollards well.
Silvicultural System for Saj
(Terminalia tomentosa)
• Single Tree selection
• Coppice with standards
• Coppice with reserves
• Shelterwood system
Silvicultural Characteristics of
Khayar (Acacia catechu)
• Middle sized, useful multi purpose tree, for Terai and lower hills. Wide
spread in Terai up to 900m exceptionally in 1400m.
• Very characteristics of the edge of the broad river channel in Terai.
• Strong light demander, It is very drought resistant
• With stand flooding.
• Seedlings are susceptible to severe frost but from sapling stage frost damage
is slight lesser.
• It coppices well unless it is under shade of other species.
• Seeds produced in abundance.
• Seeds dispersed by wind and water.
Silvicultural System for Khayar
• Selection system
• Seed Tree method
• Clearfelling and plantation by Taungya
• Simple coppice
• Coppice with standards
• Coppice with two rotation system
Silvicultural Character of Sissoo
(D. Sissoo)
• One of the important species for plantation in Terai and lower elevation in
Nepal.
• Characteristics of alluvial soil adjoining rivers, often associated with Khair.
• Grows well upto 1500m, best grows in place where water table is high
enough.
• It is strong light demander, best development of seedling is found in full
sunlight.
• Seedling rapidly develops long tap roots may reach length of 1-1.5m in first
year of growth.
• It is good coppicer.
• Annual seeder and seeds produced abundantly.
• Seeds dispersed by wind and water
Silvicultural System for Sissoo
• Clear-felling and plantation
• Coppice with standards
• Coppice with two rotation
• Seed tree method
Silvicultural Character of Katus
(Castanopsis species)
• Moderate trees, grows between 1200-2900m, found in higher
elevation than Shorea robusta forest. Very common in high rainfall
area, associated with Schima forest.
• Moderately shade tolerant.
• C. indica (Dhale katus), C. hystrix (Eastern, Patel katus), C.
tribuloides ( West, Musure katus ).
• It benefits from overhead light in later stage.
• It is frost hardy (C. hystrix),
• Young seedlings are frost tender(C. tribuloides).
• It coppices well.
Silvicultural System for Katus
• Simple coppice
• Coppice with two rotation
• Coppice with standard
• Selection coppice
• Selection System
• Shelterwood system
Silvicultural Character of Chilaune
(Schima wallichii)
• Large evergreen trees, capable of growing in 30m height and 1m
diameter.
• Very common tree in central and eastern Nepal, between 900-2000m,
together with Castanopsis species.
• Moderately shade tolerant but later it benefits from full overhead
light.
• It is not frost hardy.
• It coppices very well.
• Good seed year are frequent.
Silvicultural System for Chilaune
• Simple coppice
• Coppice with two rotation
• Coppice with standards
• Selection coppice
• Selection System
• Irregular Shelter wood system
Thank-You!!